Wireless Communications SW - in

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Module-1
Mobile Radio Propagation –

Large Scale Path Loss - Free Space Propagation Model, Relating Power to Electric Field,
Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms – Reflection (Ground Reflection) , Diffraction,
Scattering, Practical Link Budget, ( Text 1 - 2.2 and Ref1 - Chapter 4).
Fading and Multipath – Broadband wireless channel, Delay Spread and Coherence
Bandwidth, Doppler Spread and Coherence Time, Angular spread and Coherence Distance
(Text 1 – 2.4) ,
Statistical Channel Model of a Broadband Fading Channel
(Text 1 – 2.5.1)
The Cellular Concept – Cellular Concept, Analysis of Cellular Systems, Sectoring
(Text 1- 2.3)
1. Mobile Radio Propagation – The Cellular Concept, Fading and Multipath

1.1. Large Scale Path Loss
Introduction to Radio wave propagation
The mechanisms behind electromagnetic wave propagation are diverse, but can generally
be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
Most cellular radio systems operate in urban areas where there is no direct line-of-sight
path between the transmitter and the receiver, and where the presence of high-rise
buildings causes severe diffraction loss.
Due to multiple reflections from various objects, the electromagnetic waves travel along
different paths or varying lengths.
The interaction between these waves causes multipath fading at a specific location, and
the strengths of the wave decrease as the distance between the transmitter and receiver
increase.
Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-
receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a
transmitter and are called large-scale propagation models
On the other hand, propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuations of the
received signal strength over very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) to short time
durations (on the order of seconds) are called small-scale or fading models
Figure 1.1 illustrates small- scale fading and the more gradual large-scale variations for an
indoor radio communication system.
Notice in the figure that the signal fades rapidly (small scale fading) as the receiver
moves, but the local average signal changes much more gradually with distance
Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 1

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Fig. 1.1 Small-scale and large-scale fading
1.2. Free Space Propagation Model,

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line of sight path between them.
The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation,
( )
( )
……(1.1)
where Pt, is the transmitted power,
Pr(d) is the received power which is a function of the T-R separation,

Gt, is the transmitter antenna gain,
Gr, is the receiver antenna gain,

d is the T-R separation distance in meters,
L is the system loss factor not related to propagation (L>= 1), and
is the wavelength in meters. The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture,
Ae, by
………(1.2)
The effective aperture Ae, is related to the physical size of the antenna, and is related to
the carrier frequency f by
…………….(1.3)
Where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz, , is the carrier frequency in radians per
second, and

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c is the speed of light given in meters/s. The values for Pt and Pr must be expressed in the
same units, and Gt and Gr are dimensionless quantities.
The miscellaneous losses L (L>= 1) are usually due to transmission line attenuation, filter
losses, and antenna losses in the communication system.
A value of L = 1, indicates no loss in the system hardware.
The Friis free space equation of (1.1) shows that the received power falls off as the square
the separation distance. This implies that the received power decays with distance at a rate
of 20 dB/decade.
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The
effective Isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as
( )
( ) [ ] ( )
( )
When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are assumed to have unity gain, and path
loss is given by
( ) [ ] ( )
( )
The Fraunhofer distance is given by
( )
where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna. Additionally, to be in the
far field region, , must satisfy
( )
and
( )
Received power in free space at a distance greater than is given by
( ) ( )( ) ( )

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If is in units of dBm the received power is given by

( )
( ) [ ] ( ) ( )
( )is in units of watts.
Example 1.1 Find the far field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1
M and operating frequency of 900 mhz.
Solution
given data the largest dimension of antenna
D=1m
operating frequency f is equal to 900 MHz
using equation (1.7a) far field distance is obtained as

( )
Example2: The transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the transmit power in

units of a) dBm and b) dBW. If 50 volt is applied to unity and antenna with the 900
MHz carrier frequency find the received power in dBm at free space distance of 100
m from the antenna what is ( ) km Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
Solution
given
transmitter power =50W
carrier frequency of 900 MHz
using equation 1.9
the transmitter power

( ) [ ( )|( )]= [ ] 47.0dBm
transmitter power
( ) [ ( )|( )]= [ ] 17.0dBW
the receiver power can be obtained using the equation 1.1

( )( )( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
the received power at 10 km can be expressed in terms of this dBm using equation 1.9
where 100 M and =10 km

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( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
1.3. Relating Power to Electric Field,

The free space path loss model can be proven that any radiating structure produces
electric and magnetic fields. Consider a small linear radiator of length L that is placed
coincident with the z-axis and has its center at the origin, as shown in figure 1.2.
Current flows through such an antenna it launches electric and magnetic field that can be
expressed as
( ⁄ )
{ } ( )
( ⁄ )
{ } ( )
( ⁄ )
{ } ( )
Figure 1.2. Illustration of a linear radiator of length L(L« λ), carrying a current of amplitude
and making an angle with a point, at distance d.
with In the bove equations, all 1/d terms represents the radiations field
component, all 1/d terms represent the induction field component, and all 1/d3 terms
2
represents electrostatic field component. As seen from Equations (1.10) to (1.12), the
electrostatic Inductive fields decay much faster with distance than the radiation field.
At regions far away from the transmitter (far-field region), the electrostatic and inductive
fields become negligible and only the radiated field components of and , need be
considered.

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In free space, the power flux density (expressed in W/m2) is given by
……..(1.13)
where , is the intrinsic impedance of free space given by = 120 𝛺 (377 𝛺). Thus,
| |
the power flux density is ( )
The power received at distance d, ( ), is given by the power flux density times the
effective aperture of the receiver antenna,
| | | |
( ) ( )
( )
which is half of the open circuit voltage at the antenna. Thus, if V is the rms voltage at the
input of a receiver (measured by a high impedance voltmeter), and : is the resistance of
the matched receiver, the received power is given by
[ ]
( ) ( )
Figure 1.3 (a) Power flux density at a distance d from a point source; (b) model for voltage
applied to the input of a receiver
Example 1.3
Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W transmitter. The carrier frequency is
900 MHz, free space propagation is assumed, = 1, and =2, find (a) the power at
the receiver, (b) the magnitude of the E-field at the receiver antenna, (c) the rms
voltage applied to the receiver input assuming that the receiver antenna has a purely
real impedance of 50𝛺 and is matched to the receiver.
Solution

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Given:
Transmitter power, = 50 W
Carrier frequency, = 900 MHz
Transmitter antenna gain, =1
Receiver antenna gain, =2
Receiver antenna resistance = 50𝛺
(a)Using Equation (1.5), the power received at distance d= 10 km is
( )
( ) (
( ) ( )
= -91.5 dBW = -61.5 dBm

(b)Using Equation (1.15), the magnitude of the received E-field is
( ) ( )
| | √ √ √
( )
(c)Using Equation (1.16), the applied rms voltage at the receiver input is
√ ( ) √
1.4. Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mechanisms which
impact propagation in a mobile communication system.
Received power (or its reciprocal, path loss) is generally the most important parameter
predicted by large-scale propagation models based on the physics of reflection, scattering,
and diffraction.
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object which
has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave.
Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed a
surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the
obstructing surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise
to a bending of waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist
between the Transmitter and receiver.
At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the geometry of the object, as
well as the amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction

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Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travel concepts of object with
dimension that is small compared to the wavelength and where the number of obstacles per
unit volume is large.
Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces small objects or by other irregularities in the
channel in practice or foliage, Street signs and lamp post induce scattering in a mobile
communication system
1.5. Reflection
When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having
different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted.
If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into the
second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and there is no
loss of energy in absorption.
If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected back into the
first medium without loss of energy.
The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted waves may be related to the
incident wave in the medium of origin through the Fresnel reflection coefficient (T).
The reflection coefficient is a function of the material properties, and generally depends on
the wave polarization, angle of incidence, and the frequency of the propagating wave.
In general, electromagnetic waves are polarized, meaning they have instantaneous electric
field components in orthogonal directions in space. A polarized wave may be mathematically
represented as the sum of two spatially orthogonal components, such as vertical and
horizontal or left-hand or right-hand circularly polarized components. For an arbitrary
polarization, superposition may be used to compute the reflected fields from a reflecting
surface.
Figure 1.4 a) E-field in the plane of incidence

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Figure 1.4 b) E-field normal to the plane of incidence

Figure 1.4 Geometry for calculating the reflection coefficients between two dielectrics
In figure i, r, and t refer to Incident, reflected and transmitted fields.

are called as permittivity, permeability and conductance of the media.
The dielectric constant of a perfect dielectric is related to relative value of permittivity,
such that x Farad/meter.
1.5.1 Reflections from dielectrics
If a material is lossy, it will absorb power and may be described by a complex dielectric
constant given by
( )
where ( )
is the conductivity of the material measured in Siemens/meter
( ) ( )
( ( )
is the intrinsic impedance of the ith medium (i=1,2) √ ⁄

The velocity of an electromagnetic wave is given by 1/ √ and the boundary
conditions at the surface of incidence obey Snell’s Law which is given below
√ ( ) √ ( ) ( )
The boundary conditions from Maxwell’s equations are used to derive equations below
( )
( )

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( ) ( )
is either || or ⟂, depending on weather the E-field is in vertical or normal to the plane

of incidence.
√
|| ( )
√
√
( )
√
Figure 1.5 Axes for orthogonally polarized components. Parallel and perpendicular
components are related to the horizontal and vertical spatial coordinates.
The vertical and horizontal field components at a dielectric boundary may be related by
[ ] [ ] ( )
Are the depolarized field components in the horizontal and vertical directions
Are the horizontal and vertical polarized components of the incident wave
These are the time varying components of the E-field may be represented by phasors.
R is the Transformation matrix which maps vertical and horizontal polarized components to
the components which are perpendicular and parallel to the plane of incidence.
[ ]
Where is the angle between the two sets of axes.
The depolarization Matrix is given by
[ ]
|| ||
for the case of reflection and for the case of transmission.
Example 1.4

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Demonstrate that if medium 1 is free space and medium 2 is a dielectric, both || and
approach 1 as 0, approaches 0° regardless or
Solution
Substituting 0, = 0° in Equation (1.24)
√
||
√
√
||
√
√
| || |
√
This example illustrates that ground may be modeled as a perfect reflector
with a reflection coefficient of unit magnitude when an incident wave grazes the earth,
regardless of polarization or ground dielectric properties (some texts define the direction of E,
to be opposite to that shown in Figure 1.4a, resulting in T = -1 for both parallel and
perpendicular polarization).
√
√
√
√

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Figure 1.6 Magnitude of reflection coefficients as a function of angle of incidence for

4 = 12, using geometry in Fig. 1. 4
1.5.2 Brewster Angle

The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin.
It occurs when the incident angle is such that the reflection coefficient I is equal to zero
(see Figure 1.6). The Brewster angle is given by the value of which satisfies
( ) √ ( )
For the case when medium is free space and the second medium has a relative permittivity
√
( ) ( )
√
Brewster angle occurs only for vertical polarization
Example 1.5
Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on ground having a permittivity of e, =
4.
Solution
The Brewster angle can be found by substituting the values for e, in Equation (1.28)

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√
( )
√
√
( )
√
Thus Brewster angle for e, = 4 is equal to 26.56
1.5.3 Reflection from perfect conductor

Electromagnetic energy cannot pass through a perfect conductor a plane wave incident on
a conductor has all of its energy reflected.
As the electric field at the surface of the conductor must be equal to zero or at all times in
order to be Maxwell's equation, the reflected wave must be equal in magnitude to the
incident wave.
For the case when E-field polarization is in the plane of incidence, the boundary
conditions required that
( )
and (E-filed in plane of incidence ( )
Similarly for the case when the E-field is horizontally polarized, the boundary condition
require that
( )
(E-filed normal to the plane of incidence) ( )
1.6. Ground Reflection (two Ray model)

In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the base station and a mobile is
seldom the only physical means for propagation, and hence the free space propagation model
of equation (1.5) is in most cases inaccurate when used shown alone.
The two-ray ground reflection model shown in Figure 1.7 is a useful propagation model that
is based on geometric optics and considers both the direct path and ground reflected
propagation path between transmitter and receiver.
This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale –signal
strength over distances of several kilometres for mobile radio systems that use tall towers
(heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for line-of-sight microcell channels in urban
environments).
In most mobile communication systems, the maximum T-R separation distance is at most
only a tens of kilometres, and the earth may be assumed to be flat. The total receiver E- field.
(ETOT) is then a result of the direct line-of-sight component, ELOS and the ground reflected
component Eg.

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Figure 1.7 Two ray ground ray reflection model.
Referring to Figure 1.7, is the height of the transmitter and , is the height of the receiver.
If E is the free space E-field (in units of V/m) at a reference distance from the transmitter,
then for d> , the free space propagating E-field is given by
( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( )
where E( )) = represents the envelope of the E-field at d meters from the transmitter.
Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance ; and
the reflected wave that travels a distance d". The E-field due to the line-of-sight component at
the receiver can be expressed as
( ) ( ( ))
and the E-field for the ground reflected wave, which has a propagation distance of d, can be
expressed as
( ) ( ( ))………..(1.35)
According to laws of reflection in dielectrics given in Section 1.5.1

( )
( )
( ) ( )
where is the reflection coefficient for ground. For small values of , (i.e., grazing
incidence), the reflected equal in magnitude and 180° out of phase with the incident wave, as

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shown in Example 1.4. The resultant E-field, assuming perfect horizontal polarization ground
reflection (i.e., =- l and = 0), is the vector sum of ELOS and Eg and the resultant total E-
field envelope is given by
| | | | ( )
The electric field (d, t) can be expressed as the sum of Equations (1.34) and (1.35)
( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( ( )) ( )
Using the method of images, which is demonstrated by the geometry of Figure 1.8, the path
difference, , between the line-of-sight and the ground reflected paths can be expressed as
√( ) √( ) ……………(1.40)
When the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to + , Equation (1.40) can be
simplified using a Taylor series approximation
( )
Figure 1.8 The method of images is used to find the path difference between the line of sight
and the ground reflected paths
Once the path difference is known, the phase difference between the two E-field
components and the time delay between the arrival of the two components can be easily
computed using the following relations
( )
( )

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It should be noted that as d becomes large, the difference between the distances d' and
d" becomes very small, and the amplitudes of and , are virtually identical and differ
only in phase. That is
| | | | | | ( )
If the received E-field is evaluated at some time, say at t = d"/c, Equation (1.39) can be
expressed as a phasor sum
( ) ( ( )) ( )
[ ]
Where d is the distance over a flat earth between the bases of the transmitter and receiver
antennas. Referring to the phasor diagram of Figure 1.9 which shows how the direct and
ground reflected rays combine, the electric field (at the receiver) at a distance “d” from the
transmitter can be written as
| ( )| √( ) ( ) ( )
Figure 1.9. Phasor diagram showing the electric field components of the line of sight, ground
reflected, and total received E-fields, derived from equations (1.45)
| ( )| √ ( )

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Note that if the E-field is assumed to be in the plane of incidence (i.e., vertical polarization
then ||= 1 and it Equation (1.47) would have a "+" instead of a "-".
Using trigonometric identities, Equation (1.47) can be expressed as
| ( )| ( ) ( )
Equation (1.48) is an important expression, as it provides the exact received E-field for the
two-ray ground reflection model.
One notes that for increasing distance from the transmitter, (d) decays in an oscillatory
fashion, with local maxima being 6 dB greater than the free space value and the local minima
plummeting to- dB (the received E-field cancels out to zero volts at certain values of d,
although in reality this never happens).
Once the distance d is sufficiently large, becomes and the received E-field, (d)
then falls off asymptotically with increasing distance. Note that Equation (1.48) may be
simplified whenever sin ( ) = . This occurs when is less than 0.3 radian. Using Equations
(1.41) and (1.42)
( )
which implies that Equation (1.48) may be simplified whenever
( )
Thus, as long as d satisfies (1.50), the received E-field can be approximated as
| ( )| ( )
where k is a constant related to , the antenna heights, and the wavelength. This asympo
behavior is identical for both the E-field in the plane of incidence or normal to the plane of
incidence.
The free space power received at “d” is related to the square of the electric field through
Equation (1.15). Combining Equations (1.2), (1.15), and (1.51), the received power at a
distance “d” from the transmitter for the two-ray ground bounce model can be expressed as
( )
As seen from Equation (1.52) at large distances (d» √ ,). the received power falls off with
distance raised to the fourth power, or at a rate of 40 dB/decade. This is a much more rapid
path loss than is experienced in free space. Note also that at large values of d, the received
power path loss becomes independent of frequency.
The path loss for the two-ray model (with antenna gain can be given by

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( ) ( ) ( )
Example 1.6
A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station and uses a vertical λ/4monopole antenna
With a gain of 2.55 dB to receive cellular radio signals. The E-field at 1 km from the
transmitter is measured to be 10 v/m. The carrier frequency used for this system is 900 MHz.
(a)Find the length and the effective aperture of the receiving antenna.
(b)Find the received power at the mobile using the two-ray ground reflection model
assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is 50 m and the receiving antenna is 1.5 m
above ground.
Solution
Given:
T-R separation distance = 5 km
E-field at a distance of 1 km = 10 V/m
Frequency of operation, f= 900 MHz
A Length of the antenna, L = /4 = 0.333/4 0.0833 m = 8.33 cm.

Effective aperture of λ/4 monopole antenna can be obtained using
Equation (1.2).
Effective aperture of antenna = 0.016 m2.
(Since d» √ , the electric field is given by
| ( )|
( )( )
| ( )|
(
=113.1x
The received power at a distance d can be obtained using Equation (1.15)
( ) ( )
( ) [ ]
( ) or -92.68 dBm
1.7. Diffraction,

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Diffraction of radio signal to propagate and on the curved surfaces of the earth beyond the
horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions.
The receive field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into the obstructed
(shadowed) region, diffraction field still exists and often has the sufficient strength to produce
a useful signal.
The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s principle it states that all points
on a wavefront can be considered as a point sources for the production of secondary wavelets
and that these wavelets combined to produce a new wavefront in the direction of propagation.
Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed region.

The field strength of the diffracted wave in the shadow region is the vector sum of the
electric field components of all the secondary wavelets space around the obstacles
1.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry

Consider a transmitter and receiver separated in free space as shown in Figure 1. 10a. Let an
Obstructing screen of effective height h with infinite width be placed between them at a
distance d1 from the transmitter and d2 from the receiver. It is apparent that the wave
propagating from the transmitter to the receiver via the top of the screen travels a longer
distance than if a direct line-of-sight path (through the screen) existed. Assuming h «d1, d2
and h » λ, then the difference between the direct path and the diffracted path, called the
excess path length (A), can be obtained from the geometry of Figure 1.10b as
( )
( )
The corresponding phase difference is given by

( )
( )
And when tan x=x, then =

( )
( )
Above equation(1.55) is often normalized using the dimensionless Fresnel-Kirchoff

diffraction parameter v and is given by
( )
v √ √ ( )
( )
Where α has units of radians and is shown in figure 1.10b and 1.10c. The parameter υ is
convenient because it allows to be expressed in a convenient form.
(1.57)

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From the above equations it is clear that the phase difference between a direct line-of-
sight path and diffracted path is a function of height and position of the obstruction, as
well as the transmitter and receiver location.
In practical diffraction problems, it is advantageous to reduce all heights by a constant, so
that the geometry is simplified without changing the values of the angles. This procedure
is shown in Figure 1.10c.
The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path difference around an obstruction
is explained by Fresnel zones.
Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves have a path length
from the transmitter to receiver which are nλ/2 greater than the total path length of a line-
of-sight path.
Figure 1.11 demonstrates a transparent plane located between a transmitter and receiver.
The concentric circles on the plane represent the loci of the origins of secondary wavelets
which propagate to the receiver such that the total path length increases by λ /2 for
successive circles. These circles are called Fresnel zones. The successive Fresnel zones
have the effect of alternately providing constructive and destructive interference to the
total received signal.
The radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by and can be expressed in terms of
n, λ, , and by
√ ( )
( )
This approximation is valid for »
The excess total path length traversed by a ray passing through each circle is nλ/2, where
n is an integer. Thus, the path traveling through the smallest circle corresponding to n=1
in Figure 1.1l will have an excess path length of λ/2 as compared to a line-of-sight path,
and circles corresponding to n = 2,3, etc. will have an excess path length of λ, 3λ/2, etc.
The radii of the concentric circles depend on the location of the plane. The Fresnel zones
of Figure 1.11 will have maximum radii if the plane is midway between the transmitter
and receiver, and the radii become smaller when the plane is moved toward either the
transmitter or the receiver.
This effect illustrates how shadowing is sensitive to the frequency as well as the location
of obstructions with relation to the transmitter or receiver. In mobile communication
systems, diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of secondary waves such that only a
portion of the energy is diffracted around an obstacle.
That is, an obstruction causes blockage of energy from some of the Fresnel zones, thus
allowing only some of the transmitted- energy to reach the receiver.

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Depending on the geometry of the obstruction, the received energy will be a vector sum
of the energy contributions from all unobstructed Fresnel zones.
Figure 1.10. a) Knife-edge diffraction geometry. The point T denotes the transmitter and R
denotes the receiver, with an infinite knife-edge obstruction blocking the line-of-sight
path.
Figure 1.10 b) Knife-edge diffraction geometry that when the transmitter and receiver are
not at the same height. Note that if are small and h<«d1 and d2,then h and h'
are virtually identical and the geometry may be redrawn as shown in Figure 1.10c.
Figure 1.10c) Equivalent knife-edge geometry with the smallest height in this case hr is
refracted from all other height
Figure 1.10 Diagrams of knife-edge geometry

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Figure 1.11 Concentric circles which define the boundaries of successive Fresnel zones.
As shown in Figure 1.12, an obstacle may block the transmission path, and a family of
ellipsoids can be constructed between a transmitter and receiver by joining all the points for
which the excess path delay is an integer multiple of half wavelengths. The ellipsoids
represent Fresnel zones.
Note that the Fresnel zones are elliptical in shape with the transmitter and receiver antenna at
their foci. In Figure1.12, different knife edge diffraction scenarios are shown. In general, if an
obstruction does not block the volume contained within the first Fresnel zone, then the
diffraction loss will be minimal, and diffraction effects may be neglected.
In fact, a rule of thumb used for design of line of-sight microwave links is that as long as 55%
of the first Fresnel zone is kept clear, then further Fresnel zone clearance does not
significantly alter the diffraction loss.

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Figure 1.12 lustration of Fresnel zones for different knife-edge diffraction scenarios
1.7.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model

Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and buildings
is essential in predicting the field strength in a given service area.
Generally, it is impossible to make very precise estimates of the diffraction losses, and in
practice prediction is a process of theoretical approximation modified by necessary empirical
corrections.
Though the calculation of diffraction losses over complex and irregular terrain is a
mathematically difficult problem, expressions for Diffraction losses for many simple cases
have been derived.
As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over a knife-edge gives good insight into
the order of magnitude of diffraction loss.
When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the attenuation
caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife edge.
This is the simplest of diffraction models, and the diffraction loss in this case can be readily
estimated using the classical Fresnel solution for the field behind a knife edge (also called a
half plane). Figure 1.13 illustrates this approach.
Figure 1.13 lustration of knife-edge diffraction geometry. The receiver R is located in the
shadow region.

