Chapter 14

Performance Evaluation
of SM2RAIN-ASCAT Rainfall Product
Over an Agricultural Watershed of India

Deen Dayal, Gagandeep Singh, Ashish Pandey, and Praveen Kumar Gupta

Abstract Precipitation is an essential climatic variable for any hydrological study.

For hydrological studies, obtaining the observed precipitation, whether real-time or
historical, has been quite challenging. In this regard, satellite-based precipitation
estimates play an essential role in enhancing the present hydrologic prediction capa-
bility. They are available at a high spatiotemporal resolution with global coverage.
In the present study, a satellite soil moisture (retrieved from scatterometer data)-
based rainfall product (SM2RAIN-ASCAT) was evaluated for its performance to
the gauge-based India Meteorological Department (IMD) gridded dataset over the
Betwa river basin. The evaluation of satellite-based daily rainfall was carried out
based on qualitative (based on contingency table) and quantitative indicators for 2007
to 2019. In general, the SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall product is excellent in detecting
the daily rainfall events over the Betwa basin, although some of the events are falsely
detected. A fair to the good agreement has been observed between satellite rainfall
against IMD rainfall product (d = 0.51 to 0.72). The mean absolute error (MAE) in
satellite rainfall was found to be in the range of 2.05–3.63 mm/day. The SM2RAIN-
ASCAT rainfall product is good for low rainfall events. However, high rainfall events
are always underestimated. Thus, the analysis indicates that the SM2RAIN-ASCAT
rainfall product can be utilized in hydrological studies of ungauged regions.

14.1 Introduction

Water governs life on earth. Precipitation is a natural process responsible for the
presence of fresh water on the earth’s surface. It is one of the most critical components
which governs the hydrology of any area. The Global Climate Observing System

D. Dayal (B) · G. Singh · A. Pandey

Department of Water Resources Development and Management, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247 667, India
e-mail: ddayal@wr.iitr.ac.in
P. K. Gupta
Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad 380015, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 223
A. Pandey et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies for Land and Water Resources
Management, Water Science and Technology Library 103,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90479-1_14
224 D. Dayal et al.

(GCOS) ranks it at the top in the list of essential climate variables (Maggioni and
Massari 2018). The importance of precipitation can be realized by the fact that it is
an imperative dataset that finds application in hydrology, climatology, meteorology,
ecology, and environmental assessment (Himanshu et al. 2018a, b, 2019; Anjum
et al. 2019; Sahoo et al. 2021; Swain et al. 2021). Conventionally, the most reliable
source of rainfall data is obtained from the direct measurement using rain gauges.
Still, many a time, this data is not very useful to study the spatial distribution of
rainfall due to the sparse density of the gauging stations in a particular area.
A significant limitation of gauge-based observations is a discontinuity in the
recorded observations, which often renders the data unproductive (Thakur et al.
2021). The satellite-based precipitation products (SPPs) address the concerns of
sparse and missing data. These products can provide continuous time series of data
at fine spatial resolution (Sun et al. 2018) even at inaccessible places. However,
these datasets are prone to various uncertainties attributed to recording time errors,
sensor calibration errors, and errors incorporated by the algorithms (Porcù et al.
2014; Gebremichael et al. 2005). The accuracy of the SPPs is affected by these
uncertainties. Still, considering the advantages discussed above, these products can
be employed for various applications after incorporating necessary corrections and
conducting accurate data validation using the ground-based rainfall measurements.
Microwave remote sensing (active and passive) and infrared sensors play a signif-
icant role in developing satellite-based precipitation products. There are numerous
SPPs available in the open-source domain viz Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
(TRMM), TRMM Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA), Global Satellite
Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP), Climate Prediction Center (CPC) Morphing
(CMORPH), Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Arti-
ficial Neural Networks (PERSIANN), Tropical Application of Meteorology Using
Satellite Data (TAMSAT), Integrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals for Global Precipi-
tation Measurement (GPM) (IMERG) that have been evaluated and used for various
applications (Joshi et al. 2013; Nair et al. 2009; Prakash et al. 2014,2016; Himanshu
et al. 2017a, b; Santos et al. 2021; Guptha et al. 2021; Dayal et al. 2021).
In this study, one of the recently developed remotely sensed rainfall products,
SM2RAIN-ASCAT, is evaluated over the Betwa river basin in India. This product
estimates the rainfall using the soil moisture to rain algorithm (Brocca et al. 2019a).
The performance of this dataset has been assessed in comparison with the ground-
based gridded dataset of the India Meteorological Department using various statis-
tical indices, namely probability of detection (POD), false alarm ratio (FAR), crit-
ical success index (CSI), Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R), agreement index (d),
mean absolute error (MAE), percent bias (PBias), Kling-Gupta efficiency (KGE),
and RMSE to standard deviation ratio (RSR).
14 Performance Evaluation of SM2RAIN-ASCAT Rainfall Product … 225

