RESPIRATORY ORGANS EXAMPLES

Lower invertebrates like sponges,

General body surface
coelenterates, flatworms etc.

Skin or moist cuticle (cutaneous

Earthworms, leech, amphibians like frog etc.
respiration)

Tracheal tubes Insects, centipede, millipede, spider etc.

Aquatic arthropods and molluscs; Fishes,
Gills (Branchial respiration)
tadpoles, prawn etc.

Lungs (Pulmonary respiration) Most vertebrates

AIR PASSAGES (AIR TRACT)
 AIR PASSAGES (AIR TRACT)

Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to many thin and vascularised alveoli.
AIR PASSAGES (AIR TRACT)
• Larynx (sound box or voice box) is a cartilaginous box which
helps in sound production.
• During swallowing, glottis is closed by epiglottis (a thin
elastic cartilaginous flap) to prevent the entry of food into
larynx.
• Trachea (extend upto mid thoracic cavity and devides at 5T),
primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi and initial
bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous half
rings.
• The branching network of Bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli
comprise lung.
VOCAL CORDS IN ACTION
 LUNGS
• Situate in thoracic chamber and rest on diaphragm.
• Right lung has 3 lobes. Left lung has 2 lobes.
• Covered by double-layered pleura (outer parietal pleura & inner
visceral pleura).
• In between these 2 layers, pleural fluid present. It lubricates lung
surface and prevents friction between membranes.
LUNGS
• Lungs= Branching network of bronchi +
bronchioles + alveoli
• Alveoli and their ducts form respiratory or
exchange part of the respiratory system.
• Alveoli are the structural and functional units
of lungs.
 LUNGS

Internal structure of
lungs
LUNGS
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Inspiration:
Active intake of air into
lungs
Breathing
Expiration:
Passive expelling of air
from the lungs
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING: INSPIRATION
Gradient is necessary for gaseous exchange.
Diaphragm contracts External inter-costal muscles
(flattens) contracts
↓ ↓
Vertical volume (antero- Ribs & sternum lift up. Volume
posterior axis) increases. in dorso-ventral axis increases.

Thoracic pressure is reduced.

↓
Lungs expand and Pulmonary volume increases.
↓
Intra-pulmonary pressure decreases.
↓
Air moves from outside into the lungs.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING: EXPIRATION
Inter-costal muscles & diaphragm relax
↓
Thorax regains its original position
↓
Thoracic volume decreases
↓
Pulmonary volume decreases .
↓
Air moves out.
During forceful expiration, abdominal muscles and
internal inter-costal muscles contract.
 Respiratory cycle= an inspiration + an expiration
 Normal respiratory (breathing) rate: 12-16
times/min
 Spirometer (respirometer): To measure the
respiratory rate.
 Respiratory volumes Definition Volume in ml
Volume of air inspired or expired during a
Tidal volume (TV) normal respiration (volume of air renewed in 500
the respiratory system during each breathing).

Inspiratory reserve volume Additional volume of air, that can inspire by

2500-3000
(IRV) or complemental air forceful inspiration.

Expiratory reserve volume Additional volume of air, that can expire by a

1000-1100
(ERV) or supplemental air forceful expiration.

Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a

Residual volume (RV) 1100-1200
forcible expiration.
 Respiratory capacities Definition Volume in ml
Inspiratory capacity (IC) Volume of air that can inspire after a normal
3000-3500
[TV + IRV] expiration.
Expiratory capacity (EC) Volume of air that can expire after a normal
1500-1600
[TV + ERV] inspiration.
Functional residual Volume of air that will remain in the lungs after
2100-2300
capacity (FRC) a normal expiration [ERV + RV].

Vital capacity (VC) Maximum volume of air that can breathe in after
3500-4500
[ERV + TV + IRV] a forced expiration.

Total volume of air in the lungs after a maximum

Total lung capacity (TLC) 5000-6000
inspiration. [RV + ERV + TV + IRV or VC + RV]
 Part of respiratory tract
(from nostrils to terminal bronchi)
not involved in gaseous exchange is
called dead space.