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Consider a receiver at point R, located in the shadowed region (also called the diffraction
zone). The field strength at point R in Figure1.13 is a vector sum of the fields due to all of the
secondary Huygen's sources in the plane above the knife edge. The electric field strength,
of a knife-edge diffracted wave is given by
( )
( ) ∫ (( ) ) ( )
where is the free space field strength in the absence of both the ground and the knife edge
and F(v) is the complex Fresnel integral. The Fresnel integral, F(v), is a function of the
Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter v, defined in Equation (1.56), and is commonly
evaluated using tables or graphs for given values of v. The diffraction gain due to the
presence of a knife edge, as compared to the free space E-field, is given by
( ) | ( )| ( )
In practice, graphical or numerical solutions are relied upon to compute diffraction gain. A
graphical representation of ( ) as a function of v is given in Figure 1.14. An approximate
solution for Equation (1.60) provided by
( ) ……………(1.61a)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ( ) ……………(1.61c)
( ) ( √( ( )) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
knife edge diffraction geometry
Fig. 1.14 Fresnel diffraction parameter v versus knife edge diffraction gain (Gd, dB)

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1.7.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction

In many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path consist of more
than one obstruction, than one obstruction, in which case the total diffraction loss due to all or
to all of the obstacles must be computed.
Bullington [Bul47] suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single equivalent
obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife edge diffraction models.
Figure 1.15 oversimplifies the calculations an often provides very optimistic estimates of the
received signal strength
Figure 1.15 Bullington's construction of an equivalent knife edge [from [Bul47]IEEE]
1.8. Scattering,
Actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger than what is
predicted by reflection and diffraction models alone.
This is because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is
spread out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering. Figure 1.16 shows the scattering.
Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to scatter energy in all directions, thereby
providing additional radio energy at a receiver.
Figure 1.16 Scattering

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• Flat surfaces that have much larger dimension than a wavelength may be modeled as
reflective surfaces.
• However, the roughness of such surfaces often induces propagation effects different
from the specular reflection described
• Surface roughness is often tested using the Rayleigh criterion which defines a critical
height ( ) of surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence , given by
( )
• A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less

than and is considered rough if the protuberance is greater than .
• For rough surfaces, the flat surface reflection coefficient needs to be multiplied by a
scattering loss factor, . to account for the diminished reflected field. Ament [the
author]assumed that the surface height h is a Gaussian distributed random variable
with a local mean and found to be given by
[ ( ) ] ( )
• where , is the standard deviation of the surface height about the mean surface height
. The scattering loss factor derived by Ament was modified by Boithias to give better
agreements with measured results, and is given in
[ ( ) ] [ ( ) ] ( )
Where is the Bessel functions of the first kind and zero order
• The reflected E-fields for h > can be solved for rough surfaces using a modified
reflection coefficient given as
( )
• 1.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model

• In radio channels where large, distant o scattering, knowledge of the physical location
of such objects can be used to accurately predict scattered signal strength.
• The radar cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the
power density of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power
density of the radio wave incident upon the
• Scattering object, and has units of square meters. Analysis based on the geometric
theory of diffraction and physical optics may be used to determine the scattered field
strength.
• The bi-static radar equation describes the propagation of a wave traveling in free
space which impinges on a distant sea scattering object, and is then reradiated in the
direction of the receiver, given by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ̇ ) ( )
( )

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Where and are the distance from the scattering object to the transmitter and receiver
respectively.
In Equation (1.66), the scattering object is assumed to be in the far field (Fraunhofer region)
of both the transmitter and receiver. The variable RCS is given in units of dB ̇ can be
approximated by the surface area (in square meters) of the scattering measured in dB with
respect to a one square meter reference.
1.9. Practical Link Budget

Radio propagation models are derived using a combination of analytical and empirical
methods.
The empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical expressions that recreate a
set of measured data.
Propagation models are now used to predict large-scale coverage for mobile
communication systems design.
1.9.1 Long Distance Path loss Model
The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a
function of distance by using a path loss exponent, n
̅̅̅̅ ( ) ( ) ( )
OR
n is the Path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases with
distance
is the close in reference distance which is determined from measurements close to the
transmitter, and d is the T-R separation distance.
The bar indicates the ensemble average of all possible path loss values for a given value
of d.
̅̅̅̅ ( ) ̅ ( ) ( ) ( )
1.9.2 Log-normal Shadowing

Measurements have shown that at any value of d, the path loss PL(d) at a particular
location is random and distributed log-normally (normal in dB) about the mean distance-
dependent value, that is
( )[ ] ̅̅̅̅ ( ) ̅̅̅̅( ) ( ) ( )
and
( )[ ] [ ] ( )[ ] ( ) ( )
Where is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with standard
deviation σ (also in dB).
The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which occur over a
large number of measurement locations which have the same T-R separation, but have
different levels of clutter on the propagation path.

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This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal shadowing.

Log-normal shadowing implies that measured signal levels at a specific T-R Separation is
Gaussian (normal) distribution about the distance-dependent mean of (1.68), where the
measured signal levels have values in dB units.
The standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution that describes the shadowing.
The close-in reference distance , the path loss exponent n, and the standard deviation
statistically describe the path loss model for an arbitrary location having a specific T-R
separation, and this model may be used in computer simulation to provide received power
levels for random locations in communication system design and analysis.
In practice, the values of n and σ are computed from measured data, using linear
regression such that the difference between the measured and estimated path losses is
minimized in a mean square error sense over a wide range of measurement locations and
T-R separations.
The value of PL(d) in (1.69a) is based on either close-in measurements or on a free space
assumption from the transmitter to . An example of how the path loss exponent is
determined from measured data follows.
Figure 1.17 shows the actual measured data in several cellular radio systems and
demonstrate the random variations about the mean path loss (in dB) due to shadowing at
specific T-R separations.
Since PL(d) is a random variable with a normal distribution in dB about the distance
dependent mean, so is Pr(d), and the Q-function or error function (erf) may be used to
determine the probability that the received signal level will exceed (or fall below) a
particular level. The Q-function is defined as
( ) ∫ ( ) [ ( )] ( )
√ √
Where
( ) ( ) ( )
The probability that the received signal level (in dB power units) will exceed certain
value can be calculated from the cumulative density function as
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )
[ ( ) ] ( ) ( )
Similarly, the probability that the received signal level will be below y is given by
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )
[ ( ) ] ( ) ( )

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Figure 1.17 Scatter plot of measured data and corresponding MMSE path loss model for
many Cities in Germany. For this data, n = 2.7 and o = 11.8 dB [from [Sei91]©
IEEE].
1.9.3. Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area

It is clear that due to random effects of shadowing, some locations within a coverage area will
below a particular desired received signal threshold.
It is often useful to compute how the boundary coverage relates to the percent of area covered
within the boundary.
For a circular coverage area having radius R from a base station, let there be some desired
received signal threshold .
We find u( ) the percentage of useful service area (i.e. the percentage of area with a received
signal that is equal or greater than y), given a known likelihood of coverage at the Cell
boundary.
Letting d = r represent the radial distance from the transmitter, it can be shown that if [ (r)
> is the probability that the random received signal at d = r exceeds the threshold within
an incremental area dA. then U( ) can be found by
( ) [ ( )(1-erf( )]…………..(1.73)
1.10. Broadband wireless channel: Path loss and Shadowing

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The main goal is to understand the fundamental factors affecting the received signals in a
wireless system. We model the channel
Table 1.1Key Wireless Channel Parameters
Symbol Parameter
Path loss exponent
v Number of ISI taps in channel (v+1 is total number of taps
Log normal shadowing standard deviation
Doppler spread (maximum Doppler frequency), fD=
c Speed of light
Relative speed between transmitter and receiver
Carrier frequency
Carrier wavelength, fcλ =c
Channel coherence time, Te jD
Channel delay spread (maximum)
Channel delay spread (Root Mean Square)

Channel coherence bandwidth, B
Angular spread (Root Mean Square)
The overall model we will use for describing the channel in discrete time is a simple
tap-delay line (TDL):
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] ( )
Assuming that the channel is static over a period of (v +1) T seconds, the output of
the channel can then be described as
[ ] ∑ [ ] [ ] ( )
[ ] [ ] [ ] ( )
where x[k] is an input sequence of data symbols with rate 1/T, and * denotes convolution. In
simpler notation, the channel can be represented as a time varying ( ) column vector.
( ) [ ( ) ( ) ( )] ( )
1.10.1. Path Loss

The first obvious difference between wired and wireless channels is the amount of
transmitted power that actually reaches the receiver.
Assuming an isotropic antenna is used as shown in figure 1.18, the propagated signal
energy expands over a spherical wavefront, so the energy received at an antenna a
distance d away is inversely proportional to the sphere surface area, ( ) .
The free-space path loss formula, or Friis formula, is given

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( )
( )
Figure 1.18 Free space propagation.

• However, because a reflected wave often experiences a 180-degree phase shift, at
relatively large distances (usually over a kilometer) the reflection serves to create
destructive interference, and the common 2-ray approximation for path loss is:
( )
 In order to more accurately describe different propagation models environments,

empirical are often developed using experimental data. One of the simplest and most
common is the empirical path loss formula:
( ) ( )
Pr/Pt is the average value of the channel gain; that is, Pr/Pt = || || where E[.] denotes the
expected value, or mathematical mean.
Example 1.7
Consider a user in the downlink of a cellular system, where the desired base station is
at a distance of 500 meters (0.5 km), and there are numerous nearby interfering base
stations transmitting at the same power level. If there are three interfering base
stations at a distance of 1 km, three at a distance of 2 km, and ten at a distance of 4
km, use the empirical path loss formula to find the signal-to-interference ratio (SIR,
i.e., the noise is neglected) when α = 3, and then when α = 5.
For α =3 and do in units of kilometers, the desired received power is

( ) ( )
and the interference power is
[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ] ( )
The SIR expressions compute to

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( ) ( )
( ) ( )
demonstrating that the overall system performance can be substantially improved
when the path loss is in fact large.
1.10.2 Shadowing
• Path loss models attempt to account for the distance dependent relationship between
transmitted and received power.
• However, many factors other than distance can have a large effect on the total
received power
• Figure 1.19, obstacles such as trees and buildings may be located between the
transmitter and receiver, and cause temporary degradation in received signal strength,
while on the other hand a temporary line-of-sight transmission path would result
inabnormally high received power.
• The standard method of accounting for these variations in signal strength is to
introduce a random effect called shadowing. With shadowing, the empirical path loss
formula becomes
• ( ) ( )
where x is a sample of the shadowing random process. Hence, the received power is now
also modelled as a random process. In effect, the distance-trend in the path loss can be
thought of as the mean (or expected) received power, while the x shadowing values causes a
perturbation from that expected value.
Figure 1.19 Shadowing can cause large deviations from path loss predictions
The shadowing value x is typically modeled as a lognormal random variable, that
⁄
( )…………………………….(1.84)
where ( ) is a Gaussian (normal) distribution with mean 0 and variance . With

this formulation, the standard deviation is expressed in dB. figure 1.20 shows the
effect of shadowing, where respectively.

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Figure 1.20 Shadowing causes large random fluctuations about the path loss model. {courtesy
of IEEE.}
1.11. Broadband wireless channel- Fading
• Path loss and shadowing attenuation effects due to distance or obstacles.

• Fading is severe attenuation phenomenon in wireless channels likely for short distance
caused by the reception of multiple versions of the same signal.
• The multiple received versions are caused by reflections that are referred to as
multipath.
• The reflections may arrive at very close to the same time. for example if there is local
scattering around the receiver or the reflections may arrive at relatively longer
intervals-for example , due to different multipath between the transmitter and receiver.
• A visualization of this is shown in figure 1.21
Figure 1.21 : The channel may have a few major paths with quite different lengths, and then
the receiver may see a number of locally scattered versions of those paths.
• Fading effect: When some of the reflections arrive at nearly the same time, the

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combined effect of those reflections. can be seen in figure 1.22.

• Depending on the phase difference between the arriving signals, the interference can
be either constructive or destructive, which causes a very large observed difference in
the amplitude of the received signal even over very short distances.
Figure 1.22.: The difference between constructive interference (top) and destructive
interference (bottom) at fc = 2.5GHz is less than 0.1 nanoseconds in phase, which
corresponds to about 3 cm.
• The moving the transmitter or receiver even a very short distance can have a dramatic
effect on the received amplitude, even though the path loss and shadowing effects
may not have changed at all.
• Time-varying tapped-delay line channel model of fading:
• Either the transmitter or receiver move relative to each other, the channel response
h(t) will change.
• This channel response can be thought of as having two dimensions:
– Delay dimension( )
– Time-dimension( ).

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Figure 1.23: The delay corresponds to how long the channel impulse response lasts.
The channel is time varying, so the channel impulse response is also a function of time. i.e.,
h( , t)and can be quite different at time t+△t than it was at time t.
• The channel is time varying, so the channel impulse response is also a function of
time, i.e., h ( , t), and can be quite different at time ( + ∆ ) than it was at time t.
• The fundamental function used to statistically describe broadband fading channels is
the two-dimensional autocorrelation function, A(∆ , ∆ ). The autocorrelation function
is defined as
( ) [ ( ) ( )]
( ) [ ( ) ( )]
( ) [( ( ) ( )] ( )
The impulse response and its delayed samples are shown in figure 1.23.
Table 1.2 Summary of Broadband Fading Parameter
Wireless channel Parameters

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• The key parameters to evaluate the wireless channels are

• Delay Spread and Coherence Bandwidth
• Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
• Angular Spread and Coherence Distance
1.11.1. Delay Spread and Coherence Bandwidth,
Delay Spread:
The delay spread is mostly used in the characterization of wireless channels.

It is a measure of the multipath richness of a communications channel.
It specifies the duration of the channel impulse response h ( , t).
The delay spread is the amount of time that elapses between the first arriving path (typically
the line of sight component) and the last arriving (non-negligible) path.
The delay spread can be found by inspecting A (∆ , 0) by setting ∆ =0 in the channel
autocorrelation function. It is often referred to as the Multipath Intensity Profile, or power
delay profile.
The maximum delay spread is , Characterized wireless channel with number of delay taps
v will be needed in the discrete representation of the channel impulse response, since
( )
Where is the sampling time
Delay spread can be quantified through different metrics, although the most common one is
the root mean square (rms) delay spread.
∫ ( ) ( )
∫ ( ) ( )
∫ ( ) ( ) ( )
√ ( )
∫ ( ) ( )
The formula above is also known as the root of the second central moment of the
normalized delay power density spectrum.
The importance of delay spread is how it affects the Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
gives a measure of the "width" or "spread" of the channel response in time.
A general rule of thumb is that ≈5
Coherence Bandwidth ( Bc)

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• It is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over which the channel can
be considered "flat"
• The Bc is the frequency domain dual of the channel delay spread ( ).
• The coherence bandwidth gives a rough measure for the maximum separation between
a frequency f1 and a frequency f2 where the channel frequency response is correlated.
That is
| | ( ) ( )
( )
| | ( ) ( )
1.11.2. Doppler Spread and Coherence Time,
• is a value describing the channel duration, Bc is a value describing the range of

frequencies over which the channel stays constant.
• Given the channel delay spread, it can be shown that
( )
• The important and prevailing feature is that Bc and are inversely related.
Doppler Spread(BD):
Doppler spread is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of change of
the mobile radio channel and is defined as the range of frequencies over which the received
Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero.
The Doppler power spectrum gives the statistical power distribution of the channel versus
frequency for a signal transmitted at just one exact frequency.
Whereas the power delay profile was caused by multipath between the transmitter and
receiver, the Doppler power spectrum is caused by motion between the transmitter and
receiver.
The Doppler power spectrum is the Fourier transform of (∆ ) is given by
( ) ∫ ( ) ( ) ( )
When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal spectrum,
called the Doppler spectrum.
The spectrum components in the range fc – fd to fc + fd, where fd is the Doppler shift.
The amount of spectral broadening depends on fd which is a function of the relative velocity
of the mobile, and the angle θ between the direction of motion of the mobile and direction of
arrival of the scattered waves.
Unlike the power delay profile, the Doppler power spectrum is non-zero strictly for
( )

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where is maximum Doppler spread or Doppler spread.
The Doppler spread is given by
……………………(1.91)
Where = maximum speed between the transmitter and receiver,

fc= the carrier frequency, c = the speed of light.
As long as the communication bandwidth B << fc, the Doppler power spectrum can be treated
as approximately constant.
Coherence Time (TC):
Coherence time Tc is used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency
depressiveness of the channel in the time domain
Coherence time is actually a statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is essentially invariant,
In other words, coherence time is the time duration over which two received signals have a
strong potential for amplitude correlation.
Mathematically
| | ( ) ( )
( )
| | ( ) ( )
The coherence time and Doppler spread are also inversely related
( )
Values for the Doppler spread and the associated channel coherence time for LTE at
Pedestrian, Vehicular, and Maximum Speeds are given in Table below for two possible LTE
frequency bands
Table : Doppler Spreads and Approximate Coherence Times for LTE at Pedestrian Vehicular
and Maximum Speeds
Table 1.3 Doppler’s spreads and approximate coherence times for LTE at Pedestrian,
vehicular and maximum speeds.

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1.11.3. Angular spread and Coherence Distance

Angular Spread ( 𝒓𝒎𝒔):
It refers to the statistical distribution of the angle of the arriving energy.

A large implies that channel energy is coming in from many directions, whereas a small
implies that the received channel energy is more focused.
A large angular spread generally occurs when there is a lot of local scattering, and this results
in more statistical diversity in the channel.
Coherence Distance (DC):

The coherence distance is the spatial distance over which the channel does not change
appreciably. The dual of angular spread is coherence distance.
As the angular spread increases, the coherence distance decreases, and vice versa.
An approximate rule of thumb between angular spread and coherence distance is
( )
For the case of Rayleigh fading, which assumes a uniform angular spread, the well-known
relation is
( )
Angular spread and coherence distance are particularly important in multiple antenna
(MIMO) systems.
The coherence distance gives a rule of thumb for how far antennas should be spaced apart, in
order to be statistically independent.
If the coherence distance is very small, antenna arrays can be effectively employed to provide
rich diversity.
Ideally, modeling a channel is calculating all the physical processing effecting a signal from
the transmitter to the receiver.
The two major classes of models are
Statistical models: These models are simpler, and are useful for analysis and simulations.

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Empirical models: These are more complicated but usually represent a specific type of
channel more accurately
These models are used to characterize the amplitude and power of a received signal r(t) when
all the reflections arrive at about the same time.
This is only true when symbol time is much greater than the delay spread, i.e., T >> so
these models are often said to be valid for “arrowband fading channels”.
Some of the popular statistical models are:
– Rayleigh Fading
– Ricean Distribution
– Nakagami-m fading
Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading is a reasonable model when there are many objects in the environment that
scatter the radio signal before it arrives at the receiver.
The central limit theorem holds that, if there is sufficiently much scatter, the channel Impulse
Response will be well-modelled as a Gaussian Process irrespective of the distribution of the
individual components.
The envelope of the channel response will therefore be Rayleigh distributed.
Consider a snapshot value of received signal r(t) at time t = 0, and r(0) = (0)+ (0)
– Where (0)is in-phase component and
– (0) is quadrature components of Gaussian random variables.
The distribution of the envelope amplitude | | √ is Rayleigh, and the received

power | | is exponentially distributed
| |( ) ⁄ ……(1.95)
| | ( ) ( )
Where Pr is the average received power due to shadowing and path loss
The path loss and shadowing determine the mean received power and the total received
power fluctuates around this mean due to the fading.
The total received power fluctuates around this mean due to fading. It is shown in figure 1.24.
The Gaussian random variables each have zero mean and varience
The phase of r(t) uniformly distributed from 0 to 2π is defined as
( ) ( )

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Figure 1.24: The three major channel attenuation factors are shown in terms of their relative
spatial (and hence temporal) scales.
The Line of Sight channels - Ricean Distribution
An important assumption in the Rayleigh fading model is that all the arriving reflections have
a mean of zero.
In Ricean fading a strong dominant component is present for example, a line-of-sight (LOS)
path between the transmitter and receiver.
For a LOS signal, the received envelope distribution is more accurately modelled by a Ricean
distribution, which is given by
( )
| |( ) ( ) ( )
2
Where the power of the LOS component and I0 is the 0th order
Ricean distribution reduces to the Rayleigh distribution in the absence of a LOS component.
Since the Ricean distribution depends on the LOS component's power 2, a common way to
characterize the channel is by the relative strengths of the LOS and scattered paths.
here ( )
This factor K is quantified as
………………(1.99)

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 The above equation describes how strong the LOS component is relative to the non-
LOS (NLOS) components.
 For K = 0, again the Ricean distribution reduces to Rayleigh, and as K=∞, the
physical meaning is that there is only a single LOS path and no other scattering.
 The average received power under Ricean fading is just the combination of the
scattering power and the LOS power.
 The Ricean distribution is usually a more accurate depiction of wireless broadband
systems, which typically have one or more dominant components.
Nakagami-m fading
• It is a general model for wireless channel. The probability density function (PDF) of
Nakagami fading is parameterized by m and given as
| |( ) …………(1.100)
( )
• The Nakagami distribution can in many cases be used in tractable analysis of fading
channel performance. The power distribution for Nakagami fading is
here ( ) ( )
• The Nakagami distribution can in many cases be used in tractable analysis of fading
channel performance. The power distribution for Nakagami fading is
| | ( ) ( )( ( )
) …………….(1.101)
Comparison of the most popular fading distributions with probability distributions f|r|(x) for
Rayleigh, Ricean w/K = 1, and Nakagami with m =2. All have average received power Pr =1.
The comparison of most popular fading distributions are shown in figure 1.25.
Figure 1.25 Probability distributions f (x) for Rayleigh, Ricean w/K = 1, and Nakagami with
m=2. All have average received power = 1.

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1.12. Cellular Systems

Explain the cellular concept briefly. Discuss how interference can be reduced in
cellular communication.
The Cellular Concept

• AT&T proposed a core idea of cellular system in 1971.
• In cellular systems, the service area is subdivided into smaller geographic areas called
cells. Each cell served by their own lower-power Base Station (BS).
• Neighboring cells do not use same set of frequencies to prevent interference.
• In order to minimize interference between cells, the transmit power level of each base
station is regulated to be just enough to provide the required signal strength at the cell
boundaries.
• In cellular systems, the service area is subdivided into smaller geographic areas called
cells that are each served by their own base station.
• In order to minimize interference between cells, the transmit power level of each base
station is regulated to be just enough to provide the required signal strength at the cell
boundaries. Then, also we have seen, propagation path loss allows for spatial isolation
of different cells operating of the same frequency channels at the same time.
• Therefore, the sine frequency channels can be reassigned to different cells, long as those
cells are spatially isolated.
• The reuse of the site frequency channels should be intelligently planned in order to
maximize the geographic distance between the co-channel base stations.
• Figure 1.26 shows an example of hexagonal cellular system model with frequency reuse
factor j=1/7, where cells labelled with the same letter use the same frequency channels.
• In this model, one cluster is outlined in bold and consists of seven cells with different
frequency channels.
Core cellular Principles: Small cells tessellate overall coverage area. User’s “handoff” as
they move from one cell to another.
The same frequency channels can be reassigned to different cells, as long as those cells are
spatially isolated called “frequency reuse” concept. It increases the cellular system
capacity.