14.2 Material and Methods

14.2.1 Study Area

Betwa river basin is positioned in the central part of India. Basin’s total area is about
43,930 km2 , of which 68.9% is located in Madhya Pradesh (under ten districts of
the state) and 31.1% is under five districts of southern Uttar Pradesh (Palmate et al.
2017). It extends from 22°52 N to 26°03 N latitude and 77°6 E to 80°14 E longitude
as shown in Fig. 14.1.
The river’s full length from its origin to its confluence with the Yamuna River is
about 590 km, out of which 232 km lies in Madhya Pradesh and the rest 358 km
in Uttar Pradesh (Dayal et al. 2018). Most of the basin area (about 69%) is under
cultivation (Palmate et al. 2017). It has land covers of flat wheat-growing agriculture
to steep forest hilly areas with varying vegetation and topography in a complex
pattern. The climate of the Betwa basin is moderate, mostly dry except in monsoon
season (Chaube et al. 2011). The average annual rainfall over the basin is 953 mm, out
of which nearly 80% occurs in the monsoon season. The average annual evaporation
losses are about 1830 mm (Pandey et al. 2021). The daily mean temperature ranges
from a minimum of 8.1 °C to a maximum of 42.3 °C.

14.2.2 Ground-Based Rainfall Dataset

Ground rainfall data used in this study has been obtained from India Meteorological
Department (IMD), Pune. The dataset for 2007 to 2019 has been downloaded from
IMD, Pune Web site (https://www.imdpune.gov.in/Clim_Pred_LRF_New/Grided_
Data_Download.html).
The gridded dataset has been prepared at a spatial resolution of 0.25° using
the daily rainfall records from 6995 rain gauge stations (with varying availability
periods) spread over the Indian main land (Pai et al. 2014). However, the station
density varied from year to year, and on average, about 2600 stations per year were
available to prepare the gridded data. The gridded data has been prepared using
the inverse distance weighted interpolation (IDW) scheme (proposed by Shepard
1968 and locally modified by Rajeevan et al. 2006), and a maximum of four nearest
neighbor stations, within a radius of 1.5 around the grid point, have been utilized.
Betwa river basin covers 90 grids of IMD dataset, and the spatial distribution of
average annual rainfall over the basin is shown in Fig. 14.2. The average annual
rainfall over the basin from 2007 to 2019 varies from the lowest 536 mm to the
highest 1303 mm, with a mean value of 953 mm.
226 D. Dayal et al.

Fig. 14.1 Location map of the Betwa basin and IMD rainfall grids

14.2.3 SM2RAIN-ASCAT Data

The SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall dataset has been developed using a bottom-up

approach (M2RAIN or Soil Moisture to Rain) applied to satellite soil moisture obser-
vations (Brocca et al. 2013a, 2019a). For the development of this dataset, soil moisture
14 Performance Evaluation of SM2RAIN-ASCAT Rainfall Product … 227

