Learning and Memory

3/12/2024
Outline
• Theories of Learning
• Behavioral learning
• Cognitive learning
• Memory
• Encode
• Storage
• Retrieval

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The Learning Process
• Learning: a relatively
permanent change in behavior
caused by experience
• Incidental learning: casual,
unintentional acquisition of
knowledge

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Theories of Learning
• Behavioral learning theories
• Cognitive learning theories

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Behavioral Learning Theories
• Assume that learning takes place as the result of
responses to external events.
• Focus on stimulus-response connections
• Only study observable/external behavior

Black
Box

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Cognitive Learning Theories
• Stresses the importance of what goes on inside the
learner’s head
• Focus on cognitive processes (internal mental
activities) such as perception, thought, memory,
ways of processing information

Cognitive
Processes

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Types of Behavioral Learning Theories
Classical conditioning
古典制約

Instrumental conditioning
(also, operant coditioning)
工具制約或操作制約

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 例如:
UCS UCR
Classical Conditioning 代言人(桂綸鎂) -->文青、氣質、都會

CS CR
City Cafe --> 整個城市都是我的咖啡館

UCS
非制約刺激

UCR
非制約反應

CS
制約刺激

CR
制約反應
制約刺激 8
經過後續重複配對後才產生的反應
To Achieve Optimal Conditioning:
• CS precede UCS (forward conditioning)
• Repeated pairing 重複配對出現
• CS and UCS logically belong together
• CS is novel and unfamiliar CS必須是被制約者不熟悉的(也就是不要有既定印象)
• UCS is biologically or symbolically salient

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Marketing Applications of Classical
Conditioning: Repetition
• Repetition
• More exposures = increased brand
awareness
• Three-hit theory Mere exposure:看過越多次越熟悉-->喜歡
(單純曝光效應)

• Advertising wear out 廣告疲乏

同樣的主題、相似的內容但不同的版本

2022 台啤廣告 經典椅子系列

https://www.ucgroup.com.tw/work-detail/170/ 10
Marketing Applications of Classical
Conditioning: Stimulus Generalization

• Stimulus Generalization 刺激類化:

responding the same way to slightly different
stimuli
• Family branding
• Product line extensions
• Licensing
• Look-alike packaging

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An Example of Stimulus Generalization

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 工具(操作)制約
Instrumental Conditioning

• Behaviors →
positive
outcomes or
negative
outcomes
• Learning
occurs through
a trial-and-error
process

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Instrumental conditioning occurs in
several ways

正面增強 消滅

outcome

懲罰 負面增強

outcome

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Reinforcement schedules
• Continuous reinforcement
• Partial reinforcement
• Fixed-interval
• Fixed-ratio
• Variable-interval
• Variable-ratio

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Frequency Marketing: which is more
effective? 固定次數Fixed ratio

19% 34%

人為推進效應
Endowed Progress Effect

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Cognitive Learning Theories:
Observational Learning 觀察學習
We watch others and
note reinforcements
they receive for
behaviors
• a.k.a. Vicarious
learning 代理學習；
Modeling 楷模學習

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Observation Learning Process

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Cognitive Learning Theories: Information
Processing
• The systematic evaluation of information and
alternatives needed to solve a problem or to fulfill a
need
• Information processing approach:
• Mind = computer and data = input/output
• Information processing occurs in stages

編碼 儲存 提取
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How Information Gets Encoded
• Encode: mentally program meaning
• Types of meaning:
• Sensory meaning 感官
• e.g., the literal color or shape of a package
• Semantic meaning 語義
• Episodic memories 情節
• Narratives 敘事
• Personally relevant events

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Memory Systems
工作記憶(暫存記憶體)

We combine smaller pieces of information into larger chunks of

information. This is known as chunking 串節 0939-110-110-->3個chunking
人們的短期記憶只有7±2個單位
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How Our Memories Store Information
• A piece of incoming information is stored in an
Associative network of related information
• Knowledge structures of interconnected nodes
• Meaning types of associated nodes:
• Brand-specific
• Ad-specific
• Brand identification
• Product category
• Evaluative reactions

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Associative Networks for Perfumes

node節點 link
連結

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Retrieval and Forgetting
• Retrieval: the process whereby we recover
information from long-term memory
激活
• Spreading activation: As one node is activated, other
nodes associated with it also begin to be triggered
• Why Forgetting occurs?
• Decay 認為沒有常常使用那些連結，所以連結變弱、衰退
• Interference
• Retroactive interfere 後向干擾/反向干擾學到新的東西，舊的就忘記
• Proactive interfere 前向干擾/正向干擾 舊的東西根深柢固，
新的東西就記不起來

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Retrieval for Purchase Decisions
• Appropriate factors/cues for retrieval:
• State-dependent retrieval/mood congruence effect
當下的心情若跟記憶編碼（學習）的時候的狀態一樣，就容易想起來／自己想像現在的狀態跟之前一樣也有效
• Familiarity
• Salience/von Restorff effect
• Visual memory versus verbal memory (multiple
cues)

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Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
• Recognition 辨識
• Recall 回想
• Free recall 有哪些汽車品牌

• Cued recall 有哪些日本的汽車品牌

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