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Figure 1.26 : Standard figure of a hexagonal cellular system with f=1/7
Frequency planning
• It is required to determine a proper frequency reuse factor and a geographic reuse
pattern.
• Frequencies can be reused should be determined such that the interference between
base stations is kept to an acceptable level.
• The frequency reuse factor f is defined as f ≤ 1, where f = 1 means that all cells reuse
all the frequencies.
• Accordingly, f = 1/3 implies that a given frequency band is used by only 1 out of
every 3 cells.
Co-cells and cluster
• Co-cells are cells in cellular system which uses the same frequency channel set.
• The reuse of the same frequency channels should be intelligently planned in order to
maximize the geographic distance between the co-channel base stations.
• The group of cells which are using entire frequency channels set are called “clusters”.
1.13.2. Analysis of Cellular Systems :
The performance of wireless cellular systems is significantly limited by co-channel
interference (CCI), which comes from other users in the slime cell or from other cells.
In cellular systems, other cell interference (OCI) is a decreasing function of
the radius of the cell (R) and the distance to the canter of the neighbouring co-channel cell
and an increasing function of transmit power. However, what determines performance
(capacity, reliability) is the SIR, i.e, the amount of desired power to the amount of transmitted
power.
Therefore, if all users (or base stations) increased or decreased their power at once, the SIR
and hence the performance is typically unchanged—which is known as interference-limited
system.

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The spatial isolation between co-channel cells can be measured by defining the parameter Z,
called co-channel reuse ratio, is the ratio of the distance to the centre of the nearest co-
channel cell (D) to the radius of the cell. In a hexagonal cell structure, the cochannel reuse
ratio is given by
√ ⁄
where 1/f is the size of a cluster and the inverse of the frequency reuse factor. Since the
background noise power is negligible compared to the interference power in interference
limited environment, the received signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) can be used instead of
SINR. If the number of interfering cells is , the SIR for mobile station can be given by
Where S is the received power of the desired signal and is the interferecnce power from the
ith co-channel base station.
The received SIR for the worst case given in figure 1.27 is expressed as
∑ ∑ ( ) ∑
Where denotes the shadowing from the ith base station.
If the mean and standard deviation of the lognormal distribution are in dB, the
outage probability is derived in the form of Q function.
[ ] ( )
Where is the threshold SIR level in dB.
Figure 1.27: Forward link interference in a hexagonal cellular system (worse case)

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Figure 1.28 The received SIR in a cell with path-loss exponent = 3.5. The scale on the right
indicates the SIR bins, i.e., darker indicates lower SIR.
1.13.3. Sectoring
 Since the SIR is so bad in most of the cell, it is desirable to find techniques to improve
it without sacrificing so much bandwidth, as frequency reuse does.
 A popular technique is to sectorize the cells, which is effective if frequencies are
reused in each cell. By using directional antennas instead of Omni-directional
antennas at the base station, the co-channel interference can be significantly reduced.
 Referring again to Figure 1.29, if each sector 1 points the same direction in each cell,
then the Interference caused by neighboring cells will be dramatically reduced.
 An alternative way to Use sectors that is not shown in Figure 1.29 is to reuse
frequencies in each sector. In this case, all of the time/code/frequency slots can be
reused in each sector, but there is no reduction in the experienced interference

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Figure 1.29: 3-sector (120-degree) and sector (60-degree) cells.
Figure 1.30 shows the regions of a 3-sector cell in various SIR bins of the systems with
universal frequency reuse and 1/3 frequency reuse. All the configurations are the same as
Dhose of Figure 1.28 except sectoring is added. Compared to Figure 1.28, sectoring improves
SIR especially at the cell boundaries even when universal frequency reuse is adopted.
If sectoring is adopted with frequency reuse, the received SIR can be significantly improved
as shown in Figure 1.30b where both f = 1/3 frequency reuse and 120-degree sectoring
are used.
Figure 1.30.The received SIR in a sectorized cell (three sectors). The path-loss exponent =
3.5
.

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Module-2
GSM and TDMA Technology
GSM System overview – Introduction, GSM Network and System Architecture, GSM Channel Concept.
GSM System Operations – GSM Identities, System Operations –Traffic cases, GSM Infrastructure
Communications (Um Interface)
(Text 2, Part1 and Part 2 of Chapter 5) L1, L2, L3
Module-2
GSM and TDMA Technologies
2.1. Introduction to GSM and TDMA
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) services are a standard collection of
applications and features available to mobile phone subscribers all over the world. The
GSM standards are defined by the 3GPP collaboration and implemented in hardware and
software by equipment manufacturers and mobile phone operators. The common standard
makes it possible to use the same phones with different companies' services, or even roam
into different countries. GSM is the world's most dominant mobile phone standard.
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication.
• It is a digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services
using digital modulation .
GSM: History
• Developed by Group Special Mobile (founded 1982) which was an initiative of CEPT
( Conference of European Post and Telecommunication ).
• Under ETSI, GSM is named as “ Global System for Mobile communication “ in 1989.
• Full set of specifications phase-I became available in 1990.
• Phase 2 of the GSM specifications occurs in 1995. Coverage is extended to rural
areas.
• Development of services evolved into phase 2+, which includes HSPA to GSM.
• HSPA is used in GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced data
rates for global evolution .
GSM Services:
The Relationship of tele-services and bearer services to the GSM system are shown in figure 2.1. GSM has
following service namely
• GSM Tele-services
• GSM Bearer or Data Services
• Supplementary services
Dr. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology Page 1
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Figure 2.1 Relationship of tele services and bearer services to the GSM system
Tele services: Voice communication between two users

Bearer services: Provide the user with ability to transfer data between user network interfaces.
Supplementary services: There are services that enhance or support a tele services provided by the
network.
Table 2.1 Phase I GSM services
Table 2.2 Phase II GSM services

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Tele Services
• Teleservices provide standard voice communications between end users and additional
communications between two end user applications according to some standard protocol.
• Offered services
- Mobile telephony
- Emergency calling
Bearer Services
• Bearer services provide user with the ability to transmit data between user network interfaces.
• Include various data services for information transfer between GSM and other networks like PSTN,
ISDN etc at rates from 300 to 9600 bps
• Short Message Service (SMS)
- up to 160 character alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile terminal
• Voice mailbox
Supplementary Services
• Supplementary services are services that enhance or support a teleservice provided by the network.
Call related services:
• Call Waiting- Notification of an incoming call while on the handset
• Call Hold- Put a caller on hold to take another call
• Call Barring- All calls, outgoing calls, or incoming calls
• Call Forwarding- Calls can be sent to various numbers defined by the user
• Multi Party Call Conferencing - Link multiple calls together
GSM Radio frequency carriers
Global Positioning system consists of the channel that has frequency separation of 200 KHz.
The GSM 900 band has 124 carriers Frequencies, and the 1800 band has 374 carrier frequency and GSM
1900 band has 299carrier frequencies. Since each carrier can be shared by upto 8 users.

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The total number of channels for each system is

124x8=992 channels for GSM 900
374x8=2992 channels for GSM 1800
299x8=2392 channels for GSM 1900/PCS 1900.
The frequency band allocated to the five present GSM system implementations are shown in table 2.3.
The figure 2.2 shows the bands in the PCS spectrum allocation that are used by the GSM 1900 system.
It shows the how various bands are allocated for use in either major or basic trading areas (MTA and BTA).
The A, B and C bands are each 15-MHz wide and the D, E and F bands are each 5MHz wide.
For a particular carrier frequency, a channel consists of a single time slot that occurs during TDMA frame of
eight timeslots as shown in figure 2.3.
Table 2.3: GSM Frequency band and channel numbers

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Figure 2.2 GSM frequency allocations in the 1900-MHz PCS bands MTA Major trading area and BTA
Basic Trading area
Figure 2.3. GSM timeslot in a TDMA Frame
2.2 GSM Network and System Architecture
Figure 2.4: GSM System Architecture
Figure 2.4 shows the basic system architecture for a GSM wireless cellular network
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The Major subsystem of GSM Network and System Architecture are

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS), Base Station Subsystem (BSS) and Mobile Station (MS).
The Mobile Station (MS) is the device provides the radio link between the GSM subscriber and
the wireless mobile network.
Mobile Equipment (ME)
The GSM also make use of a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) or the SIM card that when
inserted into the MS makes it functional.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Base Station Controller (BSC)
Network Switching Subsystem(NSS)

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
Home Location Register (HLR)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Authentication Center (AUC)

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Mobile Station (MS)

The Mobile Station is made up of two entities:
• Mobile Equipment (ME)
• Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

• MS provides subscribers the means to control their access to the PSTN and PDN
• MS can make calls without SIM card
Mobile Equipment
• Portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device

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• Uniquely identified by an IMEI number (International Mobile

Equipment Identity)
• Voice and data transmission

• Monitoring power and signal quality of surrounding cells for optimum handover
• Power level : 0.8W – 20 W

160 character long SMS
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

• Smart card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
• The mobile MSIISDN Number
• Allows user to send and receive calls and receive other subscribed services
• Protected by a password or SIM PIN (Personal identification Number)
• Can be moved from phone to phone – contains key information to activate the phone
• Security/authentication parameters and also address book contact information (name and
numbers) saved by users.
• SIM card also stores the SMS received by the users and saves.
• Portability of SIM is possible
System Architecture Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

• The BSS is the link between the MS and GSM Mobile switching centre.
• Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts that communicate across the
standardized Abis interface allowing operation between components made by different
suppliers
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and Base Station Controller (BSC)
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

• The BSS communicate with MS over air interface using protocols
• BSC and BTS communicate using LAPD protocol Link access protocol for D-
Channels.
• LAPD is the data link protocol used ISDN

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Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

• Encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signals to the antenna.
• Communicates with Mobile station and BSC. Consists of Transceivers (TRX) units
• It is also called as Radio base station or RBS. RBS is the interface corresponds to the
subscribers MS.
• Provides radio link the MS over the air interface
• Basic components of BTS are radio receivers units, a switching and distribution units, RF
power combining and distribution and
• Environmental control unit, A power system and

• A processing and database storage unit
Base Station Controller (BSC)

• The components of BSC are input and output interface multiplexers, a time slot inter
change group switch, sub rate switch, speech coder/decoders, transcoders and rate
adapters , SS7 signalling system number 7, power supply and distribution units,
Environmental control unit, Various control and signal processor
• Manages Radio resources for BTS
• Assigns Frequency and time slots for all MS’s in its area
• Handles call set up
• Handover for each MS. It communicates with MSC and BTS.
• Its also contains Transcoder controller (TRC). Urban and suburban area traffic are
handled by BSC/TRC
Network Switching Subsystem(NSS)
The system contains the following functional units

• Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
• Home Location Register (HLR)

• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• Authentication Center (AUC)

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• Equipment Identity Register (EIR) also has a switching System may have flexible
number in register and interworking location register to provide more system
functionalities
• Short message services the wireless Switching System we need to have an SMS gateway
MSC(SMS-GMSC) and an SMS interworking MSC(SMS-IWMSC).
• The implementation of GPRS for high-speed data transmission and reception requires
the use of two additional switching elements
• A serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
• A Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN)

Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)
• Heart of the network
• Manages communication between GSM and other networks
• Billing information and collection
• Mobility management
- Registration
- Location Updating
- Inter BSS and inter MSC call handoff

- SS7 Protocol
Home Location Registers (HLR)

• Stores information about each subscriber that belongs to it MSC in permanent and
temporary fashion.
• As soon as mobile subscriber leaves its current local area, the information in the HLR
is updated.
• Ddatabase contains IMSI, MSISDN, prepaid/postpaid, roaming restrictions,
supplementary services.
Visitor Location Registers (VLR)

• Temporary database which updates whenever new MS enters its area, by HLR database.
• Assigns a TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity) to each MS entering the VLR
area which keeps on changing.

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• Controls those mobiles roaming in its area.

• Database contains IMSI, MSISDN, Location Area, authentication key.
Authentication Centre (AUC)

• Contains the algorithms for authentication as well as the keys for encryption.
• Protects network operators from fraud.

• Situated in special protected part of the HLR.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

• Stores all devices identifications registered for this network.
• Database that is used to track handsets using the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment
Identity)
• Prevents calls from stolen, unauthorised or defective mobile devices
• The AUC and EIR in conjunction with MSC/VLR and HLR provides the additional GSM
network security and facilitates international roaming within GSM network.
• The flexible numbering register (FNR) provides portability to a subscriber
Operation and Support System and Other Nodes

• The centralized operation of the various units in the system and functions needed to
maintain the subsystems.
• Dynamic monitoring and controlling of the network.
• Functions :
• Configuration management
• Fault report and alarm handling
• Performance supervision/management
• Storage of system software and data

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GSM network interfaces and protocols
Figure 2.5 GSM network interfaces
GSM protocols and Signaling Model
Figure 2.6 GSM Signalling model,

TCAP Transfer capabilities application part,
SCCP Signaling connection control Part

MTP Message Transfer Part, ISUP ISDN user Part
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TUP Temporary user part , MAP Mobile Application Part, BSSAPBSS Application Part
Figure 2.7. Signalling between the MSC, BSS and MS in a GSM system
Figure 2.8 Signalling over the GSM Ater interface
GSM Protocol and signalling Model
The network structure is defined within the GSM standards. Additionally each interface
between the different elements of the GSM network is also defined. This facilitates the

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information interchanges can take place. It also enables to a large degree that network
elements from different manufacturers can be used.
However as many of these interfaces were not fully defined until after many networks had
been deployed, the level of standardization may not be quite as high as many people might
like.
Figure 2.5 shows the GSM network interfaces and GSM Signalling model is depicted in figure
2.6.
 The network structure is defined within the GSM standards.
 Additionally each interface between the different elements of the GSM network is also
defined.
 This facilitates the information interchanges can take place.
 It also enables to a large degree that network elements from different manufacturers can
be used.
 Um interface : The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a
mobile (ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC).
 For signaling, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD, known as LAPDm is used.
 Abis interface : exists between BSC and a BTS, and it has not been totally standardized.
 The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency allocation in
the BTS.
 A interface : The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the
MSC.
 The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the like to be
allocated to the mobile equipment's being serviced by the BSSs.
 The messaging required within the network to enable handover etc to be undertaken is
carried over the interface.
Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not be as rigorously defined as
many might like, they do at least provide a large element of the definition required,
enabling the functionality of GSM network entities to be defined sufficiently.
Figure 2.7. shows the Signalling between the MSC, BSS and MS in a GSM system
Signalling over the GSM Ater interface is shown in figure 2.8.

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2.3 GSM Channel Concept
• The cellular telephone network use various control and traffic channels to carry out
• The operations necessary to allow for the setup of a subscriber radio link for the transmission
of voice or data
• To provide subsequent system support for the subscriber mobility.
• The GSM cellular system is based on the use of TDMA technique to provide additional user capacity
over a limited amount of radio frequency spectrum.
• The GSM system divides the radio link connection time into eight equal and repeating time slots
known as FRAMEs for both uplink and downlink transmissions.
• The timeslots are arranged in sequence and are conventionally numbered 0 to 7
• Each time slot is considered as logical channel.

• Each time slot carry either subscriber traffic or signalling and control information required for the
management of the radio link and other system resources. The figure 2.9 shows the TDMA frame
structure.
Figure 2.9 TDMA time frame structure
Logical Channels.
 Broadcast channels
 Broadcast control channels.
 Frequency Correction channel
 Synchronization channels

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Logical Channels
 Carry either subscriber traffic or signaling and control information to facilitate subscriber mobility.
 Presently, there are three types of traffic channels (TCHS).
 The full-rate traffic channel (TCH/F or Bm)

 half-rate traffic channel (TCH/H or Lm)
 Enhanced full-rate (EFR) traffic
Half-rate traffic channel (TCH/H or Lm)

 The half-rate traffic channel (TCH/H or Lm) carries voice encoded at 6.5 kbps or data at rates of 4.8
or 2.4 kbps
 With additional overhead bits, the total data rate for TCH/H becomes 11.4 kbps.
 Therefore, two conversations or a conversation and a data transfer or two data transfers may be
transmitted over one channel at the same time.
Full-rate traffic channel (TCH/F or Bm)

 The full-rate traffic channel (TCH/F or Bm) carries one conversation by using one timeslot.
 The transmitted voice signal is encoded at a 13-kbps rate, but it is sent with additional overhead bits.
 This information plus additional channel overhead bits yields a final channel data rate of 22.8 kbps.
 The full-rate traffic channel may also carry data at rates of 14.4, 9.6, 4.8, and 2.4 kbps.
Enhanced full-rate (EFR) traffic channel

 Enhanced full-rate (EFR) traffic encodes voice at a 12.2-kbps rate and like TCH/F adds overhead
bits to yield a 22.8 kbps channel data rate.
 The EFR channel may also transmit data at the TCH/F rates. More will be said about these channels
later.
 The signaling and control channels consist of three channel sub categories:
 broadcast channels,
 common control channels, and

 Dedicated control channels.

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Broadcast channels
 The GSM cellular system uses broadcast channels (BCHS) provide information to the mobile station
about various system parameters and also information about the location area identity (LAI).
 three types BCHs
 Broadcast control channel
 Frequency correction channel
 Synchronization channel
Broadcast control channel
It contains information that needed by MS concerning the cell that it is attached to in order for the MS to be
able to start making or receiving calls, or to start roaming
Frequency correction channel:
 It transmits bursts of zeros (this is an un-modulated carrier signal) to the MS.

 This signaling is done for two reasons:
 i). the MS can use this signal to synchronize itself to the correct frequency and
 ii). the MS can verify that this is the BCCH carrier.
Synchronization channel:
 It transmit the required information for the MS to synchronize itself with the timing within a
particular cell.
 By listening to the SCH, the MS can learn about the frame number in this cell and about the
BSIC (Base Station Identity Code) of the BTS it is attached to.
 Using the information transmitted over these three BCHs, the MS can tune to particular base
transceiver system (BTS) and synchronize its timing with the frame structure and timing in that cell.
 Each time the MS attaches to new BTS, it must listen to these three BCHs
Common Control Channels
 The common control channels (CCCHS) provide paging messages the MS and a means which the
mobile can request signaling channel that it can use to contact the network.
 The three CCCHs are
 Paging channel
 Random access channel
 Access Grant channel

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Paging channel:
It is used by the system to send paging messages to mobiles attached to cell.
The mobile will paged whenever the network has an incoming call ready for mobile or some
type of message (e.g., short message, multimedia message) to deliver to the mobile.
 The information transmitted in the PCH will consist of paging message and the mobile's
identity number.
Random access channel:
 It is used by the mobile to respond a paging message.

 If the mobile receives page on the PCH, it will reply on the RACH(Random Access Channel)
with request for signaling channel.
Access Grant channel
 It is used by the network to assign a signaling channel to the MS.

 After the mobile requests a signaling channel over the RACH (Random Access Channel), the
network will assign a channel to the mobile by transmitting this information over the AGCH
(Access Grant Channel).
 The AGCH is only transmitted in the downlink direction.
Dedicated Control Channels
 These dedicated channels are used for specific call setup, handover, measurement, and short message
delivery functions.
 The four DCCHs are
 Standalone dedicated control channel
 Slow associated control channel.
 Fast associated control channel
 Cell Broadcast channel
Standalone dedicated control channel:
 Both the mobile station and the BTS switch over to the network-assigned stand-alone
dedicated control channel (SDCCH) that is assigned over the access grant channel in
response to the mobile's request that has been transmitted over the random access channel.
Slow associated control channel:
 It is used to transmit information about measurements made by the MS or instructions

from the BTS about the mobile's parameters of operation.

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 In the uplink direction the mobile sends measurements of the received signal strength from
its own BTS (Base Transreceiver Station) and those of neighboring BTSs.
 In the downlink direction, the MS (Mobile Station) receives information from the BTS
about the mobile's output power level and the timing information.
Fast associated control channel
 It is used to facilitate the handover operation in a GSM system.

 If handover is required, the necessary handover signaling information is transmitted instead
of a 20-ms segment of speech over the TCH.
 This operation is known as "stealing mode" since the time allotted for the voice
conversation is stolen from the system for a short period.
 The subscriber is usually not aware of this loss of speech since the speech coder in the
mobile simply repeats the last received voice block during this process.
Cell Broadcast channel :

 It is used to deliver short message service in the downlink direction.
 It uses the same physical channel as the SDCCH.
GSM speech processing
Figure 2.10 Speech processing
The speech processing of GSM is shown in figure 2.10.

In the mobile, speech is digitised and broken up into 20 ms segments. This process produces
8000 samples of 13 bits per sample per second or 160 samples of 13 bits per 20 ms. The speech

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coder is 260 bits per 20 seconds are the 3 kbps whereas the channel coding yields 456 bits per 20
ms or a 22.8 kbps data rate.
Interleaving, ciphering, and burst formatting is yields 156.25 bits per time slot. This yields an
overall data transfer rate of 270.8 kbps over a GSM channel.
The receiver of GSM speech is also shown in figure; signals burst are received and used to
create a channel model.
Channel model is created in the Equaliser where and estimated bit sequence is calculated for a
receiver signal.
After all of the bursts containing information about a 20 ms segment of speech have been
received and deciphered, they are reassembled into 456 bit message. This sequence is then
decoded to detect and correct any errors that occur during transmission.
Timeslots and TDMA Frames
Figure 2.11 Timeslots and TDMA Frames

• GSM has 8 Timeslots in one TDMA frame.
• The System assigns numbers to frames sequentially from
0 to 2,715,648nand the process repeats it self.
• The grouping of successive TDMA frames is known as Hyper frame
TDMA Hyper Frame structure

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Figure 2.12 TDMA Hyperframe structure

Figure 2.12 shows frame, super frame, and multiframe and hyper frame structure. A
hyperframe is a multiframe sequence that is composed of 2048 superframes and is largest
time interval in the GSM system (3 hours, 28 minutes, 53 seconds). Every time slot during
a hyperframe has a sequential number (represented by an 11 bit counter) that is composed
of a frame number and a time slot number. This counter allows the hyperframe to
synchronize frequency hopping sequence, encryption processes for voice privacy of
subscribers' conversations. The hyperframe in an IS-136 TDMA system consists of 192
frames.
The basic GSM frame defines the structure upon which all the timing and structure of the
GSM messaging and signalling is based. The fundamental unit of time is called a burst
period and it lasts for approximately 0.577 ms (15/26 ms). Eight of these burst periods are
grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms
(i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One
physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame.
In simplified terms the base station transmits two types of channel, namely traffic and
control. Accordingly the channel structure is organised into two different types of frame,

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one for the traffic on the main traffic carrier frequency, and the other for the control on the
beacon frequency.
GSM multiframe
The GSM frames are grouped together to form multiframes and in this way it is possible to
establish a time schedule for their operation and the network can be synchronised.
There are several GSM multiframe structures:
 Traffic multiframe: The Traffic Channel frames are organised into multiframes
consisting of 26 bursts and taking 120 ms. In a traffic multiframe, 24 bursts are used
for traffic. These are numbered 0 to 11 and 13 to 24. One of the remaining bursts is
then used to accommodate the SACCH, the remaining frame remaining free. The
actual position used alternates between position 12 and 25.
 Control multiframe: the Control Channel multiframe that comprises 51 bursts and
occupies 235.4 ms. This always occurs on the beacon frequency in time slot zero
and it may also occur within slots 2, 4 and 6 of the beacon frequency as well. This
multiframe is subdivided into logical channels which are time-scheduled.
GSM Superframe
Multiframes are then constructed into superframes taking 6.12 seconds. These consist of 51
traffic multiframes or 26 control multiframes. As the traffic multiframes are 26 bursts long
and the control multiframes are 51 bursts long, the different number of traffic and control
multiframes within the superframe, brings them back into line again taking exactly the
same interval.
GSM Hyperframe
Above this 2048 superframes (i.e. 2 to the power 11) are grouped to form one hyperframe
which repeats every 3 hours 28 minutes 53.76 seconds. It is the largest time interval within
the GSM frame structure.
Within the GSM hyperframe there is a counter and every time slot has a unique sequential
number comprising the frame number and time slot number. This is used to maintain
synchronisation of the different scheduled operations with the GSM frame structure. These
include functions such as:
 Frequency hopping: Frequency hopping is a feature that is optional within the

GSM system. It can help reduce interference and fading issues, but for it to work,
the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized so they hop to the same

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frequencies at the same time.