Fig. 14.2 Average annual

rainfall over Betwa river
basin

estimates from advanced sccatterometer (ASCAT) onboard MetOp A/B/C satellites

(launched in 2006, 2012, and 2018, respectively) have been utilized (Wagner et al.
2013). For the application of the SM2RAIN algorithm, the ASCAT surface soil
moisture product has been linearly interpolated in time to get the regular time series
and filtered with an exponential filter (Wagner et al. 1999; Brocca et al. 2013b) or
Daubechies-based wavelet filter (Massari et al. 2017). The SM2RAIN algorithm is
based on the soil water balance equation (Eq. 14.1) and estimates the amount of
water entering the soil by using in situ or satellite-based soil moisture observations
(Brocca et al. 2013a, 2014,2015).

dS(t)
nZ = p(t) − g(t) − sr (t) − e(t) (14.1)
dt

where n, Z, S, t, p, g, sr, and e are soil porosity, soil layer depth (mm), relative
soil moisture, time, rainfall (mm/day), sub-surface runoff (mm/day), surface runoff
(mm/day), and actual evapotranspiration (mm/day), respectively. The climatological
correction of rainfall estimate for reference rainfall has been carried out using the
cumulative density function (CDF) matching approach (Brocca et al. 2011). Betwa
river basin is covered by 461 grid points of SM2RAIN-ASCAT version-1.3 product,
and data for the period of 2007 to 2019 has been utilized in this study. The SM2RAIN-
ASCAT v1.3 dataset is available on a daily time resolution at a grid size of 0.1° ×
0.1° (Brocca et al. 2019b), and it can be freely downloaded from: https://zenodo.org/
record/3972958#.YBqeu_szbeQ.
228 D. Dayal et al.

14.2.4 Methodology

For the evaluation of purpose, the original grid size of 0.1° × 0.1° of SM2RAIN-
ASCAT data has been resampled at 0.25° × 0.25° to align with the IMD grid.
The performance of the daily precipitation estimates was evaluated based on several
qualitative and quantitative statistical metrics. The statistical indices which have been
used in this study are presented in Table 14.1.
where H is number of hit events, M is number of miss events, F is number of false
precipitation events, Pobs is observed precipitation, Pobs is mean observed precipi-
tation, Psat is satellite precipitation, Psat is mean satellite precipitation, n is the total
number of events, α is a measure of the flow variability error, β is a bias term, RMSE
is the root mean squared error, and σ is the standard deviation.

14.3 Result and Discussion

To carry out quantitative performances, the SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall product

was evaluated against the observed rainfall product using contingency table indices
(Schaefer 1990) and the continuous statistical indices. A brief description of the
contingency table indices and the quantitative statistical indices are presented in

Table 14.1 Statistical indices with formulas and their respective range
Statistical indices Formula Theoretical range Ideal value
Probability of POD = H
H +M 0 to 1 1
detection (POD)
False alarm ratio FAR = F
H +F 0 to 1 0
(FAR)
Critical success index CSI = H
H +M+F 0 to 1 1
(CSI)
   
Pobs −Pobs × Psat −Psat
Pearson’s correlation R= 
 2  2 −1 to 1 −1 or 1
coefficient (R) Pobs −Pobs × Psat −Psat

(Pobs −Psat )2
Agreement index (d) d =1−    
 Psat −Pobs + Pobs −Pobs  2
-∞ to 1 1

|Pobs −Psat |
Mean absolute error MAE = n 0 to ∞ 0
(MAE)

(Pobs −Psat )
Percent bias (PBias) PBias = × 100 -∞ to ∞ 0
Pobs

Kling-Gupta KGE = 1 − -∞ to 1 1

efficiency (KGE) (R − 1)2 + (α − 1)2 + (β − 1)2
RMSE to standard RSR = RMSE
σ (Psat ) 0 to ∞ 0
deviation ratio (RSR)
14 Performance Evaluation of SM2RAIN-ASCAT Rainfall Product … 229

Table 14.1. Before the applicability of satellite-based precipitation estimates for any
hydrological application, their performance evaluation must be carried out against
the observed rainfall dataset. In this study, a comprehensive assessment of the
SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall product has been carried out with the IMD dataset for
2007–2019. The evaluation has been carried out on the basis of a contingency table
and quantitative indices. The gridded as well basin-averaged rainfall on a daily time
scale has been considered for the evaluation against the IMD rainfall product.