Dead air volume is about

150 ml
Gas exchange occurs between (due to
diffusion based on solubility of gases
and thickness of membrane)
• Alveoli (primary site) & blood
• Blood & tissues
 Alveoli are the primary sites of gas exchange.
 O2 and CO2 are exchanged by simple diffusion.
It depends on following factors:
 Pressure/ concentration gradient
 Solubility of gases
 Thickness of membranes
 Surface area of respiratory membrane
(lungs)
 EXCHANGE OF GASES
1. Pressure/ concentration gradient
• The individual pressure of a gas in a gas mixture is called Partial pressure.
• Partial pressures of O2 and CO2 (pO2 & pCO2) are given below:

Respiratory gas Atmospheric air Alveoli Blood (Deoxygenated) Blood (Oxygenated) Tissues

pO2
159 104 40 95 40
(in mm Hg)
pCO2
0.3 40 45 40 45
(in mm Hg)
 EXCHANGE OF GASES
1. Pressure/ concentration gradient
▪ pO2 in the alveolar air is greater (104 mm Hg) than that in the
blood capillaries (40 mm Hg). So O2 diffuses into capillary
blood.
▪ pCO2 in deoxygenated blood is greater (45 mm Hg) than that in
the alveolus (40 mm Hg). So CO2 diffuses to alveolus.
EXCHANGE OF GASES
2. Solubility of Gases
▪ Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2. So the
amount of CO2 that can diffuse through diffusion membrane
per unit difference in partial pressure is much higher
compared to that of O2.
EXCHANGE OF GASES
3. Thickness of Membrane
Diffusion membrane is made up of 3 layers:
a. Thin squamous epithelium of alveoli
b. Endothelium of alveolar capillaries
c. Basement substance b/w them.
Its total thickness is only 0.5 mm (less than an mm).
It enables easy gas exchange.
 EXCHANGE OF GASES
4. Surface area of respiratory membrane (Lungs)
Presence of alveoli increases the surface
area of lungs. It increases the gas
exchange.
 TRANSPORT OF GASES

O2 transport: CO2 transport:

Lungs → tissues Tissues → lungs

In physical solution (blood Via Plasma

plasma)
As carbamino-
As oxyhaemoglobin haemoglobin

As bicarbonates
 O2 TRANSPORT
1. In physical solution (blood plasma): 3% of O2 is
carried by dissolving in plasma.
2. As oxyhaemoglobin: 97% of O2 is transported by RBC.
O2 binds with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to
form oxyhaemoglobin. This is called oxygenation. Hb
has 4 haem units. So each Hb molecule can carry 4
oxygen molecules.
 O2 TRANSPORT
 Binding of O2 depends upon pO2 & pCO2, H+ ion
concentration (pH) & Temperature.
 In alveoli, there is high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+
ion concentration & lower temperature. These
factors favour the formation of
oxyhaemoglobin.
 In tissues, low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ ion
concentration & higher temperature exist. So
oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release O 2.
Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O2 to the tissues under normal physiological
conditions.
• It is a sigmoid curve obtained when percentage
saturation of Hb with O2 is plotted against the pO2.
• It is used to study the effect of factors like pCO2,
H+ concentration etc., on binding of O2 with Hb.
 CO2 TRANSPORT
i. As carbonic acid: About 7% of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state (as carbonic acid) through plasma.
ii. As carbamino-haemoglobin: About 20-25% of CO2 is transported by Hb as carbamino-haemoglobin.
When pCO2 is high and pO2 is low in the tissues, more binding of CO2 occurs whereas, when the pCO2
is low and pO2 is high in the alveoli, dissociation of CO2 from carbamino-haemoglobin takes place.
 CO2 TRANSPORT
iii. As bicarbonate: About 70% of CO2. RBCs and plasma contain an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase. This
facilitates the following reactions.
 At the alveolar site pCO2 is low. So the
At the tissue site, pCO2 is high due to CO2 TRANSPORT reaction proceeds in opposite
catabolism. So CO2 diffuses into direction. It leads to formation of CO2
blood and forms HCO3‫ & ־‬H+. & H2O.

Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers about 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.

 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Respiratory centres
1. Respiratory rhythm centres (Inspiratory & Expiratory centres)
2. Pneumotaxic centre
3. Chemosensitive area
 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Respiratory centres Location Functions
1. Respiratory rhythm centres
Medulla Regulates normal functioning of inspiration and
(Inspiratory & Expiratory
oblongata expiration
centres)
 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Respiratory centres Location Functions
Moderates functions of respiratory rhythm centre. Neural
2. Pneumotaxic centre Pons signal from this centre reduces the duration of inspiration
and thereby alter the respiratory rate.
 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Respiratory centres Location Functions
Increase in the concentration of CO2 and H+ activate this
centre, which in turn signals the rhythm centre.
Adjacent to
3. Chemosensitive area Receptors in the aortic arch and carotid artery also
rhythm centre
recognize changes in CO2 and H+ concentration and send
necessary signals to the rhythm centre.

Role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.

 1. Asthma
It is the difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
 2. Emphysema
Alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface is decreased. Major cause is cigarette
smoking.
 3. Occupational respiratory disorders
Due to exposure of fumes or dust.
• Silicosis: Due to breathing of silica.
• Asbestosis: Due to breathing in asbestos particle.