 Encryption: The encryption process is synchronised over the GSM hyperframe
period where a counter is used and the encryption process will repeat with each
hyperframe. However, it is unlikely that the cellphone conversation will be over 3
hours and accordingly it is unlikely that security will be compromised as a result.
GSM air interface timeslot

It is shown in figure 2.13, the timeslot has a duration of 3/5200 sec or 577μs or 0.577ms.It transmits
the vice traffic, data or signalling and control messages. The start of a TDMA frame on the uplink is
delayed by three timeslot periods fro the downlink frame as shown in figure 2.14.
Figure 2.13 GSM air interface timeslot
TDMA timing offset between uplink and downlink
Figure 2.14 TDMA timing offset between uplink and downlink

Time slot burst
The transmission of a normal (traffic and control channels) burst and the other types of burst signals are
shown in figure 2.15. GSM Traffic and control signal bursts has five types namely
 Normal burst

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 Frequency correction burst

 Synchronization burst
 Access burst
 Dummy burst
 Normal burst
 Here two groups of 57 encrypted bits are transmitted on either side of a training sequence of bits.
 Three tail bits precede the first group of traffic bits and 3 tails bits the last group of traffic bits.
 It has 8.25 bit long guard period (GP) at end where no transmission activity take place.
 Frequency correction burst (FCB)
 It is used by the mobile to obtain the frequency synchronization.
 It consists of 142 fixed bits and followed by 3 tail bits.
 It has 8.25 bit long guard period (GP) at end.
 The repetition of FCB by the BTS within the GSM frame structure becomes the frequency
correction channel (FCCH).
 Synchronization burst
 It is used by the mobile to obtain the timing synchronization.
 It consists of three tail bit followed by 39 encrypted bits, a 64 bit synchronisation sequence
39 more encrypted bits, 3 tail bits, and the same 8.25 bit long guard period.
 the reputation of synchronising sequence was by the BTS within the GSM frame structure
becomes the synchronising channel(SCH)
 Access burst
 It is used by the mobile to facilitate random access request by the mobile and handover operations.
 It consists of 8 tails with followed by 41-bits synchronization sequence , then 36 encrypted bits and 3
3 tail bits.
 The length of the guard bit time period is equal to 252 μs or 68.25 bits.
 The access bus is used on both the Random Access channel on the fast associated control channel
during handover.
 Dummy burst
• The dummy bus is transmitted on the radio frequency designated as C0 when no other type of burst
signal is being transmitted.
• It consists of 3 tail bits, 58 mixed bits, a- 26 bits training sequence, 58 more mixed bits, three tail
with the same 8.25 bit longer period.
• The dummy purpose is used to ensure that the base station is always transmitting on the frequency
carrying system information it helps for the power measurement on the strongest BTS.

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Figure 2.15 GSM Traffic and control signal bursts
Part II: GSM System Operations
2.4 GSM Identities

Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)
 The authentic telephone number of a mobile station is the Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number
(MSISDN). Based on the SIM, a mobile station can have many MSISDNs, as each subscriber is
assigned with a separate MSISDN to their SIM respectively.
 Listed below is the structure followed by MSISDN categories, as they are defined based on
international ISDN number plan

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• Country Code (CC) − Up to 3 decimal places.

• National Destination Code (NDC) − Typically 2-3 decimal places.
• Subscriber Number (SN) − Maximum 10 decimal places.
Network Numbering Plans
 GSM has both LAI (Location area identity) and CGI (Cell global Identity)
 The LAI is used for MS paging and location updating.
 CGI is used for cell identification within a location area.
 The LAI hierarchy is based on international standard and structured in a unique format as mentioned
below
• Country Code (CC) − 3 decimal places.
• Mobile Network Code (MNC) − 2 decimal places.
• Location Area Code (LAC) − maximum 5 decimal places or maximum twice 8 bits coded in
hexadecimal (LAC < FFFF).
GSM call setup using the MSRN (Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number(Courtesy of Ericsson)
Step1: Initial address message

Step2: Send routing Information
Step3: HLR uses MSISDN to find the subscriber data in the data base.
Step4: Provide Roaming Number
Step5: VLR asks MSC to reserve idle MSRN number
Step6: the MSC/VLR sends the MSRN back to HLR
Step7: HLR sends the MSRN back to GMSC
Step8: GMSC uses the MSRN to route the call to the Correct MSC.
IMSI is used by MSC for final establishment of call.
IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity, GMSC Gateway Mobile Switching Centre ,MSRN
Mobile Station Roaming Number
Formulation of GSM MSRN
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an interim location dependent ISDN number, assigned
to a mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor Location Register (VLR).
 Figure 2.16 shows the GSM call setup using the MSRN.
 Using MSRN, the incoming calls are channeled to the MS.
 The MSRN has the same structure as the MSISDN.
• Country Code (CC) − of the visited network.
• National Destination Code (NDC) − of the visited network.
• Subscriber Number (SN) − This is the number of the serving MSC.

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Figure 2.16 GSM call setup using the MSRN
Figure 2.17 Formulation of the GSM MSRN
2.5 GSM System Operations (Traffic Cases)
 Registration, call setup, and Location Updating

 various states of MS
 The MS can be powered off, or

 card can be removed from the mobile, or
 The mobile can be ON but located in an area without service.
 In all these cases,

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 The MS is considered to be in the detached condition. Otherwise, the MS can be powered ON with
in the GSM system and will subsequently enter into an attached relationship with the system.
Registration, call setup, and Location Updating
 The mobile can be in either of two states

 a (1) the idle state in which the MS has no dedicated channel allocated to it and it just listens to the
broadcast control channels (BCCH) and the paging channels (PCH)
 b(2) the active or dedicated state in the MS has a dedicated connection to the GSM network.
 While in the attached mode, the MS may change from the idle to the active mode as the result of call
setup, short message service transfers, location updating or supplementary service procedures.
 Also if the MS is in the active mode and changes cells, this operation is referred as GSM handover
Call Setup
 Call setup within a GSM system consists following operations. For either a mobile-originating call
or a mobile-terminating call the following operations need to be performed.
 For a mobile-terminating call it is necessary to perform an initial additional operation as shown:
1. Interrogation (only for a mobile-terminating call)

2. Radio resource connection establishment.
3. Service request
4. Authentication
5. Ciphering mode setting
6. IMEI number check
7. TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity)allocation

8. Call initiation
9. Assignment of a traffic channel
10. User alerting signaling

11. Call accepted signaling
GSM Interrogation Phase of call setup

 For the interrogation operation, initial address message (IAM) comes outside the GSM network
using ISUP (Integrated Services Digital Network User Part ) /TUP(Telephone User Part ) protocols.

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 GMSCGateway Mobile Switching Center
Figure 2.18 GSM Interrogation Phase of call setup
Radio resource connection establishment

 The MSC/VLR initiates the call set up process by sending a layer 3 paging message to the
appropriate BSC.(IMSI number)
 The BSC sends the paging command message to the appropriate BTSs .(IMSI number , the paging
group &channel number)
 The BTS sends a paging request message to the MS.
 The MS responds to the paging request message by sending channel request message to the BTS.
 Detailed messaging during GSM radio resource connection establishment

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Figure 2.19: shows the GSM radio resource connection establishment process
Figure 2.20: Radio resource connection establishment

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GSM Channel description Messages
Figure 2.21 GSM Channel description Messages

MAIO: mobile allocation Index offset
HSN: Hopping Sequence number
TA: timing Advance, ARFCN: absolute radio-frequency channel number
Service Request
 SABM  Set asynchronous balanced mode

 UA unnumbered acknowledgement
 Here Circuit connection is established on a
 A- interface

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Figure 2.22: Service Request
Authentication
GSM Authentication
Operations
128 bit Random Number (RAND)
CKSN: Ciphering Key Sequence

Number
SRES: Signed Responses
Data request and indication is

are used to pass Layer 3 message
A timer is set in MSC/VLR.
If timer expires a second time,

radio resources are released.

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IF authentication unsuccessful,
the GSM initiates a Procedure
to identity the MS.
MS is barred or sent Message

that :IMSI is in unknown VLR or
PLMN not allowed.
Figure 2.23: Authentication
Ciphering Mode setting

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Figure 2.24: Ciphering Mode setting
Fig: GSM Ciphering Mode setting operations

BSSMAP: contains the value of Kc (key)
CKSN: Ciphering Key Sequence
Number
CKSN stored in MS
IMSI stored in VLR
IMEI Check
EIR Equipment
Identity Register
Three modes
White listed allowed to use network
Black listed not allowed to use network
Grey listed  It is up to the network

operator to use network or not.

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TMSI Reallocation
Figure 2.26: TMSI Reallocation
MM message is transmitted over the SDCCH from BTS to MS.
Uplink SDCCH
Call Initiation Procedures

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Figure 2.27: Call Initiation Procedures
 Transmission of setup message transparently from MSC to MS.
 Downlink SDCCH from BTS to MS.

 The message is sent transparently from MS to MSC.
 A timer is started in the MSC/VLR once setup message is sent.
Assignment of a traffic channel

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Figure 2.28: Assignment of a traffic channel
DTX Discontinuous transmission

CIC Circuit Identity Code
Channel type is set to

Bm+ACCH
Full rate TCH+SACCH+FSCCH.
It is sent over SDCCH.

Channel info is present in that.
New channel allocation.
SABM set asynchronous

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Balanced mode message

UA unnumbered ack.
Call Confirmation, Call Accepted and Call release
Ringing tone
TUP: telephone user part

Figure 2.29: Call Confirmation, Call Accepted and Call release
GSM Location Updating Service request

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Figure 2.30: GSM Location Updating Service request
GSM Location Updating (Courtesy of Ericsson)

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Figure 2. 31: GSM Location Updating (Courtesy of Ericsson)
GSM Location updating

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Figure 2.32: GSM Location updating
GSM Location Updating Accepted

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Figure 2.33: GSM Location Updating Accepted
GSM Connection Release
Figure 2.34: GSM Connection Release

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GSM IMSI detach (courtesy of Ericsson)
Figure 2.35: GSM IMSI detach
GSM IMSI Attach (courtesy of Ericsson)
Figure 2.36: GSM IMSI Attach

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Call handoff
Intra-BSC handover
The process that occurs during the handover intra BSC as follows:
A). During the call, MS will measure the strength and quality of the signal on the
TCH and the signal strength from the neighboring cell. MS to evaluate and assess
the average for each cell.
MS send the results to the BTS measurements every two times in one second cell
not only on their own but also the results of measurements from the BTS
neighboring cell.
B). The BTS will send the results of measurements on the TCH to the BSC. In the
BSC, the function is activated when the placement is required to handover to
another cell.
C). When the handover is done, BSC will check whether the channel had requested
be met by another cell, if not the BSC will be the new BTS to enable TCH.
D). BSC will ask the BTS for a long time to send a message to MS with information
about the frequency, time slot, and the output power for the change.
E). MS choose a new frequency handover and access to the appropriate time slot.
F). When the BTS to detect the handover, the BTS will send the information
contains the physical "timing advance" (the distance between MS to the BTS) to
MS. BTS also inform the BSC to send a "message HO detection" so that point on
the new GS is connected.
G). MS send a "HO complete message."
H). Last time the BTS ordered not to activate the old TCH.

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Inter-BSC handover Figure 2.37 Intra BSC handover

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In this case BSC1, (old BSC) does not control the better cell which is
the target for the handover. This means that the MSC will be part of
the link procedure between BSC1 and BSC2 (new BSC).
Handover request - BSC1 will use the MSC to send a handover
request to BSC2. The MSC will know which BSC
controls that cell. Activation of new channel - BSC2 will allocate
a TCH in the targetcell and then order the BTS to activate it. The
chosen HO ref. no. will be part of the activation message. The
BTS will acknowledge that the activation has been made.
Handover command - After the activation the new BSC commands

the MS to change to the new channel. The message is sent on
FACCH via the old channel and will contain a full description
of the new channel and the HO ref. no.
3. Handover bursts - When the MS has changed to the new channel,
it will send handover bursts on the new channel. The information
content is the HO ref. no. The bursts are as short as the access bursts.
This is because the MS does not know the new Timing Advance
(TA) value yet. On the detection of the handover bursts, and check
of HO ref. no., the new BTS will send the new TA.
4. Handover complete - Now the MS is ready to continue the

traffic and will send a handover complete message, which will
be addressed to the old BSC asa clear command.
5. Release of old channel - When the old BSC receives the clear
command from the MSC, the BSC knows that the handover was
successful. The BSC orders the BTS to release the TCH and the
BTS will acknowledge.

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Figure 2.38 Inter BSC handover
Inter-MSC handover
Handing over a GSM call is a complicated procedure. It is even more so

when the source and target GSM cells are controlled by different MSCs.

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The following call flowsanalyze the different steps involved in a inter-

MSC handover:
The source BSC analyzes the signal quality measurement reports and
initiates ahandover.
The source MSC finds that the call needs to be handed over to a cell
controlled by adifferent MSC.
The source MSC and target MSC interact and then command the UT to
move to the new cell.
The target MSC informs the source MSC when the call has been
successfullyhanded over.
The source MSC releases the radio resources for the call. Note that the
call is stillrouted via the source MSC

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Figure 2.39 Inter MSC handover
2.6. GSM Infrastructure Communications (Um Interface)

 Review of GSM Protocol Architecture

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 Layer 3: Networking Layer Operations

 Connection Management
 Call Control
 Short Message Service Support
 Supplementary Services Support Layer 1: Physical Layer Operations
 Mobility Management
 Radio Resource Management
 Message format for Layer 3
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer Operations
 LAPDm Operations
 Service Access Points
 Data link procedures
 Physical Services Required by the Data link Layer
 Data link Timer
 Layer 1: Physical Layer Operations
A GSM network is a bearer data communication protocol families. Any

protocol stack for data communication, for example TCP/IP, can be
implemented to use a bearer.
GSM protocol architecture is - as for ISDN - structured into three
independent planes . User plane ,Control plane,Management plane
The user plane defines protocols to carry connection oriented voice
and user data. At the radio interface Um, user plane data will be
carried by the logical traffic channel called TCH. The control plane
defines a set of protocols for controlling these connections with
signalling information, for example signalling for connection setup.
Such signalling data is carried over logical control channels called D-
channels (Dm-
channels). As the control channels often have spare capacities, also
user data, the packet oriented SMS data, is transported over these
channels (see Figure gsm8). All logical channels, however, will be
finally multiplexed onto the physical channel.
Management plane function are:
plane management functions related to the system as a whole

including planecoordination
functions related to resources and parameters residing in the layers of the

controland/or user plane.

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Management of network element configuration and network

element faults areexamples of management plane functionality
The basic GSM bearer service, Circuit Switched Data (CSD), simply
consists of transmitting and receiving signals representing data instead
of voice across the air interface. Modems are used for the conversion
between data bit streams and modulated radio signals. Data transmission
is either transparent or non-transparent.
Three layers of interface in GSM
Figure 2.40 Three layers of interface in GSM
Information flow between two nodes in a network.
Eg. Of two network nodes are Between MS and BTS.
Linking of Three layers of interface in GSM

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Figure 41. Information flow between two nodes in a network. (Courtesy of ETSI)
Layer 3: Networking Layer Operations
 Within GSM network, layer 3 provides the mobile network signalling (MNS)
services for the mobile subscribers applications the MNS operations includes the
following
 Connection management functions to establish, maintaining and terminate

circuit-switched connections from the PSTN to a GSM mobile subscriber;
 Functions to support Short Message Service to the subscriber
 Function to support Supplementary Services and

 Functions to support radio resource and mobility management operations
Layer 3: Networking Layer Operations
 Within GSM network, layer 3 provides the mobile network signalling (MNS)
services for the mobile subscribers applications the MNS operations includes the
following

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 Connection management functions to establish, maintaining and terminate

circuit-switched connections from the PSTN to a GSM mobile subscriber;
 Functions to support Short Message Service to the subscriber
 Function to support Supplementary Services and
 Functions to support radio resource and mobility management operations
Distribution of Layer 3 signalling functions (Courtesy of ETSI)
Figure 42. Shows the allocation of the signalling
Functions at Layer 3 for the Um Interface

CC Connection Management
RR Radio Resource Management

MM Mobility Management
Call Control Procedure

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Figure 2.43: Call Control Procedure
SAP Service Access Point

CC-CALL CONTROL
MNCC-SAP Mobile Network CC-SAP
MMREG-SAPMN Registration service
MMSMS-SAP
SS Supplementary Service Support
PD protocol discriminator
Layer 3: Networking layer operations
 Connection management
 Mobility management
 Radio resource management
Linking of RR, RM and MM in GSM

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Figure 2 . 4 4 Linking of RR, RM and MM in GSM
Message format for Layer 3
Figure 2.45: Format of a GSM Layer 3 message

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Layer 2: Data Link layer operations

 LAPD operations
 Service access points
 Data link procedures
 Physical services required by the Data Link layer

 Data link timers
GSM Protocol Entities
Figure 2.46: GSM Protocol Entities
Functional block diagram

of the data link layer in the MS.
Supports three procedures.
1. Data link procedures

2. Data link distribution procedures
3. Random access procedures

Physical services required by the Data link Layer
 Frame synchronization
 Error protection and correction to ensure a low BER in the data link layer.
 Transmission and reception by MS and BTS respectively of random burst,

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 Physical layer connection that provides for the arrival of bits and frame to the same
order as they were transmitted to the Peer entities on receiving side
Data link timers

There are several system timers and counters used to keep track of the waiting time for the
acknowledgement of a previously transmitted message and the number of times that we
transmission may take place.
The functions and names of this element can be found in the LAPD specification
Layer 1 Physical Layer Operations

 The Physical Layer or signalling layer 1 is the actual physical hardware modulation
scheme, channel coding and so forth used to send the bits over the physical channels
on the air interface.
 The physical player interfaces with data in clear through the various control channels.
 The GSM physical layer operations includes
 various channel coding techniques

 Bit and frame interleaving of both traffic and control channels
 ciphering and
 burst formatting and modulation for the transmission of the information and
 the complementary functions for the restriction of the transmitted information.
 The other functions includes
 power control function

 synchronization of the receiver self selection strategy and hand over functions

Module 3: Wireless & Cellular Communication-18EC81
Module-3
CDMA Technology
CDMA System Overview – Introduction, CDMA Network and System Architecture
CDMA Basics – CDMA Channel Concepts, CDMA System (Layer 3) operations, 3G CDMA
(Text 2-Part 1, Part2 and Part 3 of Chapter 6) L1, L2, L3
PART- 1: CDMA System Overview
3.1 Introduction to CDMA

Cellular services are now being used every day by millions of people worldwide.
The number of customers requiring such services is increasing exponentially, and there is a
demand for integration of a variety of multimedia services.
The range of services includes short messaging, voice, data, and video. Consequently, the bit
rate required for the services varies widely from just 1.2 kbps for paging up to several Mbps
for video transmission.
Supporting such a wide range of data rates with flexible mobility management, increases
network complexity dramatically.
The CDMA is a digital modulation and radio access system that employs signature codes
(rather than time slots or frequency bands) to arrange simultaneous and continuous access to
a radio network by multiple users.
Contribution to the radio channel interference in mobile communications arises from multiple
user access, multipath radio propagation, adjacent channel radiation and radio jamming.
The spread spectrum system’s performance is relatively immune to radio interference. Cell
sectorization and voice activity used in CDMA radio schemes provide additional capacity
compared to FDMA and TDMA. However, CDMA still has a few drawbacks, the main one
being that capacity (number of active users at any instant of time) is limited by the access
interference.
Furthermore, Near-far effect requires an accurate and fast power controlscheme.

The first cellular CDMA radio system has been constructed in conformity with IS- 95
specifications and is now known commercially as CDMA One.
3.1.1 Evolution of 2G CDMA
 IS-95 has dual mode of operation in 800-MHz cellular band for both
AMPS and CDMA.
 This standard has features for both mobile station and base station , compatible with
both AMPS and CDMA.
Dr. Asha K & Prof. Prabha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology Page 1
 IS-95A is the modified form of IS-95 with additional features.

 IS-95A describes the structure of wideband 1.25-MHz CDMA channels and operations to
provide power control, call processing, handoffs, and registration procedures for
proper system operation.
 These system provides circuit switched data service at 14.4kbps over the first CDMA
system.
 ANSI J-STD-008 provided for CDMA operation in CDMA band.
With few additional standard the system is known as TIA/EIA-95-B in 1999.

This was providing the 1.8-to 2.0GHz CDMA PCS system with IS-95A and superceded
ANSI-J-STD-008.
This system allows Packet switched data service at rates up to 64kbps they as known as 2.5G
CDMA technology.
3.1.2 Evolution of 3G
 Cdma2000 is the term used for 3G CDMA system.
 Cdma2000 is the wideband enhanced version of CDMA
 It was compatible with TIA/EIA-95-B.
 It provides the support for data services up to 2mbps, multimedia services, and advanced
radio technologies.
 First phase of CDMA is known as 1xRTT (radio transmission technology) happening
over a channel of 1.25MHz CDMA channel.
 Next implementation phases is called as 1xEV (evolutionary).
It has two types 1xEV DO (data only-downlink direction data rate 2.4mbps & uplink
direction data rate 153 kbps) and 1xEV DV (data and voice-3mbps all over the network)
Note: TIA/EIA Telecommunication Industry Association /Electronic Industries Association
3.1.3 CDMA Basics
 CDMA is a multiple access technology that is based on the use of wideband spread
spectrum digital techniques that enable the separation of signals that are concurrent in
both time and frequency.
 All signals share the same frequency spectrum simultaneously.
 The signals transmitted by mobile stations and base stations within a cell are spread over
the entire bandwidth of a radio channel and encoded, received as a broadband noise
signal at the every other mobile or base station receiver.
 The demodulator demodulates the signal intended for the receiver while rejecting all other
signals as broadband noise.
Figure 3.1Typical Components of a CDMA One network
Figure 3.2 Comparison of different techniques such as FDMA, TDMA, AND CDMA air
interface
 For FDM made available radio spectrum is divided into narrowband channels and each
user is given a particular channel for his for use.
 The user can find transmitted signal power within the channel and selective filters are
used at both ends of the radio link to distinguish transmission that are occurring
simultaneously on many different channels.
 The frequency allocation can only be reused at a distance far enough away that the
resulting interference is negligible.
 In TDMA scheme divide the spectral allocation into time slots. Now each user must
confine its transmitted spectral energy within the particular time slot assigned to it, here
are the mobile and base station must employees some type of time synchronisation.
 This technique increases the spectral efficiency at the expense of each users total data
rate.
 In CDMA each mobile has continuous use of the entire spectrum allocation and spreads
its transmitted energy out over the entire bandwidth of the allocation.
 Using a unique code for each transmitted signal the mobile in the base stations are able to
distinguish between the signal transmitted simultaneously over the same frequency
allocation.
 CDMA can also be combined with FDM TDM Technologies to increase the system
capacity.
CDMA Frequency Bands

 The CDMA bands are cellular frequency band (band class 0) personal communication
service (PCS Band) Band class 1.
 3G CDMA systems released 1710- 1755 MHz and 2110 - 2155 MHz advanced wireless
service (AWS Band) available for CDMA used including a lower frequency band at 450
MHz
 When used in cellular band frequency separation of 45 MHz between the forward and
reverse channel is employed.
 The MS transmit frequency band is 824-849 MHz and the BS transmit frequency band is
869-894 MHz.
 This dual use of frequency bands gives rise to dual mode CDMA phones.
Table 3.1 CDMA channel numbers and frequency assignments for the PCS band.
Table 3.2 Useable CDMA Channel number and assigned frequencies for Band Class 1
3.1.5 Frequency Planning Issues
 Because of a frequency reuse factor N= 1, CDMA frequency planning is

relatively simple compared to analog cellular systems.
 System that only requires one carrier per base station, that carrier must be
chosen from the list of preferred CDMA channels.
 The same channel should be used by all the base station throughout the system
to take advantage of soft and softer handoff capabilities that are possible with
CDMA Technology.
 Capacity can be increased by increasing the number of base station carriers.
 Table 3.2 s h o w s t h e useable CDMA Channel number and assigned
frequencies for Band Class 1
Table 3.3 Preferred set of CDMA frequency assignments for Band Class 1
Spreading rate Preferred channel numbers

A 1 25,50,75,100,125,150,175,200,225,250,275
3 50,75,100,125,150,175,200,225,250
D 1 325,350,375
3 350,
B 1 425,450,475,500,525,55,575,600,625,650,675
3 450,475,500,525,550,575,600,625,650
E 1 725,750,775
3 750
F 1 825,850,875,
3 850
C 1 925,950,975,1000,1025,1050,1075,1100,1125,1150,1175
3 950,975,1000,1025,1050,1075,1100,1125,1150
3.2.CDMA Network and System Architecture
 There is increasing demand for data traffic over mobile radio.