14.3.1 Evaluation of Gridded SM2RAIN-ASCAT Rainfall

Detection capabilities of SM2RAIN-ASCAT for rain events were evaluated using

contingency table indices. The evaluation indices result for assessing daily gridded
SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall against the gridded IMD rainfall dataset are presented
in Table 14.2. The statistical parameters, viz., POD, FAR, CSI, R, d, MAE, Pbias,
KGE, and RSR were estimated for daily SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall against observed
rainfall (IMD gridded product) over each grid cell within the Betwa river basin.
The spatial variation of POD, FAR, and CSI has been presented in Fig. 14.3. From
Fig. 14.3, it can be observed that SM2RAIN-ASCAT performed well in capturing
the rainfall events over the Betwa river basin. The number of events that SM2RAIN-
ASCAT falsely detected is less as compared to the truly detected rainfall events. The
accuracy in capturing the amount of daily rainfall by SM2RAIN-ASCAT has been
assessed by R, d, MAE, Pbias, KGE, and RSR and is summarized in Table 14.2.
The spatial variation of the accuracy in daily rainfall measured over the Betwa river
basin is presented in Fig. 14.4. The agreement between gridded SM2RAIN-ASCAT
daily rainfall and observed one over Betwa basin is satisfactory to fair as Pearson’s

Table 14.2 Summary of performance evaluation of SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall product

Performance statistic Evaluation of daily rainfall at grid Evaluation of basin-averaged
level daily rainfall
Minimum Maximum Median
POD 0.89 0.96 0.92 0.95
FAR 0.48 0.75 0.54 0.35
CSI 0.25 0.5 0.44 0.62
R 0.36 0.64 0.53 0.71
d 0.51 0.72 0.62 0.78
MAE 2.05 3.63 2.8 1.92
PBias −19.48 63.98 −0.81 0.56
KGE 0.08 0.42 0.31 0.53
RSR 0.77 0.97 0.85 0.71
230 D. Dayal et al.

Fig. 14.3 Performance of SM2RAIN-ASCAT for detecting rainfall events

correlation (R), and agreement index (d) varies from 0.36 to 0.64 and 0.51 to 0.72,
respectively, with median values of 0.53 and 0.62.
The spatial variation of POD depicts higher values in the southwestern part of the
basin, while the majority grids of the northern part of the basin represent compara-
tively lower values. Therefore, it can be inferred that SM2RAIN-ASCAT performs
better in the southern part of the basin as compared to the northern part; however,
since the minimum POD value in the basin is 0.89, it indicates that overall, the range
of POD is indicating a good rainfall detection capability of satellite data product.
Spatial variation of FAR in the basin shows that the entire area below 24 deg N
latitude produces low false alarms. In comparison, the area above 25 deg N latitude
has high false alarms. This pattern indicates that the satellite product performs better
in the lower part of the basin. In the Betwa basin, the critical success index values
range between 0.25 and 0.5, but the majority of the basin shows values close to 0.5.
Ideally, CSI values should be 1, but with a maximum of 0.5 in the region, it can be
inferred that the product is unable to capture all the rainfall events.
The spatial variation of the agreement index over the study area depicts the values
ranging from 0.5 to 0.75. The majority of the grids possess a decent level of agree-
ment, i.e., greater than 0.6. Ideally, d = 1 indicates a perfect match, and 0 indicates
no agreement at all. Error estimation in satellite rainfall is carried out using MAE
14 Performance Evaluation of SM2RAIN-ASCAT Rainfall Product … 231

Fig. 14.4 Performance of SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall based on quantitative statistical indices

(expressed in mm/day). The spatial variation of both MAE indicates that the error
is more in the southern part of the basin, while the northern part reflects a smaller
error. This observation is not in line with the qualitative assessments, which can be
attributed to two major reasons: higher rainfall variation in the southern part of the
basin as observed in the RMSE to standard deviation ratio plot. The other reason is
the high average annual rainfall in this part of the basin as shown in Fig. 14.2, which
consequently introduces error in rainfall detection from the satellite data observa-
tions. The spatial variation in the percentage bias over the basin shows that there is
232 D. Dayal et al.

a positive bias in the northern part of the basin while the southern part shows nega-
tive bias. Finally, the spatial variability of the Pearson’s R and KGE shows overall
satisfactory performance of the SM2RAIN-ASCAT for detecting rainfall events.