 The mobile radio industry has to evolve the current radio infrastructures to
accommodate the expected data traffic with the efficient provision of high-speed voice
traffic.
 The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is being introduced to efficiently support
high-rate data over GSM.
 GPRS signalling and data do not travel through GSM network.
 The GPRS operation is supported by new protocols and new network nodes: Serving
GPRS support node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).
 One prominent protocol used to tunnel data through IP backbone network is the GPRS
tunnel protocol (GTP).
 GPRS obtains user profile data using location register database of GSM network.
 GPRS supports quality of service and peak data rate of up to 171.2 kbps with GPRS
using all 8 timeslots at the same time.
 GPRS uses the same modulation as that used in GSM that is Gaussian
Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) with 4 coding schemes. Figure 3.3 shows
the Initial CDMA (IS-95) reference architecture
Fig 3.3 Initial CDMA (IS-95) reference architecture
In block diagram Radio base station is connecting interface between BSC and MS (mobile
station). PSTN (public switched telephone network), PLMN (public land mobile network)
and PDN (public data network) are the main nodes where the mobile switching centre is
interacting.
 PCMD Per Call Measurement Data
 CAIT CDMA Air Interface Tester
 WINDUMP Windows version of TCPDUMP

 PDSN Packet Data Serving Node
 tcpdump utility is used to capture and analyze network traffic
In the case of MSC to BSC interface provides for the messaging between these two
systems elements and now allows the equipment used for these functions to
be provided by multiple different vendors.
Figure 3.5 shows the layered architecture of specified TIA/EIA 634B.
As shown in figure, A interface between the MSC-BSC interface supports four

functional planes.
Fig 3.4 cdma2000 reference architecture[ REF[

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220850246_TCP_over_CDMA2000_
networks_A_cross-layer_measurement_study]
Fig 3.5 cdma2000 MSC-BSC interface functional planes
Call processing and mobility management functions occurs between the mobile
station in the MSc the types of call processing and Supplementary Services
supported over TIA/EIA 634 B of calls origination and termination by the
subscriber call release, call waiting and saw the mobility management function
supports the typical operations of registration and the registrations are then taxation
voice privacy and etc.
Function of various resources management and transmission Facilities

Management occurs between MSc and the base station.
The transmission Facilities Management operations are connected with the

facilities that transport the voice data of signalling information between MSC and
the base station
Fig 3.6 Major Network components of a cdma2000 wireless system

RBS Radio base Station
Figure 3.6 shows the major network elements of the modern cdma2000 system and figure 3.7
shows the additional details of typical call network not found in cdma2000.
GPRS packetizes the user data and transports it over 1 to 8 radio channel timeslots using IP
backbone network.
The Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) employs an Enhanced GPRS
(EGPRS) to support data rate up to 384 kbps through optimised modulation.
EGPRS support 2 modulation schemes, namely GMSK with 4 coding schemes and 8-PSK
with 5 coding schemes.
Unlike GPRS where header and data are encoded together, headers are encoded separately in
EGPRS.
Mobile-services switching center and visitor location register
CDMA mobile service Coaching Centre serves as the interface between the Public Switched
Telephone Network and the base station subsystem (BSS).
That performs the functions necessary for the establishment of the cost to and from the system
mobile subscribers.
MVC also provides subscriber registration authentication location updating functions call hands
off and call routing for roaming subscribers and also permit subscriber mobility and warming.
Visitor location register function is located with the MSc its function is to provide a database
containing temporary information about register subscribers that may be needed by the embassy
in the performance of call control operations and provisioning of subscriber services for the
mobile currently registered in the MSVC/VLR service area
Interworking function:
 It is the only Gateway between the wireless networks and the packet data network.
 It provides a direct connection to the PDN and packet data calls.
 It supports circuits which data caused by providing internal modem for connections to
dial up internet service providers.
Fig 3.7 Details of the network nodes found in a Cdma 2000 wireless system.
Mobile positioning system:
 Ongoing program mandated by the federal Communications commission and design to

upgrade the United States cellular systems, a location system is incorporated by CDMA
system that can determine the Geographic position of the mobile subscriber.
 This mobile positioning system is based on global positioning system and it is used for
emergency services.
 Other proposed uses of the system capability related to what are known as location basic
services for location specific marketing tools.
Unified messaging/voice mail service

Unified messaging/voice mail services it integrates email and voice mail access.
Tthis node provide messaging waiting indication using short message services and multiple
message retrieval modes including the use of DTMF or either a web or WAP browser.
Shown in figure 3.7 the UM/VMS node connects the period and the MSc in Ericsson system
HLR/AC
The home location register and other indications centres are typically called located in CDMA
cdma2000 systems.
The HLR holds the subscriber information in a database format that is used by system to
manage subscriber devices activity.
Syndication provides a secure database for the authentication of mobile subscriber when they
first register with his demand during call origination and termination.
Authentication Centre uses shared secret data (SSD) for identification calculation both the AC
and ST caliphate SSD based on authentication key or a key.
PPCS, and other nodes:
 Prepaid calling services node provides a prepaid calling service using a subscriber home
location area MSC.
 This is the snow provides the MSc with the information about the subscriber located
minutes and provides a subscriber with account balance information.
 It is associated with the prepaid administration computer system that provide necessary
database to store the subscriber information and update it as needed.
PDN Public data network,

RBS Radio base station,
BCSB channel Circuit Switched/Base station controller,
IWF Interworking functions,
MPS Mobile Positioning System,
PPCS Prepaid Calling Service
UM/VMS Unified Messaging/Voice Mail Service
PCN Packet Core network
C-RAN CDMA Radio access Network
PLMN Public land mobile network
Base Station Subsystem

It has one Base station controller (BSC) and one Radio base station (RBS) controlled by the BSC.
The BSS provides the mobile subscriber with an interface to the circuit switched core network
(PSTN) through the MSc and an interface to the public data network through the packet core
network.
Base station controller (BSC)
 Base station controller provides the following functionalities.
 It is the interface between the MSc and the packet core network, other BSS in the same
system and all of the radio base stations that it controls.
 It provides routing of data packets between the PC and RBS radio resource allocation
system timing and synchronisation system power control all and the procedures and the
processing of both voice and data as needed.

Radio base station (RBS)
 It provides the interface between the BSc and the subscriber devices why are the common
air interface
 The functions provided by the RBS includes CDMA encoding and decoding of the
subscriber traffic and system overhead channels and the CDMA radio links to and from
the subscribers the typical RPS contains an integrated GPS antenna and the receiver that is
used to provide system timing and frequency references.
PLMN Subnetwork
 Cdma2000 public land mobile network provides mobile wireless communication services
subscribers and typically consists of several functional subnetworks.
 Sab networks are circuit core network (CCN), packet core Network (PCN) and service
node network (SNN) the CDMA radio access network (C-RAN)
Circuit core network (CCN),
 It provides the switching functions necessary to complete calls to and from the mobile
subscriber to the PSTN the major network element in the CNN is MSc.
 The primary function of this network is completion of voice calls between the subscriber
and the PSTN.
 The MSC is basically an extension of PSTN and that services the various cells associated
radio base stations within the cell send message provide circuit switching and provides
features such as call charging, subscriber roaming support and maintenance of subscriber
database.
CDMA radio access network (C-RAN)
 It provides the interface between the wireless cellular subscriber and circuit core network
network.
 Decision consists of the MSc and other system components involved with connection to
the PSTN for all circuit switched voice and data calls.
Cdma2000 Packet Core Network elements
Fig 3.8 Elements of the cdma200 Packet core Network

In cdma2000 system the packet data serving node provide the needed IP transport capability to
connect C-RAN and subscriber to the public data network.
Packet core network provides a standard interface for wireless packets which Data Services
between the C-RAN and the public data network.
PCN has three nodes namely,

1. AAA Authentication, authorization and accounting server,
2. Home agent
3. Packet data serving node (PDSN)
Figure 3.8 depict the elements of PCN and their interconnection teach other in the relationship of
the PCN and PDN and C-RAN
The AAA server both indicates and authorise a subscriber devices to employ the available
network services and applications to facilitate this operation a server manager is the database that
contains user profiles use profile information will also be included information about quality of
service for the PDN.
In cdma2000 system the home agent (HA) has the task for forwarding all packets at a distant for
the subscriber devices to the PDSN over the IP packet.
Network Management System has following

 Network Management
 Sub-network Management and Element Management

 System Communication links
 Subcarrier Devices
Modern wireless cellular system employs supported network management system to cover
the operation of the entire network service providers have one or several Network operations
centers.
Network Management
The highest level of network management gives and overarching view of the entire network
including all of the net subnetwork that it comprises there are five functions of
Wireless network management system
 network surveillance or fault management
 performance management,
 trouble management
 configuration management and
 Security management.
Fault Management is concerned with the detection isolation and repair of network problem to
prevent network faults from causing unacceptable network degradation or downtime.
Performance management functions are concerned with gathering and reporting of 11 network
performance statistics that can be used continuously analyse Network operations.
Trouble management functions allow for the display and subsequent description of occurrence
that have affected the network.
Configuration management functions are used to support Administration and configuration of
the network,
The security management functions manage user accounts and provide the ability to control
and set user based access levels.
Sub-network Management and Element Management
Sub network management platform provides management of execute packet and radio network
that compose the typical CDMA system the circuit Core network management system is mainly
concerned with the CDMA mobile services switching centers it provides fault performance
configuration Software and Hardware management functions that support the operations of this
particular network element at the sub network level.
Network interface for CDMA systems
Fig 3.9 Network interfaces for CDMA system
System Communication links

 Equipment vendors are still using Legacy channelize T1 /E1/ J1 copper pairs for
connectivity to from the MSC to the PSTN.
 CDMA equipment vendors have started to add fiber-optic interfaces delivers on its signals
a data rate of 155.52 MB per second as shown in figure 3.9
 Different network interfaces for CDMA systems are shown in figure with the control
information is used for a interface between the MSC and BSC
Subcarrier Devices
It is the generic term used to describe several types of wireless phones and data devices that
perform CDMA and coding decoding and encoding operations for the transmission of voice for
data in wireless mobile environment.
Each subscriber device is a band or set of radio band over which it can operate and various
modes of possible operations.
PART II:
CBMA Basics
3.3.CDMA Channel Concept
 Cellular Telephone Network use various control and traffic channels to carry out the
operations necessary to allow for the setup of a subscriber lady or drink for the
transmission of either data or a voice conversation and the subsequent system supports
for the subscribers mobility.
 The CDMA one and cdma2000 cellular systems are based on the use of CDMA
Technology provide additional user capacity over a limited amount of radio frequency
spectrum.
 This is accomplished by using a spread spectrum and coding technique that provides
for numerous radio channels. Basic Spectrum spreading operation is shown in figure 3.10.
 The orthogonal Walsh spreading codes are used for channel encoding.
Fig. 3.10. The Basic Spectrum spreading operation
The IS-95 CDMA system is a narrow band radio system.

Bandwidth is limited to 1.25 MHzand a chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
The system is intended to provide voice and low bit rate data service using circuit-switching
techniques. Data rate varies from 1.2 kbps to 9.6 kbps.
Forward (base station to mobile) and reverse (mobile to base station) link structures are
different and each is capable of distinctive capacity.
Forward transmission is coherent and synchronous while the reverse link is asynchronous.
The 'channelization' in each link is achieved by using 64- chip orthogonal codes, including
provision for pilot, synchronization, paging, and network access.
Consequently, the number of active users able to simultaneously access the network is
limited by the level of interference, service provisions and the number of 'channels' available.
In IS-95B, an active mobile always has a fundamental code channel at 9.6 kbps and when high
data rate is required, the base station assign the mobile up to 7 supplementary code channels.
The Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) system is the major standard in the next-generation
Global Mobile Telecommunications standard suite IMT-2000. The W-CDMA supports
high data rate transmission, typically 384 kbps for wide area coverage and 2 Mbps for local
coverage for multimedia services.
Thus W-CDMA is capable of offering the transmission of voice, text, data, picture (still
image) and video over a single platform.
However, in addition to the drawbacks arising from the mobile environment and multiple
access interference, high bit rate transmission causes Inter-symbol interference (ISI) to occur.
The ISI therefore has to be taken into account during transmission. The W-CDMA has 2
versions: frequency division duplex (FDD) and time division duplex (TDD).
The FDD version of W-CDMA will operate in either of the following paired bands: Uplink:
1920 - 1980 MHz Downlink: 2110 - 2170 MHz
Uplink: 1850 - 1010 MHz Downlink: 1930 - 1990 MHz
The 3GPP architecture of the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is

composed of IP-based core network (CN) connected to the user equipment through UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN).
The UTRAN consists of a set of radio network subsystem comprising a radio controller and
one or more node base station.
The network controller is responsible for the handover decisions that require signalling to the
user equipment.
Each subsystem is responsible for the resources of its set of cells and each node B has one or
more cells.
CDMA Channel Concept

o Forward logical channels
o Pilot channel
o Synchronization channel
o Paging channel
 Traffic/power control channels
Fig.3.11: Basic spreading procedure used on CDMA forward channels
 The basic spreading procedure used on the forward CDMA journal is shown in figure
3.11.
 The Digital Signal to be transmitted over a particular forward channel is spread by first
exclusive “OR”ing it with the particular “Walsh code”.
 Then the signal is further scrambled in the in-phase and quadrature phase lines by two
different short pseudo noise (PN) spreading codes.
 These short PN spreading codes are not orthogonal codes, but they have excellent cross
correlation and autocorrelation properties that make them useful for this application.
 Each channel is spread sufficiently over the entire bandwidth of 1.25 MHz channel.
 The short inphase (I) and quadrature Phase (Q) and spreading codes are generated by two
linear shift registers of length 15 with the set polynomial value used to configure the
feedback paths.
 The resulting in short PN spreading codes are repeating binary sequences that are
approximately equal number of zeros and ones then the length of 327 68.
 the output of the inphase and quadrature phase signals are passed through the baseband
filter and then applied to the RF quadrature modulator Integrated circuit that convert the
final output signal to be U HV frequency bands.
 This channel element signal is linearly combined with the other forward channel element
signal amplified and composite Band pass band signal is transmitted over the air interface.
 Short film spreading codes provide the CDMA system with ability to differentiate
between different base stations are cells transmitting on the same frequency.
 Same short PN code sequence is used by all CDMA base stations, however for each base
station the PN sequence is offset from the sequences used by other area base stations. The
offset is analogous to the frequency reuse plans described for other access techniques.
 Figure 3.12 shows use of this reuse scheme.
 The use of this office team requires that the base stations used in CDMA is the must be
must all be time synchronized on the downlink radio channels.
 This precise timing synchronization is achieved through the use of the Global positioning
system (GPS) purchase system time that has the required accuracy.
 The initial -95 CDMA system implementation uses four different typical types of logical
channels in the forward direction.
 The Pilot channel
 synchronization channel
 paging channel
 Traffic and power control channels.
 Fig. 3.12: CDMA base station timing offset reuse pattern
 Pilot Channel
Fig.3.13: Generation of the CDMA pilot channel signal
 CDMA pirate channel is used to provide a reference signal for the SDs within a cell.
 Figure 3.13 depicts the generation of pilot channel signals.
 The all zeros Walsh code is used for the initial signal spreading on the sequence of all
zeros.
 This results in a sequence of all zeros that are for thus producing the short PN spreading
sequences resulting in a sequence of zeros and ones.
 I and q signals drive a quadrature modulator. Therefore the resulting pilot signal is
unmodulated spread spectrum signal.
 The short PN spreading code is used to identify the base station and the pilot signal is
transmitted at fixed output power usually 46 DB stronger than any other channel.
 The Pilot channel transmitted continuously is used as a phase difference for the borrower
and the modulation of all other channels it also serves as the reference for signal strength
measurement and other signal power comparison.
CDMA Synchronization channel signal
 CDMA synchronization channel is used by the system to provide initial time

synchronisation.
 Figure 3.14 shows the generation of synchronisation channel signal.
 in this case Walsh code (Thirty-two 0’s followed by thirty-two1’s is used to spread
the synchronization channel message.
 Again the same short PN spreading code with the same offset is used to further spread the
signal
 as shown in figure 3.15 the initial synchronisation channel message has a data rate Of
1200 BPS .
 the synch messages and undergo convolutional encoding symbol repetition and finally the
block interleaving. This process raises the final sync message data rate 4.8 kbps.
 The information contained in the sync message includes the system or network
identification codes, identification of paging channel data rates, the offset value of the
short PN spreading code, and the state of the long PN spreading code.
 Like The Pilot channels synchronization channel has a fixed output power.
Fig.3.14: Generation of the CDMA Synchronization channel signal
Paging Channel
 The Is-95 paging channels of the purpose of the property with paging channel in the GSM
cellular system.
 Tthe Channels used to page the subscriber devices when there is a mobile terminated call
and to the send control messages to the subscriber devices(SD) when call setup is taking
place.
 Figure 3.15 shows the generation of the paging channel message for IS- 95 CDMA there
can be as many as seven page in channels in operation at any one time.
 Walsh codes through are used for this purpose.
 As shown in figure 3.15 the paging channel undergoes an additional scrambling operation
using the long PN spreading code sequence.
 The long PN code is generated by using 42bit linear feedback shift register (LFSR) that
deals repeating sequence of length .
 The paging channel message also goes through the conventional and encoding process,
symbol the petition and block interleaving before being scrambled by the slower version
of the long PN code.
Fig. 3.15: Generation of the CDMA paging channel signals
Traffic/power control channels
The CDMA forward traffic channels carry the actual user transmission.
 This digitally encoded voice and or data can be transmitted several different data Rates for
IAS 95 CDMA systems.
 Rate set 1 supports 9.6 kbps maximum and slow rates of 4.8, 2.4 and 1.2 kbps .
 Rate set 2 to supports 14.4 7.2, 3.6 and 1.8 kbps.
 Figure 3.16 and 3.17 shows the generation of forward traffic channel.
 Figure 3.17 shows for the generation of headset to traffic and additional operation is
performed of the symbol the petition block for a data rate of 14.4kbps.
 The amount output from the simple definition block will be 28.8 kbps the puncture
function blocks selects 4 bits out of every 6 offered and thus reduces the data rate to
19.2kbps which is what the block interleaver needs to see.
 All of the CDMA systems and unused Walsh codes may be used to generate forward
traffic channels.
 The traffic channel for the scrambled with both the short PN sequence codes and belongs
PN sequence course before transmission as shown in figure 3.16 and 3.17, power control
information is transmitted to the mobile stations within the cell over the traffic channel
 This power control information is used to set the output power to the mobile on the
reverse link and is multiplexed with the scrambled voice bits at a rate of 800 bps or 1 bit
every 1.25 msec.
Fig. 3.16: Generation of the CDMA forward traffic/power control channels for 9.6-kbps traffic.
Fig. 3.17: Generation of the CDMA forward traffic/power control channels for 14.4-kbps
traffic.
Reverse logical channels

The IS-95 CDMA reverse logical channels exist between the subscriber devices and the CDMA
base station.
The encoding of digital information on the reverse channels is performed differently than on the
forward channels.
The data to be transmitted is not initially spread by a Walsh codes; instead, the data is mapped
into Walsh codes that are then transmitted.
Since there are sixty-four, 64-bit Walsh codes, every 6 bits of data to be transmitted may be
mapped to a particular Walsh code.
This technique yields an over tenfold increase in bandwidth since 64 bits are now transmitted for
every 6 bits of data; however, the system error rate is reduced in the process. The mapping of
groups of 6 data bits to a Walsh code is very straightforward since there exists a one-to-one
relationship between the two.
Each reverse channel is spread by a long PN sequence code and scrambled by the short PN
sequence code.
The long PN sequence code is derived from the subscriber device's 32-bit electronic serial
number (ESN) and therefore provides the means by which the user is uniquely identified within
the CDMA system.
There are basically two types of reverse CDMA channels: access channels and reverse
traffic/control channels
Fig. 3.18 shows the generation of the CDMA Reverse logic channels
Fig. 3.18 Generation of the CDMA Reverse logic channels
Access Channels:
The CDMA access channels are used by the mobile to answer pages and to transmit control
information for the purpose of call setup and tear down.
Figure 3-18 shows the access channel processing for a IS-95 CDMA system.
As shown in the figure, an access message at 4.8 kbps undergoes the familiar convolutional
encoding, symbol repetition, and block interleaving that raises the data rate to 28.8 kbps.
At this point, the orthogonal modulation subsystem processes the signal by encoding every 6 bits
into a 64-bit Walsh code.
This process raises the signal rate to 307.2 kcps.
The reader should note the use at this time of chips per second (cps) instead of bits per second.
Next, the long PN code spreads the signal by a factor of 4 that yields a chip rate of 1.2288 mcps.
The signal is further scrambled by the short PN sequence Codes.
The long PN code is used by the system to differentiate the thirty two possible access channels.
At this point, the CDMA signal is applied to an RF quadrature modulator subsystem or IC.
However, for the reverse channels, the form of modulation used to produce the final UHF
passband signal is slightly different than for the forward channels.
In this case, offset QPSK (OQPSK) is used instead of straight QPSK as in the case of the forward
channels. Note the delay block of one-half of a PN implement chip (406.9 ns) used in the Q path
to more power the efficient OQPSK modulation.
This form of modulation allows for a linear implementation by the subscriber device's RF
electronics.
Fig. 3.19 Generation of the CDMA Reverse traffic channels
Traffic/Power Control Channels

 The IS-95 CDMA reverse traffic/power control channels voice and support both data at the two
rate sets (RS1 and RS2).
 Figure 3-19 depicts the generation of a reverse traffic channel.
 In either rate set case, the data rate at the input to the orthogonal modulator subsystem will be
28.8 kbps. At the output of this process the signal rate is 307.2 kcps.
 At this point the signal is processed by a data burst randomizer that in essence is used to eliminate
redundant data.
 The signal is then spread by a long PN sequence code and further scrambled by the short PN
sequence code.
 The final signal rate is the standard 1.2288 mcps with a signal bandwidth of approximately 1.25
MHz.
 Figure 3.19 shows the Generation of the CDMA Reverse traffic channels
CDMA frame format
 It is time to examine the format of a basic CDMA frame and its role in the operation of
the system.
 Similar to GSM system operation, CDMA systems take 20-ms segments of digital
samples of a voice signal and encode them through the use of a speech coder (vocoder)
into variable rate frames.
 Thus the basic system frame size is 20 ms. as shown in figure 3.20.
 The first IS-95 systems employed the 8-kbps Qualcomm-coded excited linear prediction
(QCELP) speech coder that produced 20-ms frame outputs of either 9600, 4800, 2400, or
1200 bps (Rate Set 1), with the addition of overhead (error detection) bits.
 The actual net bit rates are 8.6, 4.0, 2.0, or 0.8 kbps.
 A second encoder, the 13-kbps QCELP13 encoder, was introduced in 1995 and produced
outputs of 14.4, 7.2, 3.6, and 1.8 kbps (Rate Set 2), with a net maximum bit rate of 13.35
kbps.
 In each case, the speech encoder makes use of pauses and gaps in the user's speech to
reduce its output from a nominal 9.6 or 14.4 kbps to lower bit rates and 1.2 or 1.8 kbps
during periods of silence.
 The basic 20-ms speech encoder frame size is used in various configurations by several of
the logical channels to facilitate CDMA system operation, increase system capacity, and
improve mobile battery life.
Fig. 3.20 Rate set traffic channel
Forward Channel Frame Formats

Of the four forward logical channels, only the pilot channel does not employ a frame format.
It consists of a continuous transmission f the system RF signal (refer back to Figure 3-14).
The forward traffic channel frames are 20 ms in duration and contain a varying number of
information bits, frame error control check bits, and tail bits depending upon the rate set and the
data rate.
Figure 3-20 depicts a forward traffic frame for Rate Set 2 at 14.4 kbps. The forward traffic
channel frames are further logically subdivided into sixteen 1.25-ms power control groups.
Power control bits transmitted over the forward traffic channels are randomly inserted into the
data stream of each 1.25-ms power control group yielding a power control signal rate of 800
bps.
The CDMA forward synchronization (sync) channel provides the mobile or subscriber device
with system configuration and timing information.
A sync channel message can be long and therefore the message is typically broken up into sync
channel frames of 32 bits each. The sync channel frame consists of a start of message (SOM)
bit and 31 data bits.
The start of a sync message is indicated by a SOM bit set to 1 in the first frame and 0 in
subsequent frames of the same message. At a data rate of 1200 bps, a sync channel frame is
26.666 ms in duration (the same repetition period employed by the short PN codes).
Three sync channel frames of 96 bits form a sync channel super frame of 80-ms duration (equal
to four basic 20-ms frames).
The sync message itself consists of a field that indicates the message length in bits, the message
data bits, error checking code bits, and additional padding bits (zeros) as needed.
The forward paging channels are used by the CDMA base station transmit system overhead
information and mobile station-specin messages
In IS-95A, the paging channel data rate can be either 4800 or 9600 bps.
The paging channel is formatted into 80-ms paging of eight half frames of 10-ms duration.
Each half frame starts W synchronized capsule indicator (SCI) bit that is functionally similar to
the SOM bit.
A synchronized paging channel message capsule begins immediately after an SCI bit set to 1.
To accommodate varying length paging messages and to prevent inefficient operation of the
pageing channel, additional message capsules may be appended to the first message capsule if
space is available within the half frame or subsequent half frames. A paging message must be
contained in at most two successive slots.
CDMA reverse channels

 The reverse traffic channel, like the forward traffic channel, is also divided into 20-ms
traffic channel frames.
 The reverse traffic channel frame is also further logically subdivided into sixteen 1.25-
ms power control groups. As was the case for the forward traffic channel, variable rate
data are also sent on the reverse traffic channel.
 The coded bits from the convolutional encoder used in the reverse traffic channel are
repeated before interleaving when the speech characteristics are such that the encoded
data rate is less than the maximum.
 When the mobile transmit data rate is maximum, all sixteen power control groups are
transmitted.
 If the transmitted data rate is one half of the maximum rate, then only eight power
control groups are transmitted.
 Similarly, for a transmitted data rate of one-quarter or one-eighth, only four or two
power control groups are transmitted per frame, respectively.
 As mentioned, this process, termed burst transmission, is made possible by the fact that
reduced data rates have built-in redundancy that has been generated by the code
repetition process.
 A data burst randomizer ensures that every repeated code symbol is only transmitted
one time and that the transmitter is turned off at other times.
 This process reduces interference to other mobile stations operating on the same reverse
CDMA channel by lowering the average transmitting power of the mobile and hence
the overall background noise floor. The data burst randomizer generates a random
masking pattern for the gating pattern that is tied to the mobile station's ESN.
 Figure 3-21 shows this process in more detail. The reverse access channel is used by the
mobile station to communicate with the base station.
 The access channel is used for short message exchanges, such as responses to
Commands from the base station, for system registrations, and for call origination
requests.
 The access channel data rate is 4.8 kbps using a 20-ms frame that contains 96
information bits. Each access channel message is typically composed of several access
channel frames.
 Since multiple mobile stations associated with the same paging channel may try to
simultaneously access the same access channel, a random access protocol has been
developed to avoid signal/data collisions.
 Figure 3.21shows the CDMA reverse channel variable data rate transmission

Fig. 3.21 CDMA reverse channel variable data rate transmission
3.4.CDMA System (Layer 3) Operations

Initialization/registration
• As is the case with GSM cellular, CDMA system registration procedures are dependent
upon the status of the mobile station.
• The mobile may be either in a detached condition (powered off or out of system range) or
in an attached condition.
• When first turned on, the mobile goes through a power-up state (see Figure 3-22) during
which it selects a CDMA system and then acquires the pilot and sync channels, which
allows it to synchronize its timing to the CDMA system.
• When attached, the mobile Status dependent operation may be in one of three states: the
mobile station idle state, the access system state, or the mobile station control on the traffic
channel state (see Figure 3-22).
• While in the idle state, the mobile monitors the paging channel (PgC).
• In the system access state the mobile station communicates with the CDMA base station,
sending and receiving messages, as shown by Figure 3-24, while performing various
operations dictated by the different system access substrates.
• The mobile station control on the traffic channel state the mobile communicates with the
base station using the forward and reverse traffic channels while in various traffic channel
substrates as shown by Figure 3-25.
• As indicated by Figure 3-23, the mobile may move back and forth between these three
states depending upon the movement of the subscriber and the use of the mobile.
Fig. 3.22 CDMA mobile station initialization state
Fig. 3.23: CDMA mobile station call processing states

Figure 3.24shows the CDMA system access state flow chart.
Fig. 3.24: CDMA system access state flow chart
Fig. 3.25 CDMA mobile station control on the on the traffic channel flow chart
Registration is the process by which the CDMA mobile station, through messages to the base
station, informs the cellular system of its identification, location, status, slot cycle, and other
pertinent information necessary for proper and efficient system operation.
For slotted mode operation the mobile provides the base station with the SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX
value so that the base station may determine which slots the mobile is monitoring.
Classmark values and protocol revision numbers allow the base station to know the capabilities of
the mobile station.
CDMA system has 10 different forms of registration.

Power-up registration: The mobile station registers when it powers or switches between
different band classes or PCS frequency blocks, alternative operating modes, or analog and
CDMA operation
Power-down registration: The mobile registers when it powers off if it has previously registered
in the currently serving system.
Timer-based registration: The mobile registers whenever various timers expire. This process
forces the mobile to register at regular intervals.
Distance-based registration: The mobile is forced to register whenever the distance between
the current serving base station and the base station where it last registered exceeds a certain
threshold. The mobile station calculates this distance by using the latitude and longitude values
for the base stations involved.
Zone-based registration: The mobile station registers when it enters a new zone. Registration
zones are groups of base stations within a particular system and network. Zone registration causes
the mobile to register whenever it enters a new zone that is not on its internally stored list of
visited registration zones.
These first five modes of registration are known as autonomous registration and are enabled by
roaming status. In each case, they are initiated by the occurrence of some event.
Parameter-change registration: The mobile station registers when specific parameters stored in
its memory change or when it enters a new system. This form of registration is independent of
roaming status.
Ordered registration: The mobile station registers when requested to by the base station through
the issue of an order message.
Implicit registration: Whenever the mobile station successfully sends an origination message or
a page response message, the base station is able to deduce the location of the mobile. These
circumstances are considered to constitute an implicit registration.
Traffic channel registration: Whenever a base station has registration information for a mobile
that has been assigned to a traffic channel, the base station may notify the mobile that it is
registered.
User zone registration: Whenever the mobile selects an active user zone, it registers.
Call Establishment.
 Similar to the GSM cellular system, CDMA System call setup requires various system
tasks including mobile initialization, idle, system access traffic channel communication,
and call termination.
 Additionally, CDMA systems use a sophisticated form of power Control for both the
mobile and the base station and a more complex form of handoff to provide subscriber
mobility that can be more transparent than that employed by GSM cellular systems.
Initialization State:
 As explained previously, when the mobile is first powered on, it enters the
mobile station initialization state.
 During this process the mobile searches for a pilot channel by aligning its short
PN code with a received short PN code.
 Once a valid pilot channel is acquired the mobile synchronizes with it.
 The mobile has fifteen seconds to locate and acquire a pilot signal.
 If the mobile cannot perform this operation, it may decide to search for an
AMPS control channel and enter an analog operational mode.
 When the mobile locates a CDMA pilot signal, it switches to Walsh code 32,
, and looks for the start of the sync channel message.
 The sync channel message contains information about system and the PN
codes needed to synchronize its PN codes.
 After decoding sync channel, the mobile aligns its timing to that of the serving
base station. Referring back to Figure 3-21, one can more easily visualize
sequence of the operations that occur during this initialization state.
Idle State
 Once the mobile has achieved initialization it moves into the ideal state.
 While in the idle state, the mobile is waiting to receive calls or data messages
or is ready to originate a call or some form of data transfer.
 To support subscriber connectivity and mobility, the mobile is constantly
monitoring radio channel quality, decoding paging channel message to obtain
system parameters, access parameters, and a list of neighboring cell sites to
monitor.
 After acquiring sufficient system information, batter the mobile may be
allowed to enter a sleep mode to conserve mobile battery power.
 This will be facilitated through the use of slotted mode operation by the mobile
when monitoring the paging channel as explained previously.
Access state:
 The CDMA mobile will enter the access state when it receives a mobile
directed message requiring an acknowledgment, originates a call, or 1s
required to perform registration.
 When in the access state, the mobile will randomly attempt to access the system.
 Access to the system is obtained when the mobile station receives a response from the
base station on the paging channel. Since multiple mobiles may be associated with a
particular paging channel, they may simultaneously attempt to use the same access
channel.
 The resulting signal collisions at the base station will most likely result in few if any of
the requesting mobiles being granted access to the system.
 Therefore, to alleviate this problem, some form of collision avoidance scheme is
necessary to increase the probability of a successful system access by a mobile.
 For the CDMA system, this access protocol is implemented through the use of access
class groups with assigned priorities, a gradual increase in access request power level,
random time delays for access requests, and a maximum number of automatic access
attempts.
 Figure 3-26 depicts what is known as access channel probing.
 The transmission of a series of access probe sequences is known as an access attempt.
 Each access probe consists of an access channel preamble (one to sixteen frames
consisting of 0’s) and an access channel message capsule of three to ten frames.
 This yields an access probe with duration of four to twenty-six 20-ms frames. Two types
of access messages may be trans. mitted by the mobile on the access channel: either a
response message or a request message. Within an access probe sequence, the access
channel message is the same for each access probe.
 Referring to Figure 3-26 again, one can see that the access channel probing process
consists or the mobile station sending a series of sequences of access probes of increasing
power levels.
Traffic State
 The mobile enters the traffic state when it begins to transfer user information between the
mobile and the base station (refer back to Figure 3-25). As was the case for GSM
cellular, this information can be voice or data that originates from the PSTN or PDN or
another mobile in the same o another network.
 While in the traffic state, the mobile transmits voice and signalling information on the
reverse traffic channel (RTC) and receive voice and signalling information on the
forward traffic channel (FTC).
 Signalling over the traffic channel can be performed by either a blank and burst or dim-
and-burst process.
 The blank-and-burst signalling method replaces 1.25 ms of speech data with signalling
message bursts. The dim and-burst method inserts signalling messages when speech
activity is low.
 The 8-kbps QCELP vocoder combines lower-rate voice data and signalling data into a
higher-rate frame (only done at the 9600-bps rate) whereas 13-kbps vocoder can use any
frame for both voice and signalling.

 Various mode and flag bits are used to alert the receiver to the signalling method (dim or
blank) and structure of the mixed voice and signalling frames. Depending upon the
message, the number of frames needed send the signalling information will vary.
 Although the dim-and-burst method will not affect speech quality, it requires more time
to transmit the signalling.
Fig.3.26 CDMA access Channel probing in Access state
Mobile originated call in CDMA

 To originate a call, the mobile sends a system access message on the access channel and then
monitors the paging channel for a response from the system.
 If the access is successful, a forward traffic channel is assigned that corresponds to a particular
Walsh code and a base station receiver is assigned for the reverse traffic channel long PN code.
 Additionally, the base station sends a paging channel message to the mobile with the Walsh code
information and a reverse traffic channel assignment.
 The mobile configures itself and begins decoding null traffic that the base station has started to
transmit over the forward traffic channel.
 The mobile starts to transmit a preamble over the reverse traffic channel.
 The base station uses the forward traffic channel to acknowledge the preamble and the mobile
responds by starting to send traffic. Figure 3-27 shows these steps in timeline chart form.
 During the call, there are constant power control operations taking place and, if the mobile is
moving about, handoffs may occur between different base stations.
Fig : 3.27 mobile originate call in CDMA

Mobile-Terminated Call
 For a mobile-terminated call, the base station sends a message to the mobile on the paging
channel.
 If attached to the system, the mobile sends an acknowledgement response on the access channel.
 The base station receives the acknowledgement, configures a forward traffic channel, and
assigns a receiver to the mobile's reverse traffic channel.
 The base station begins to send null traffic on the FTC and sends a PgC message containing
Walsh code and RTC information. The mobile configures itself and begins decoding the null
traffic transmitting a preamble on the RTC. The base station acknowledges the preamble sent on
the RTC. The mobile receives the acknowledgement and begins transmitting null traffic on the
RTC.
 The base station sends an alert message for a ring tone and the display of calling number
information.
 The mobile acknowledges the message by ringing the handset and displaying the calling
number information.
 When the subscriber answers the incoming call a connection message is sent on the RTC.
 The base station acknowledges the connection message and begins to send traffic. See Figure 3-
28.
Fig. 3.28: CDMA Mobile terminated call
Call Termination
 Call termination occurs at the end of a call and can be initiated by either the mobile or the
base station.
 If the mobile initiates the call termination, it sends a call termination message to the base
station, stops transmitting on the RTC, and returns to the mobile station initialization state.
 If the network initiates the call termination (the calling party hangs up), the base station
sends a call termination message to the mobile.
 The mobile stops transmitting on the RTC and returns to the initialization state
Call Handoff
 The specifications for IS-95 CDMA delineate three mobile station states during which a
handoff can occur.
 Referring back to Figure 3-23, these states are the idle state, access state, and traffic state.
 The procedures used and the type of handoff performed will depend upon the mobile's
present state.
 In all cases, the handoffs are mobile assisted since the mobile station is tasked with
reporting signal-strength measurements of various pilot channels to the network.
 As is typical with any wireless mobile system, handoff occurs when the serving
sector/cell is no longer capable of supporting communications between the mobile and
itself. CDMA is unique in that it supports soft/softer handoffs.
 There are several advantages to this type of handoff including improved system
performance for the support of voice traffic calls and the support of high-speed data
transfers.
Idle/Access Handoff
 If the mobile is in the idle state and moves from the coverage area of one sector/cell into
another sector/cell, an idle handoff can occur.
 When the received signal strength of a different pilot channel (PC) is determined to be
twice as strong (3 dB greater) than the current PC, the mobile will start listening to the
paging channel (PgC) associated with the stronger PC.
 This type of handoff is considered a form of hard handoff since there is a brief
interruption of the communication link.
 But it is certainly different from and less disrupting than a hard handoff that might occur
when the mobile is in the traffic mode. While the mobile is in the access state, it can also
perform a handoff.
 The access handoff may occur before the mobile begins sending access probes, during
access probes, and even after it receives an access probe acknowledgement.
 An access entry handoff allows the mobile to perform a hard idle handoff from one PgC
to another in the best signal-strength sector/cell just after the mobile enters the access
state.
 After the mobile has started to send access probes, it can perform an access probe
handoff if it detects a stronger pilot signal that may provide it a better chance of receiving
service.
 Even after the mobile has received an access probe acknowledgement, a handoff to a
stronger pilot may be possible and necessary to prevent an access failure due to the rapid
motion of the mobile away from the current pilot and its base station
Fig. 3.29 Soft handoff are of three types

Figure 3-29 depicts the three types of soft handoffs defined in the IS-95 CDMA standard.
• Softer, handoff is between two sectors of the same cell.

• soft occurs between two different cells
• soft-softer handoff when the motion of the mobile gives it a handoff choice
between two sectors of the same cell and a sector from an adjacent cell
• In all CDMA handoff procedures a number of base stations and their pilot channels are
involved. The procedures for soft and softer handooffs control the manner in which a call
is maintained as a mobile crosses boundaries between cells or enters a new sector of the
same cell.
• In a soft handoff, more than one cell simultaneously supports the mobile's call. In a softer
handoff, more than one sector of a cell simultaneously support the mobile's call.
• The CDMA mobile station will continuously scan for pilots and establish communication
with any sector or cell (up to a maximum of three) that has a pilot RSS that exceeds a
certain threshold value TADD).
• In a similar fashion, the mobile will drop communications with a sector or cell that has a
pilot RSS less than a certain threshold (T_DROP).
• Recall that each pilot has a different time offset for the same short PN sequence code. This
fact is used to differentiate cells and sectors within the system.
• The mobile's identification of different pilot signals depends upon this property.
• Since the offsets are integral multiples of a known time delay, the mobile's search for the
pilots is made easier.
• The mobile will categorize pilots that it receives as well as other pilots that the serving
sector/cell specifies to it into the following groups: an active set that consists of the pilots
that are currently supporting the mobile's call, a candidate set that consists of pilots that
based upon their RSS could support the mobile's call, a neighbour set that consists of
pilots not in the active or candidate set but that are geographically nearby, and a remaining
set of pilots that consists of the rest of the pilots within the system.
• The mobile's continuous assessment of pilot RSS and a set of adjustable threshold values
will determine the movement of pilot signals within these sets.
• These measurements, in conjunction with information received from the serving

sector/cell and mobile station timers, give rise to dynamically changing sets if the mobile
moves about the system. Figure 3-31 depicts a simplified flowchart of this process
Fig. 3.30 : Flowchart of the generation of the active and candidate pilot set for CDMA
handoff operations
Hard handoffs
Hard Handoff A CDMA mobile in the traffic state can also experience a hard handoff.
This will occur for the case of an intercarrier handoff.
Intercarrier handoff causes the radio link to be abruptly interrupted for a short period while the base
and mobile station switch from one carrier frequency to another.
There are two basic types of intercarrier handoff: a hand-down is a hard handover between two
different carriers within the same cell, and a handover is a hard handoff between two different carriers
in two different cells. The circumstances necessary to cause a hard handoff can be due to the
particular coverage area implementation of a service provider or the less frequent case of the existence
of two service providers in adjacent areas.
• In the first case, known as a pocketed implementation, a Service provider might use a
second CDMA carrier in individual or non-contiguous cells to provide additional capacity
during system growth or for local high-traffic hot spots.
• Figure 3-31 depicts a possible scenario of situation. A mobile that is using the second
carrier and exitin8 the pocket local second-carrier cells must be handed off to the common
carrier to continue the call.
• The best way to perform this handoff is to first hand down the call to the common carrier
before the mobile leaves the pocketed area.
• Then a soft handoff can be performed as the mobile moves across the border from the
pocketed area into the surrounding service area.
• Typically, this process of hand-down occurs, if possible, at must border cells (sectors) of
the pocketed area. In general, border cells (sectors) must be identified and configured to
operate in a slightly different fashion than non-border cells (sectors).
• In Figure 3-31 this can be more readily accomplished for the pocket in the middle of the
system but is not as easily achieved for the pockets in the lower left and right corners of
the diagram.
• Usually, careful examination of cell geometry and local traffic routes can aid in the
selection of a border cell (sector). When a mobile enters a border sector, it is instructed by
the base station to issue frequent pilot-strength measurement messages.
• This process allows the sector to more closely monitor the mobile's status instead of
waiting for reports triggered by other pilot events.
• If the pilot report indicates that the sector's pilot has dropped below a certain threshold
level, the base station directs the mobile to hand down to the first carrier
Fig.3.31 Hard CDMA handoffs due to inter carrier handoff
Fig.3.32 Hard CDMA handoffs due to disjoined regions
PART 3: 3G CDMA
3.5.IS-95-B, cdma2000, and W-CDMA