14.3.2 Evaluation of Basin-Averaged SM2RAIN-ASCAT

Rainfall

In this study, an evaluation of the basin-averaged SM2RAIN-ASCAT daily rainfall

was also conducted to observe how the satellite product is performing compared to
the IMD dataset in the study area. The POD indicates a very high probability (95%)
of rainfall detection. Furthermore, FAR of 0.35 signifies a decent score for evaluating
the performance of the product. CSI of 0.62 indicates that the product is not able
to capture all the rainfall events. R and d values were found to be 0.71 and 0.78,
respectively, indicating a good correlation and level of agreement. The error repre-
senting statistical indices is concerned which MAE shows a value of 1.92 mm/day,
highlighting the degree of mismatch in the satellite data product. Percent bias of
0.56 in the average daily rainfall product indicates that the product overestimates the
rainfall in the basin. The scatterplot (Fig. 14.5) between the SM2RAIN-ASCAT rain
and IMD shows that the dataset performs very well in capturing the rainfall of up to
25 mm/day, but the higher intensity of rainfall was underestimated.
This is also evident from the time series plot shown in Fig. 14.6, wherein the
satellite product matches the shape of the peaks displayed in IMD data, but the
magnitude of the peaks is underestimated. Therefore, these results indicate that the
basin average daily SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall dataset has a satisfactory capability
for capturing low-intensity rainfall for the spatial representation over the study area.

Fig. 14.5 Scatterplot

between basin-averaged
SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall
and IMD rainfall
14 Performance Evaluation of SM2RAIN-ASCAT Rainfall Product … 233

Fig. 14.6 Time series plot of basin-averaged SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall and IMD rainfall

14.4 Summary and Conclusion

In this study, a satellite soil moisture-based rainfall product (SM2Rain-ASCAT) has

been evaluated with respect to the observed rainfall data. The evaluation was carried
out at grid level rainfall as well as basin-averaged rainfall using the IMD rainfall
product. The satellite rainfall evaluation has been carried out on the basis of some
qualitative as well as quantitative performance indices. The following points have
been observed from the present study:
• SM2RAIN-ASCAT rainfall product is excellent in detecting the daily rainfall
events over the Betwa basin as POD was found to be in the range of 0.89–0.96.
• The satellite rainfall product performed better in southwestern part of the Betwa
basin for detecting the daily rainfall events.
• The results also indicate that there is a possibility of detecting false rainfall events
(when there is no rainfall in the observed data) by the satellite rainfall product
(FAR value is in the range of 0.48–0.75).
• There is a fair agreement between the daily satellite rainfall product and the
observed one, as the value of the agreement index is found to be in the range of
0.51–0.72 over the Betwa basin.
• The mean absolute error in the satellite rainfall product is found to be in the range
of 2.05–3.63 mm/day.
• The percent bias indicated that the satellite rainfall product underestimates the
rainfall as the value of PBias over the Betwa basin is in the range of −19.48–63.98,
with a median of −0.81.
• The satellite rainfall product is very good in detecting low rainfall events, but the
high rainfall events are highly underestimated.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Department of WRD&M, IIT Roorkee and
Space Applications Centre (SAC), ISRO, Ahmedabad, for providing the laboratory facilities and
financial support to conduct this study. We extend our sincere gratitude to IMD Pune, India, and
Hydrology group of IRPI, CNR, Perugia, Italy, for providing the open-access rainfall datasets.
234 D. Dayal et al.

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