A high market demand and continuing advances in the field of micro electronics technology
have motivated the cellular industry to develop numerous wireless standards over the past
few years that have led to new services offerings particularly in the mobile data arena.
Also, due to the global nature of the market, cellular standards have been the focus of several
international committees such as the 3GPP and 3GPP2 collaborations.
As pointed out earlier, in the effort to establish next-generation (3G) cellular standards a
number of proposals have been submitted to ITU-R for evaluation and adoption. The desired
harmonization of proposals for W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, TD-SCDMA, and EDGE (a follow-
on to GSM) systems are being dealt with by the 3GPP group (UMTS standard) while
cdma2000 is under the purview of the 3GPP2 group.
In all cases, the ultimate evolution to true 3G capabilities involves the use of CDMA
technology for the air interface portion of the system.
IS-95B
Is 95A CDMA technology that was designed mainly for boys communication.
An evolutionary improvement to IS 95A, IS-95B was adopted in October 1998 and
additional mobile data functionality to the earlier standard.
IS- 95 B features that use of combinative channels. That is, a primary channels be combined
with up to seven supplementary data channels.
Theoretically IS-95B should be able to support packet data services with up to a maximum
transfer throughput of 106.8 kbps
IS-95B forward and reverse channels
 The most dramatic changes to IA-95A are found in the channel structure.
 To implement an increased packet data rate, IS-95B employs what are known as
supplementary code channels (SCCHs) in both forward and reverse direction.
 Also the former forward and reverse traffic channels are known as fundamental
channels (FCHs).
 These channels are still used primarily for voice traffic.
 In IS 95B, the system may assign from 1 to 7 ideal CDMA channel to a user as
supplementary code channels (SCCHs) and therefore provide the extra bandwidth
capacity needed to increase the packet data transfer rate for a subscriber.
 As a consequence of the use of supplementary code channels IS-95B, the function of
the radio resource management is naturally more Complex and sophisticated
Cdma2000
Cdma2000 is the term used for 3G CDMA system.
Cdma2000 is the wideband enhanced version of CDMA
It was compatible with TIA/EIA-95-B.
It provides the support for data services up to 2mbps, multi media services, and
advanced radio technologies.
 First phase of CDMA is known as 1xRTT (radio transmission technology) happening
over a channel of 1.25MHz CDMA channel.
 Next implementation phases is called as 1xEV (evolutionary).
 It has two types 1xEV DO (data only-downlink direction data rate 2.4mbps & uplink
direction data rate 153 kbps) and 1xEV DV (data and voice-3mbps all over the
network)
CDMA 200 difference:
Cdma2000 Forward and reverse channel structures:
For Cdma2000 various additional forward and reverse logical channels have been defined.
In the forward direction, one can classify the logical channels into three categories namely
overhead control and traffic channel.
In the overhead group there are four pilot channels (forward common pilot channel
forward common transmit diversity pilot channel, and an auxiliary pilot channel and auxiliary
transmit diversity pilot channel) that are used for enhanced system timing, phase, radio link
characteristic estimation, diversity reception, and power reference purposes by the mobile
station
Additionally, there is a sync channel used to provide system synchronising information,
paging channels to provide IS-95B compatibility, and quick paging channel designed to
provide slotted mode operation and save mobile station battery power. Figure 3-34 displays
the forward channel structure for cdma2000. Note the references to spreading rate and radio
configurations within the appropriate blocks.
The forward control channel group consists of common assignment channels, common power
control channels, and common control channels, broadcast control channels, and packet data
control channels. The common assignment channel is used by the CDMA base station to
acknowledge a mobile station accessing the reverse enhanced access channel and to supply
information to the mobile.
As shown in Figure 3-33, the forward traffic group supports the forward fundamental channel
(F-FCH) and up to seven supplemental code channels (SCCHs) for IS-95B compatibility.
Additionally, two supplemental channels (SCHs) specifically designed for high-speed data
services (RC3 through RC9) and two high-speed packet data channels for RC10 use have
been added, along with a dedicated control channel (DCCH) that is used for signaling
message support.
The reverse link channel structure is shown by Figure 3-34 for SR1 and SR3. Figure 3-34
depicts two kinds of information. First, various the operational modes of the mobile are
arranged into columns and then the types of reverse channels that can be transmitted by the
mobile station within each operational group are shown.
Fig. 3.33: Forward Channel Structure of CDMA 2000 (Courtesy of 3GPP2)
W-CDMA and UMTS

• GSM wireless cellular systems have more such scribers worldwide than any other
type of cellular technology.
• In its evolution toward 3G functionality, GSM technology has adopted general
packet radio service (GPRS) to provide enhanced packet data transfer rates with a
maximum potential rate of 171.2 kbps.
• In- the next phase of its evolution, GSM makes use of advanced modulation
techniques to achieve even higher packet data rates.
• This next system upgrade is known as enhanced data rates for global evolution or
EDGE. Using the same GSM radio resources, EDGE, in theory, can provide a data
rate of 473.6 kbps when all eight GSM timeslots are combined and used by a
single subscriber; however, the data throughput rate is actually less.
• EDGE therefore enables a number of 3G data services but really requires
numerous GSM carriers to satisfy the 3G functionality requirements.
• A new AMR vocoder has further increased GSM system capacity, but the same
basic GSM radio interface using TDMA technology remains.
• In an effort to migrate GSM/TDMA standards to 3G, the third Generation

Partnership Program (3GPP) group has recently defined Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) that relies on some form of CDMA
technology to implement the air interface.
• The form of CDMA used is heavily dependent upon the cellular service provider's
spectrum holdings or potential holdings.
• The UMTS standard provides different-flavour an both cases. CDMA SO GSM

and UMIS core network elements allowed by this interconnection will facilitate
network development, provisioning of network components, and introduction of
UMTS-based services.
• It is felt that multimode mobile stations for both GSM and UMTS will provide a
smooth migration path from GSM to UMTS and 3G services. The UTRAN system
allows for several radio interface models: frequency division duplexing (FDD) or
wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) for operation in paired frequency bands, or time
division duplexing (TDD) for operation in unpaired bands.
• At higher layers of the radio network protocols both FDD and TDD are
harmonized and the various nodes (either HDD or TDD) are hidden from the core
network.
• The details of FDD or TDD operation are only important to the UTRAN and the
end terminals (mobile stations). Therefore, where an operator has paired fre
quency bands, the operator will implement W-CDMA using higher chip rates than
cdma2000 (3.84 mcps) over 5-MHz widebands.
• If a license holder has unpaired spectrum (typical of European and Asian
countries), then time division duplex is the optimized solution for this case.
• With TDD, uplink and downlink traffic can be transmitted on the same carrier
frequency but during different timeslots. One version of this radio inter face is time
division CDMA Or TD-CDMA.
• The standard calls for a single carrier with a chip rate of 3.84 mcps in a 5-MHz
bandwidth.
• Another version of TDD is time division synchronous CDMA or TD-SCDMA.

This technology combines both TDMA and CDMA principles with other capacity-
enhancing techniques. The radio signal is spread by a chip rate of 1.28 mcps and is
contained in a 1.6-MHz bandwidth.
• This gives rise to the possible use of three TD-SCDMA carriers in the same 5-
MHz bandwidth as used by TD-CDMA.
• See Figure 3-35 for a comparison TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA spectrum usage.
Unfortunately, the details of the W-CDMA (similar to cdma2000), TD-CDMA,
and TD-SCDMA radio.
Fig. 3.34: Reverse Channel Structure of CDMA 2000 (Courtesy of 3GPP2)
Fig. 3.35. TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA spectrum usage
Wireless and Cellular Communication 18EC81
Wireless and CELLULAR COMMUNICATION (18EC81)

Module-4
LTE – 4G
Key Enablers for LTE 4G – OFDM, SC-FDE and SC-FDMA, Channel Dependant Multiuser
Resource Scheduling, Multi-Antenna Techniques, Flat IP Architecture, LTE Network Architecture
(Text 1, Sec 1.4)
Multi-Carrier Modulation – Multicarrier concepts, OFDM Basics, OFDM in LTE, Timing and
Frequency Synchronization, Peak to Average Ratio, SC-Frequency Domain Equalization,
Computational Complexity Advantage of OFDM and SC-FDE.
(Text 1, Sec 3.1 – 3.7) L1, L2, L3
LTE – 4G
Key Enabling Technologies and Features of LTE
 To meet its service and performance requirements, LTE design incorporates important
enabling radio and core network technologies.
 Here, we provide a brief introduction to some of the key enabling technologies used in the
LTE design.
Exam Question: List the advantages of OFDM leading to its selection for
LTE and explain. (8M) Dec.2019/Jan.2020
4.1 OFDM-Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
 One of the key differences between existing 3G systems and LTE is the use of Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) as the underlying modulation technology.
 3G systems such as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems) and CDMA2000
(Code Division Multiple Access 2000) are based on Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
technology.
 CDMA works by spreading a narrow band signal over a wider bandwidth to achieve
interference resistance, and performs remarkably well for low data LTE communications such
as voice, where a large filmier of users can be multiplexed to achieve high system capacity.
 OFDM has emerged as a technology of choice for achieving high data rates.
 It is the core technology used by a variety of systems including Wi-Fi and Wi-MAX. The
following advantages of OFDM led to its selection for LTE:
a) Elegant solution to multipath interference
b) Exploitation of frequency diversity
c) Enables efficient multi-access scheme:
d) Efficient support of broadcast services:
e) Reduced computational complexity:
f) Robust Against narrowband interference:
g) Graceful degradation of performance under excess delay
h) Suitable for coherent demodulation:
Dr. Asha K & Prof. Prabha K, ECE Dept., SVIT Page 1

i) Facilitates use of MIMO

Elegant solution to multipath interference:
 The critical challenge to high bit-rate transmissions in a wireless channel is inter symbol
interference caused by multipath.
 In a multipath environment, when the time delay between the various signal paths is a
significant fraction of the transmitted signal's symbol period, a transmitted symbol may
arrive at the receiver during the next symbol and cause inter symbol interference (ISI).
 At high data rates, the symbol time is shorter; hence, it only takes a small delay to cause ISI,
making it a bigger challenge for broad band wireless.
 OFDM is a multicarrier modulation technique that overcomes this challenge in an elegant
manner.
 The basic idea behind multicarrier modulation is to divide a given high-bit-rate data
stream into several parallel lower bit-rate streams and modulate each stream on
separate carriers called subcarriers, or tones.
 Splitting the data stream into mainly parallel streams increases the symbol duration of each
stream such that the multipath delay spread is only a small fractional of the symbol duration.
 OFDM is a spectrally efficient version of multicarrier modulation, where the subcarriers are
selected such that they are all orthogonal to one another over the symbol duration, thereby
avoiding the need to have non overlapping sub carrier channels to eliminate inter-carrier
interference.
 In OFDM, any residual inter symbol interference also be eliminated by using guard
intervals between OFDM symbols that are larger than the expected multipath delay:
 By making the guard interval larger than the expected multipath delay spread, ISI can be
completely eliminated.
 Adding a guard interval, however, implies power wastage and a decrease in bandwidth
efficiency.
Exploitation of frequency diversity:
 OFDM facilitates coding and interleaving across subcarriers in the frequency domain, which
can provide robustness against burst errors caused by portions of the transmitted spectrum
undergoing deep fades.
 OFDM also allows for the channel bandwidth to be scalable without impacting the hardware
design of the base station and the mobile station.
 This allows LTE to be deployed in a variety of spectrum allocations and different channel
bandwidths.
Enables efficient multi-access scheme:
 OFDM can be used as a multi-access scheme by partitioning different subcarriers among
multiple users. This scheme is referred to as OFDMA and is exploited in LTE.
 OFDMA offers the ability to provide fine granularity in channel allocation, which can be
exploited to achieve significant capacity improvements, particularly in slow time-varying
channels
Efficient support of broadcast services:

 By synchronizing base stations to timing errors well within the OFDM guard interval, it
is possible to operate an OFDM network a s a single frequency network (SFN).
 This allows broadcast signals from different cells to combine over the air to significantly
enhance the received signal power, thereby enabling higher data rate broadcast transmissions
for a given transmit power.
 LTE design leverages this OFDM capability to improve efficient broadcast services
Robust Against narrowband interference:
 OFDM is relatively robust against narrowband interference, since such interference affects
only a fraction of the subcarriers.
Reduced computational complexity:
 OFDM can be easily implemented using Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT/IFFT), and the
computational requirements grow only slightly faster than linearly with data rate or
bandwidth.
 The computational complexity of OFDM can be shown to be O ( Blog B ) where B is the
bandwidth and is the delay spread.
Graceful degradation of performance under excess delay:
 The performance of an OFDM system degrades gracefully as the delay spread exceeds the
value designed for.
 Greater coding and low constellation sizes can be used to provide fallback rates that are
significantly more robust against delay spread.
 In other words, OFDM is well suited for adaptive modulation and coding, which allows the
system to make the best of the available channel conditions.
 This contrasts with the abrupt degradation owing to error propagation that single-carrier
system experience as the delay spread exceeds the value for which the equalizer is designed.
Suitable for coherent demodulation:
 It is relatively easy to do pilot-based channel estimation in OFDM systems, which renders

then suitable for coherent demodulation schemes that are more power efficient.
Facilitates use of MIMO:
 MIMO stands for multiple input multiple output and refers to a collection of signal
processing techniques that use multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
improve system performance.
 For MIMO techniques to be effective, it is required that the channel conditions are such that
the multipath delays do not cause inter symbol interference in other words, the channel has to
be a flat finding channel and not a frequency selective one.

 At very high data rates, this is not the case and therefore MIMO techniques do not work well
in traditional broadband channels. OFDM, however, converts frequency selective board
band channel into several narrowband flat fading channels where the MIMO models and
techniques work well.
 MIMO and OFDM are effectively used in Wi-Fi and WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability
for Microwave Access) systems.
4.2. SC-FDE, and SC-FDMA,

To keep the cost down and the battery life up, LTE incorporated a power efficient Transmission
scheme for the uplink. Single Carrier Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE) is conceptually
similar to OFDM but instead of transmitting the Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) of the
actual data symbols, the data symbols are sent as a sequence of QAM (Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation) symbols with a cyclic prefix added; the IFFT is added at the end of the receiver.
SC-FDE retains all the advantages of OFDM such as multipath resistance and low complexity,
while having a low peak-to-average ratio of 4-5 dB.
The uplink of LTE implements a multi-user version of SC-FDE, called SC-FDMA, which allows
multiple users to use parts of the frequency spectrum.
SC-FDMA closely resembles OFDMA and can in fact be thought of as “DFT pre-coded OFDMA”.
SC-FDMA also preserves the PAR (Peak to Average Power Ratio-PAPR) properties of SC-FDE
but increases the complexity of the transmitter and the receiver.
4.3. Channel Dependent Multi-user Resource Scheduling,

The OFDMA scheme used in LTE provides enormous flexibility in how channel resources are
allocated. Multi-user scheduling in cellular network is shown in figure 4.1.
Fig4.1. Multi-user scheduling in cellular network
OFDMA allows for allocation in both time and frequency and it is possible to design algorithms to
allocate resources in flexible and dynamic manner to meet arbitrary throughput, delay.
The standard supports dynamic, channel-dependent scheduling to enhance overall system capacity.
Given that each user will be experiencing uncorrelated fading channels, it is possible to allocate

subcarriers among users in such a way that the overall is capacity is increased. This technique, called
frequency selective multiuser scheduling, calls for focusing transmission power in each user's best
channel portion, thereby increasing the overall capacity.
Frequency selective scheduling requires good channel tracking and is generally only viable in slow
varying channels.
For fast varying channels, the overhead involved in doing this negates the potential capacity gains.
In OFDMA, frequency selective scheduling can be combined with multi-user time domain
scheduling, which calls for scheduling users during the crests of their individual fading channels.
Capacity gains are also obtained by adapting the modulation and coding to the instantaneous signal-
to-noise ratio conditions for each user subcarrier.
For high-mobility users, OFDMA can be used to achieve frequency diversity.

By coding and interleaving across subcarriers in the frequency domain using a uniform random
distribution of subcarriers over the whole spectrum, the signal can be made more robust against
frequency selective fading or burst errors.
Exam Question: Explain multi antenna techniques. (4M) June/July 2019
4.4. Multi-Antenna Techniques,

The LTE standard provides extensive support for implementing advanced multi-antenna solutions to
improve link robustness, system capacity, and spectral efficiency. Depending of the deployment
scenario, one or more of the techniques can be used. Multi antenna techniques supported in LTE
include:
 Transmit diversity
 Beam forming
 Spatial multiplexing
 Multi-user MIMO
Transmit diversity:
(Note: Diversity is a powerful communication technique that provides wireless link improvements at
relatively low cost. Time Diversity: using time slots separated in time and time more than the
channel coherence time)
This is a technique to combat multipath fading (Multipath fading occurs when signals reach a
receiver via many paths and relative strength and phases change) in the wireless channel.
The idea here is to send copies of the same signal, coded differently, over multiple transmit
antennas.
LTE transmit diversity is based on space-frequency block coding (SFBC) techniques
complemented with frequency shift time diversity (FSTD) when four transmit antenna are used.
Transmit diversity is primarily intended for common downlink channels that cannot make use of
channel-dependent scheduling.
It can also be applied to user transmissions such as low data rate VoIP, where the additional
overhead of channel-dependent scheduling may not be justified.
Transmit diversity increases system capacity and cell range.
Transmit diversity, receive diversity and multiplexing concept is explained in Figure 4.2. SISO stands
for Single Input and Single Output.

SIMO-Single Input and Multiple Output
MISO-Multiple input and Singe Output
MIMO-Multiple Input and Multiple Output
Fig 4.2 Transmit diversity
Beamforming:
Multiple antennas in LTE may also be used to transmit the same signal appropriately weighted for
each antenna element such that the effect is to focus the transmitted beam in the direction of the
receiver and away from interference, thereby improving the received signal-to-interference ratio.
Beamforming can provide significant improvements in coverage range, capacity, reliability, and
battery life. It can also be useful in providing angular information for user tracking. LTE supports
beamforming in the downlink. Fig.4.3. shows the beamforming array Beamforming.

Fig.4.3 Beamforming
Spatial multiplexing:
The idea behind spatial multiplexing is that multiple in dependent streams can be transmitted in
parallel over multiple antennas and can be separated at the receiver using multiple receive chains
through appropriate signal processing.
This can be done as long as the multipath channels as seen by the different antennas are sufficiently
decorrelated as would be the case in a scattering rich environment.
Spatial multiplexing provides data rate and capacity gains proportional to the number of antennas
used.
LTE supports spatial multiplexing with four transmitting and four receiving antennas. Figure 4.4
shows the spatial multiplexing concept.
Fig.4.4 Spatial Multiplexing

Multi-user MIMO:
Since spatial multiplexing requires multiple transmit chains, it is currently not supported in the
uplink due to complexity and cost considerations.
Multi-user Multiple input and Multiple Output (MU-MIMO) allows multiple users in the uplink,
each with a single antenna, to transmit using same frequency and time resource.
The signals from MU-MIMO users are separated at the base station receiver using accurate channel
state information of each user obtained through uplink reference signals that are orthogonal between
users. Multi-user with multiple input and multiple output is shown in figure 4.5.

Fig.4.5. Multi-user MIMO
Exam Question: Discuss with block diagram of LTE Network architecture (MQP)
4.5. Flat IP Architecture or IP-Based Flat Network Architecture

Besides the air-interface, the other radical aspect of LTE is the flat radio and core network
architecture.
"Flat" here implies fewer nodes and less hierarchical structure for the network. The lower cost and
lower latency requirements drove the design toward a flat architecture since fewer nodes obviously
implies a lower infrastructure cost.
It also means fewer interfaces and protocol-related processing, and reduced interoperability testing,
which lowers the development and deployment cost.
Fewer nodes also allow better optimization of radio interface, merging of some control plane
protocols, and short start-up time.
Figure 4 . 6 . shows how the 3GPP network architecture evolved over a few releases. 3GPP
Release 6 architecture, which is conceptually very similar to its predecessor, has four
network elements in the data path: the base station or Node-B, radio network controller (RNC),
serving GPRS service node (SGSN), and gateway GRPS service node (GGSN).

Fig.4.6. 3GPP evolution toward a flat LTE SAE architecture
Release 7 introduced a direct tunnel option from the RNC to GGSN, which eliminated SGSN from
the data path.
LTE on the other hand, will have only two network elements in the data path: the enhanced Node-
B or e Node-B, and a System Architecture Evolution Gateway (SAE-GW).
Unlike all previous cellular systems, LTE merges the base station and radio network controller
functionality into a single unit.
The control path includes a functional entity called the Mobility Management Entity (MME), which
provides control plane functions related to subscriber, mobility, and session management.
The MME and SAE-GW could be collocated ina single entity called the access gateway (a-GW).
Exam Question: Write the block diagram of end to end architecture of EPC supporting
current and legacy Radio access networks and discuss the elements of EPC. Dec.2019/Jan.2020
4.6. LTE Network Architecture.

The core network design presented in 3GPP Release 8 to support LTE is called the Evolved Packet

Core (EPC).
EPC is designed to provide a high capacity, all IP, reduced latency, flat architecture that dramatically
reduces cost and supports advanced real-time and media-rich services with quality of experience.
It is designed not only to support new radio access networks such as LTE, but also provide
interworking with legacy 2G GERAN (GSM (Global system for Mobile communication) EDGE
(Enhanced data for Global Evolution) Radio Access Network) and 3G UTRAN (Universal
Mobile Telephone service (UMTS) Terrestrial Radio Access Network) networks connected via
SGSN.
Functions provided by the EPC include access control, packet routing and transfer, mobility
management, security, resource in management, and network management.
Fig. 4.7 shows the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) architecture and the EPC includes four new
elements
(1) Serving Gateway (SGW), which terminates the interface toward the 3GPP (3rd generation
Partnership Project) radio access networks
(2) Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW), which controls IP data services, does routing, allocates
IP addresses, enforces policy, and provides access for non-3GPP access networks:
(3) Mobility Management Entity (MME), which supports user equipment context and identity as
well as authenticates and authorizes users; and
(4) Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF). This manages QoS aspects. It is a concatenation
of Policy Decision Function (PDF) and Charging Rules Function (CRF).
Serving Gateway (SGW):

 The SGW acts as a demarcation point between the RAN and core network, and manages
user plane mobility.
 It serves as the mobility anchor when terminals move across areas served by different eNode-
B elements in E-UTRAN, as well as across other 3 GPP radio networks such as GERAN
and UTRAN.
 SGW does downlink packet buffering and initiation of network-triggered service request
procedures.
 Other functions include lawful interception, packet routing and forwarding, transport
level packet marking in the uplink and the downlink, accounting support for per user, and
inter-operator charging.
Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW):

 The PGW acts as the termination point of the EPC toward other Packet Data Networks
(PDN) such as the Internet, private IP network, or the IMS network providing end-user
services.
 It serves as an anchor point for sessions toward external PDN and provides functions such as
user IP address allocation, policy enforcement, packet filtering, and charging support.
 Policy enforcement includes operator-defined rules for resource allocation to control

data rate, QoS, and usage.

 Packet filtering functions includesdeep packet inspection for application detection.
Mobility Management Entity (MME):

 The MME performs the signaling and control functions to manage the user terminal access to
the network connections, assignment of network resources, and mobility management
function such is idle mode location tracking. paging, roaming, and handovers.
 MME controls all control plane functions related to subscriber and session management.
 MME manages thousands of eNode-B elements; it’s the key difference from 2G or 3G
platforms using RNC and SGSN platform.
 MME provides security functions such as providing temporary identities for user terminal,
interacting with Home Subscriber Server for authentication, and negotiation of ciphering and
integrity protection algorithms.
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF):

 The Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is a concatenation of Policy Decision
Function (PDF) and Charging Rules Function (CRF).
 PCRF interfaces with the PDN gateway and supports service data flow detection, policy
enforcement, and flow-based charging.
 The PCRF was actually defined in Release 7 of 3GPP ahead of LTE.
 Although not much deployed with pre-LTE systems, it is mandatory for LTE.
 Release 8 further enhanced PCRF functionality to include support for -3GPP access (e.g Wi-
Fi or fixed line access) to the network.

Fig. 4.7 Evolved Packet Core (EPC) architecture
****************************************************
Multicarrier Modulation
Multicarrier Modulation includes many modern wireless data systems, including Digital Subscriber
Lines (DSL), Wireless LAN’s (802.11a/g/n), digital Video broadcasting, and also 3G cellular
technologies such as WiMAX and LTE.
Multicarrier uses multiple parallel subscribers, invariably generated by the IDFT.
Common Multicarrier Modulation method is Orthogonal Frequency division Multiplexing (OFDM).

and Discrete Multitone (DMT) in DSL and Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-
FDMA) in the LTE uplink.
The Main goals of the chapter are
1. Demonstrate the elegance of multicarrier modulation and its working.
2. Understanding the OFDM system design, covering key concept such as cyclic prefix,
frequency equalization and synchronization.
3. Implementation issues for OFDM system such as Peak-to average ratio.
4. Overview of SC-FDE, and how it avoids the Peak-to-average ratio problem by utilizing the

cyclic prefix and FFT.

4.7. Multicarrier concepts,
The main idea of multicarrier modulation are obtaining high data rates and getting intersymbol
interference (ISI) free channels.
In order to have a channel that does not have ISI, the symbol time has to be larger than the channel
delay spread .
Digital communication system cannot function if ISI is present---an error floor quickly develops and
approaches or falls below , the bit error rate becomes intolerable.
As we have noted previously, for wideband channels that provide the high data rates needed by today's
application, the desired symbol time is smaller than the delay spread, so inter symbol interference is
severe.
In order to overcome this, multicarrier modulation divides the high data rate transmit bit stream to
L lower rate substreams, where L is chosen so that each of the subcarriers has effective symbol time
, and hence effectively ISI free.
These individual substreams can then be sent over L parallel subcarriers maintaining the total desired
data rate.
The subcarriers are orthogonal under ideal propagation conditions in which case multicarrier modulation
is often referred to as orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM).
The data rate on each of the subcarrier is much less than the total data rate, and so the corresponding
subcarrier bandwidth is much less than the total system bandwidth.
The number of substreams is chosen to ensure that each subcarrier has a bandwidth less than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel, so the subscribers experience relatively flat fading. Thus, the ISI
on each subscriber is small.
In the digital implementation of OFDM, the ISI can be completely eliminated through the use of cyclic
prefix.
Example 1:
A certain wideband wireless channel has a delay spead of 1 microseconds. In order to overcome
ISI, assume a requirement that .
1. What is the maximum bandwidth allowable in this system if the ISI constraint is to be
met without using multicarrier modulation?
2. If multicarrier modulation is used, and we desire a 10MHz bandwidth, what is the
required number of subcarriers?
Solution:
1). If it assumed that in order to satisfy the ISI free condition, the maximum
bandwidth would be 1/ =1/ =100KHz,
2). If multicarrier modulation is employed, the symbol time goes to T=L ,

Dely spread criterion mandates that the new symbol time is still bounded to 10% of the delay

spread, that is =100KHz.

But for 10MHz bandwidth requirement gives =10MHz.
Hence L 100, so a suitable choice of L might be 128 (Power of 2 FFT is efficient for such
numbers) subcarriers to allow the full 10MHz bandwidth to be used with negligible ISI.
4.7.1. An Elegant Approach to Intersymbol Interference

Multicarrier modulation in its simplest form divides the wideband incoming data streams into L
narrowband substreams, each of which is then transmitted over different orthogonal frequency
subcarriers. Because of the L substreams in multicarrier modulation the ISI is not significant.
A multicarrier transmitter and receiver are shown in figure 4.8a. and 4.8b respectively. Here, a high
rate data signal of rate R bps and with a passband bandwidth B is broken into L parallel substreams
each with rate R/L and passband bandwidth B/L. After passing through a channel H(f), the received
signal is shown in figure 4.9.
Fig. 4.8a. A multicarrier transmitter

Fig. 4. 8b A multicarrier receiver
Fig. 4.9. The Transmitted multicarrier signal
The transmitted multicarrier signal experiences approximately flat fading on each subcarrier since
B/L<<BC,(frequency domain Bandwidth) even though the overall channel experiences frequency
selective fading, that is B> BC.
In time domain, the symbol duration in each subcarrier has increased to T=LTs, if L increases then the
symbol duration exceeds the channel delay spread, that is T>> , which is the requirement for ISI free
communication.

The drawbacks of this method are 1). In a realistic implementation, a large BW penalty will be
inflicted since the subcarriers can’t have perfectly rectangular pulse shapes and still be time limited.
2). Very high quality (expensive), LPF will be required to maintain the orthogonality of the subcarrier
at receiver. It requires L independent RF units and demodulation paths.
4.8. OFDM Basics

In order to overcome the daunting requirement for “L” RF radios in both the transmitter and receiver,
OFDM employs an efficient computational technique known as the Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT), which lends itself to a highly efficient implementation commonly known as the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT).
4.8.1. Block Transmission with Guard Intervals
We begin by grouping “L” data symbols into a block known as an OFDM symbol. An OFDM
symbol lasts for a duration of T seconds, where T = LTS.
In order to keep each OFDM symbol independent of the others after going through a wireless
channel, it is necessary to introduce a guard time in between each OFDM symbol, as shown here:
OFDM Symbol OFDM Symbol Guard OFDM Symbol

Guard
This Way, after receiving a series of OFDM symbols, as long as the guard time Tg. is larger than the
delay spread of the channel , each OFDM symbol will only interfere with itself.
Delay Speed
OFDM Symbol OFDM Symbol OFDM Symbol
OFDM transmissions allow ISI within an OFDM symbol, but by including as sufficiently large
guard band, it is possible to guarantee that there is no interference between subsequent OFDM
symbols.
4.8.2 Circular Convolution and the DFT
Now that subsequent OFDM symbols have been rendered orthogonal with a guard interval, the next
task is to attempt to remove the ISI within each OFDM symbol.
When the input data stream x[n] is sent through a linear time invariant FIR channel h[n], the output
is the linear convolution of the input and the channel, that is, y [n] = x[n]* h[n].
However, let's imagine for moment that it was possible to compute y[n] in terms of a circular
convolution, that is
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] ……………………………….(4.1)
Where
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] ∑ [ ] [ ] …………………(4.2)
and the circular function x[n]L=x[nmodL] is a periodic version of x[n] with period L.
In other words, each value of y[n]= [ ] [ ] is the sum of the product of L terms.
In this case of Circular Convolution, it would be possible to take the DFT of the channel output
y[n] to get
DFT{y[n]}=DFT{ [ ] [ ]} ………………………(4.3)
which yields in the frequency domain

[ ] [ ] [ ] ………………………(4.4)
Note that the duality between circular convolution in the time domain and simplemultiplication in the
frequency domain is a property unique to the DFT. The L point DFT is defined as
[ ] [ ] ∑ [ ] ………………………(4.5)
while its inverse, the IDFT is defined as
[ ] [ ] ∑ [ ] ………………………(4.6)
Referring to (4.6) , this formula actually describes an ISI-free channel in the frequency domain, where
each input symbol X[m ]is simply scaled by a complex-value H[m].
So, given knowledge of the channel frequency response H[m] at the receiver, it is trivial to recover the
input symbol by simply computing
[ ]
̂[ ] , ………………………(4.7)
[ ]

Fig. 4.10. The OFDM cyclic prefix

Where the estimate ̂ [ ],
̂ [ ] Generally be imperfect due to additive noise, co-channel interference, imperfect channel
estimation, and other imperfection.
4.8.3. The Cyclic Prefix:

The OFDM utilizes the FFT algorithm for computing the DFT and IFFT algorithm for
IDFT, which reduces the number of required multiplication and additions from O ( ) to O (
.
The IFFT algorithm based operation at the transmitter allows all the subcarriers to be created in
the digital domain, and thus requires only a single radio to be used rather than L radios as in
figure 4.8.
The circular convolution is used to provide a ISI free channels. Here a cyclic prefix is added to
the transmitted signal as shown in figure 4.20. Then it creates a signal that appears to be [ ] ,
and y[n]= [ ] [ ].
[ ]
after applying a cyclic prefix of length “v” the actual transmitted signal is
The output of the channel is by definition where h is the length v+1 vector
describing the impulse response of the channel during the OFDM symbol.
The output has samples.
The first samples of contains interference from the preceding OFDM symbol and so are
discarded.
The last samples disperse into the subsequent OFDM symbol, and so also are discarded.
This leaves exactly L samples for the desired output y, which is the required to recover the L data
symbols embedded in x.
The L samples of y will be equivalent to . The possible proof of inductive argument methods is
shown in figure 4. 11.
The outputs are

Fig. 4.11. The OFDM cyclic prefix creates a circular convolution at the receiver (Signal y) even though
the actual channel causes a liner convolution.
Cyclic prefix comes with both a bandwidth and power loss penalty. Since v redundant symbol are sent,
the required bandwidth for OFDM increases from B to B.
Rate loss =power loss=
4.8.4. Frequency Equalization

 Equalization is the process of adjusting the balance between frequency components within
a received OFDM signal.
 Frequency domain equalizers (FEQs) have been applied extensively in multicarrier
systems to enhance transmission rate by reducing transmit redundancy in the form of
guard interval.
 Received symbols to be estimated, the complex channel gains for each subcarrier must be
known, which corresponds to knowing the amplitude and phase of the subcarrier.
 After the FFT is performed, the data symbols are estimated using a one-tap frequency
domain equalizer, or FEQ, as

̂= ……..(4.9)
Where is the complex response of the channel at the frequency𝑓𝑐 + (𝑙 − 1) ∆𝑓, and
Therefore it both corrects the phase and equalizes the amplitude before the decision device.
4.8.5. An OFDM Block Diagram:

Let us now briefly review the key steps in OFDM communication system, each of which can be observed
in figure 4.12.
1. The first step in OFDM is to break a wideband signal of bandwidth B into L narrowband signals
(subcarriers) each of bandwidth B/L. This way, the aggregate symbol rate is maintained, but each
subcarrier experiences flat fading, or ISI-free communication, as long as a cyclic prefix that exceeds the
delay spread is used. The L subcarriers for a given OFDM symbol are represented by a vector X, which
contains the L current symbols.
2. In order to use a single wideband radio instead of L independent narrow band radios, the subcarriers
are created digitally using an IFFT operation.
3. In order for the IFFT/FFT to decompose the ISI channel into orthogonal subcarriers, a cyclic prefix of
length v must be appended after the IFFT operation. The resulting L + v symbols are then sent in serial
through the wideband channel.
4. At the receiver, the cyclic prefix is discarded, and the L received symbols are demodulated using an
FFT operation, which results in L data symbols, each of the form for subcarrier𝑙.
5. Each subscriber can then be equalized via an FEQ by simply dividing by the complex channel gain
H[i] for that subcarrier. This results in ̂ .
During this operation assumption made is transmitter and receivers are perfectly synchronized.
Fig.4.12: An OFDM system in vector notation. In OFDM, the encoding and decoding is done in the
frequency domain, where X,Y and ̂ contain the L transmitted, received and estimated data symbols.
4.9. OFDM in LTE,

To gain an appreciation for the time and frequency domain interpretations of OFDM, LTE systems can be
used as an example.
Although simple in concept, the subtleties of OFDM can be confusing if each signal processing step is not
understood. To ground the discussion, we will consider a passband OFDM system, and then give specific
values for the important system parameters.
Figure 4.13 below shows the up close view of a passband OFDM modulation engine.
The inputs to this figure are L independent QAM symbols (the vector X), and these L symbols are treated
as separate subcarriers. These L data-bearing symbols can be created from a bit stream by a symbol
mapper and serial-to-parallel convertor (S/P). The L-point IFFT then creates a time domain L-vector x
that is cyclic extended to have length (1+G), where G is the fractional overhead.
Fig. 4.13: A close-up of the OFDM baseband to pass band transmitter.
Table 4.1: summary of Key OFDM parameters in LTE and example values for 10MHz
Symbol Description Relation Example LTE value
B Nominal bandwidth B= ⁄ 𝑓 7.68MHz
Transmission Channel spacing 10MHz
bandwidth
L No. of subcarriers Size of IFFT/FFT 1024
G Guard fraction % of L of CP 0.07
Data subcarriers L-pilot/null 600
subcarriers
𝑓 Subcarrier spacing Independent of L 15KHz
Sample time 1/15KHz.2048
𝑓
=32.55 nsec
Guard symbols
Guard time 𝑐
T OFDM symbol time 142.7 𝑐

In LTE G = 0.07 for the normal cyclic prefix and grows to G=0.25 for the extended cyclic prefix.
This longer vector is then parallel-to serial (P/S) converted into a wideband digital signal that can be
amplitude modulated with a single radio at a carrier frequency of fc= wc/2 .
The key OFDM parameters are summarized in table4.1 along with some potential numerical values for
these parameters. As an example, if 16-QAM modulation was used (M = 16) with the normal cyclic
prefix, the aw (neglecting coding) data rate of this LTE system
𝑙
R=
𝑙
R=
In other words, there are Ld = 600 data-carrying subcarriers of bandwidth B/L, each carrying log (M) bits of
data. An additional overhead penalty of (1+G) must be paid for the cyclic prefix, since it consists of
redundant information and sacrifices the transmission of actual data symbols.
4.10. Timing and Frequency Synchronization,

In order to demodulate an OFDM signal, there are two important synchronization tasks that need to
be performed by the receiver.
First, the timing offset of the symbol and the optimal timing instants need to be determined. This is
referred to as timing synchronization.
Second, the receiver must align its carrier frequency as closely is possible with the transmitted carrier
frequency: This is referred to as frequency synchronization. Compared to single-currier systems, the
timing synchronization requirements for OFDM are in fact somewhat relaxed, since the OFDM symbol
structure naturally ac accommodates a reasonable degree of synchronization error. On the other hand,
frequency synchronization requirements are significantly more stringent, since the orthogonality of the
data symbols is reliant on their being individually discernible in the frequency domain.
A representation of an OFDM symbol in time (top) und frequency (bottom). In the time domain, the IFFT
effectively modulates each data symbol onto a unique carrier frequency: only two of the carriers are
shown—the actual transmitted signal is the superposition of all the individual curriers. Since the time
window is T = 1sec and a rectangular window is used, the frequency response of each subcarrier
becomes a "Sine" function with zero Crossings every 1/T = 1MHz. This can be confirmed using the
Fourier Transform F{.} since
{ 𝑓 𝑐 ( )} 𝑓 { 𝑐 ( )}
𝑓 𝑓
Where rect (x) = 1. x € (-0.5, 0.5), and zero elsewhere.
This frequency response is shown for L=8 subcarriers in the bottom part of figure 4.14.
The challenge of timing and frequency synchronization can be appreciated by inspecting these two
figures. If the timing window is slid to the left or right, a unique phase change will be introduced to each
of the subcarriers.
In the frequency domain, if the carrier frequency synchronization is perfect, the receiver samples at the
peak of each subcarrier, where the desired subcarrier amplitude is maximized and the inter-carrier
interference (ICI) is zero.
4.10.1. Timing Synchronization:
The effect of timing errors in symbol synchronization is somewhat relaxed in OFDM due to the
presence of a cyclic prefix.
We assumed that only the L time domain samples after the cyclic prefix were utilized by the
receiver.
Indeed, this corresponds to "perfect timing synchronization, and in this case even if the cyclic prefix
length Ng. is equivalent to the length of the channel impulse response , successive OFDM symbols can
be decoded ISI free.
In the case that perfect synchronization is not maintained, it is still possible to tolerate a timing offset of
secondswithout any degradation in performance as long as where as usual is the
guard time (cyclic prefix duration) and is the maximum channel delay spread.
Here, corresponds to sampling earlier than at the ideal instant, whereas is later than the ideal
instant.
As long as the timing offset simply results in a phase shift per subcarrier of exp(-
j 𝑓 , which is fixed for all subcarriers.
As long as remains constant, the channel estimator simply includes it as part of a fixed phase offset and
it can be corrected by the FEQ without any loss in performance.
This acceptable range of is referred to as timing synchronization margin, and is shown in figure 4.15.
If the timing offset is not within this window
, the SNR loss can be approximated by
( )
From the above equation (4.16)

 SNR decreases quadratically with the timing offset.
 Longer OFDM symbols are increasingly immune from timing offset, that is, more subcarriers
helps.
 Since in general timing synchronization errors not that critical as long as the
induced phase change is corrected.

Figure 4.14: OFDM synchronization in time (top) and frequency (bottom) domain. Here, two
subcarriers in the time domain and eight subcarriers in the frequency domain are shown,
where fc = 10MHz and the subcarrier spacing Δ𝑓 = 1Hz.
Fig.4.15: Timing synchronization margin OFDM is actually less sensitive to timing synchronization error that
single carrier modulation, assuming a bit of margin is allowed in the cyclic prefix.
4.10.2. Frequency Synchronization
OFDM achieves a high degree of bandwidth efficiency compared to other wideband systems.
The subcarrier packing is extremely tight compared to conventional modulation techniques, which require
a guard band on the order of 50% or more, in addition to special transmitter architectures such as the
weaver architecture or single-sideband modulation that suppress the redundant negative-frequency
portion of the passband signal.
The price to be paid for this bandwidth efficiency is that the multicarrier signal shown in Figure 4.14 is
very sensitive to frequency offsets due to the fact that the subcarriers overlap, rather than having each
subcarrier truly spectrally isolated.
We'll now analyze this inter-carrier interference (ICI) in order to better understand its effect on OFDM
performance.
The matched filter receiver corresponding to subcarrier “l” can be simply expressed for the case of
rectangular windows (neglecting the carrier frequency):
………………………(4.17)
Where 1/ = 𝑓 and is the duration of the data portion of the OFDM symbol, that is . An
interfering subcarrier m can be written as
………………………(4.18)
If the signal is demodulated with a fractional frequency offset of | |
̂ ………………………(4.19)
ICI between subscriber’s l and l+m using a matched filter (i.e., the FFT) is simply the inner product
between them:
∫ ̂ ………………….(4.20)
It can be seen that in the above expression, as expected.
The total average ICI energy per symbol on subcarrier listhen
[∑ | | ]
Where
is a constant that depends on various assumptions.
is the average symbol energy
The SNR loss induced by frequency offset is given by

⁄
⁄

• By observing the equation (4.22) and (4.23) the important points are
• SNR decreases quadratically with the frequency offset.
• SNR decreases quadratically with the number of subcarriers.
• The loss in SNR is also proportional to the SNR itself.
Fig.4.16: SNR loss a function of frequency offset , relative to the subcarrier spacing.
The solid lines are for a fading channel and dotted lines are for an AWGN channel.
4.11. Peak to Average Ratio,

The Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAR)
OFDM signals have a higher peak-to-average ratio (PAR) often called a peak-to-average power ratio
(PAPR) than do single-carrier signals.
The reason for this is that in the time domain, a multicarrier signal is the sum of many narrowband
signals.
At some times, this sum is large at other times it is small, which means that the peak value of the signal is
substantially larger than the average value.
4.11.1 The PAR Problem

When a high-peak signal is transmitted through a nonlinear device such as a high-power amplifier (HPA)
or digital-to-analog converter (DAC), it generates out-of-band energy (spectral regrowth) and in-band
distortion (Constellation tilting and scattering).
Thesedegradations may affect the system performance severely.

The nonlinear behavior of HPA can be characterized by amplitude modulation/amplitude modulation
(AM/AM) and amplitude modulation/phase modulation (AM/PM) responses.
The input backoff (IBO) is defined as

Where is the saturation power (above which is the nonlinear region) and
̅ is the average input power.
the amount of backoff is usually greater that or equal to the PAR of the signal.
Operation in the linear region is required in order to avoid distortion, so the peak value must be
constrained to be in this region, which means that on average, the power amplifier is under-utilized by a
“backoff” amounts.
The power efficiency of an HPA can be increased by reducing the PAR of the transmitted signal.
For example, the efficiency of class A amplifier is halved when the input PAR is doubled or the
operating point (average power).
Fig. 4.16: A typical power amplifier response.
In addition to the large burden placed on the HPA, a high PAR requires high resolution for both the
transmitter's digital-to-analog convertor (DAC) and the receiver's

Fig. 4.17: Theoretical efficiency limits of linear amplifiers

4.11.2 Quantifying the PAR
Since multicarrier systems transmit data over a number of parallel frequency channels the resulting
waveform is the superposition of L narrowband signals.
In particular, each of the L output samples from an L-point IFFT operation involves the sum of L
complex numbers.
Due to central limit theorem, the resulting output values { can be modeled as complex
Gaussian random variables with zero mean and variance .
The amplitude of the ouput signal is
| [ ]| √ [ ] [ ]
Where R and I give the real and imaginary parts.

[ ] [ ] [ ]
Which is exponentially distributed with mean .
The PAR of the transmitted analog signal can be defined as
| |
[| | ]
4.11.3 Clipping and Other PAR Reduction Techniques
In order to avoid operating the Power Amplifier in the nonlinear region, the input power can be reduced
up to an amount about equal to the PAR.
This, of course, is very inefficient and will reduce the range and/or SNR of the system by the same
amount.
First, since the highest PAR values are uncommon, it might be possible to simply "clip" off the highest
peaks, at the cost of some hopefully minimal distortion of the signal.
Second and conversely, it can be seen that even for a conservative choice of IBO, say 10 dB, there is still a
distinct possibility that given OFDM symbol will have a PAR that exceeds the IBO and causes clipping.
Clipping, sometimes called "soft limiting," truncates the amplitude of signals that exceed the clipping
level as
[ ]
𝑓 | [ ]|
̃[ ] {
[ ] 𝑓 | [ ]|
Where [ ]is the original signal, ̃[ ], is the output after clipping, A is the clipping level.
The clipping ratio can be used as a metric and is defined as

√ | | √
Obviously, clipping reduces the PAR at the expense of distorting the desired signal.
The two primary drawbacks from clipping are (1) spectral regrowth (frequency domain leakage),
which causes unacceptable interference to users in neighboring RF channels, and (2) distortion of the
desired signal.
The spectral Regrowth: The clipping noise can be expresses in frequency domain.
The clipped frequency domain signal ̃ is

̃ + k=0,…….L-1
where ck represents the clipped off signal in the frequency domain.
Fig. 4.18: Power spectral density (PSD) of the unclipped (original) and clipped (nonlinearity distorted)
OFDM signal with 2048 block size and 64 QAM when clipping ratio ( is 3,5 and 7 dB in soft timer.
In Figure 4.18, the power spectral density of the original (X), clipped ( ̃ ), und clipped-off (C) signals
are plotted for different clipping ratios of 3, 5, and 7 dB. The following deleterious effects are
observed.
Attenuation of the desired signal,
̅[ ] [ ] [ ], for n=0, 1, ……. L-1
Now, d[n] is uncorrelated with the signal [n] and the attenuation factor is obtained by
𝑓𝑐

The attenuation factor a is plotted in Figure is a function of the clipping ratio. The attenuation factor a is
negligible when the clipping ratio a is greater than 8 dB, so for high clipping ratios,
Gaussian input x[n] as
Fig. 4.19: Attenuation Factor as a function of the clipping ratio
input and channel noise (that has variance ⁄ ):
The bit-error probability (BEP) can be evaluated for different modulation types using the SNDR [12]. In
the case of M-QAM and average power & the BEP can then be approximated as
( ) √ ⁄
)
4.11.4. LTE's Approach to PAR in the Uplink
LTE has taken a pioneering new approach to PAR. In the downlink, PAR is less importantbecause
the base stations are fewer in number and generally higher in cost, and so we

Fig.4.20: Bit error rate probability for a clipped OFDM signal
Typically, the high PAR is basically tolerated and sufficient input power back off is undertaken in order
to keep the in-band distortion and spectral regrowth at an acceptable level.
4.12. Single Carrier-Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE)

An alternative approach to OFDM is the less popular but conceptually similar single carrier frequency
domain equalization (SC-FDE) approach to ISI suppression.
SC-FDE maintains OFDM's three most important benefits
 Low complexity even for severe multipath channels
 Excellent BER performance, close to theoretical bounds; and
 A decoupling of ISI from other types of interference, notably spatial interference, which is very
useful when using multiple antenna transmission.
By utilizing single-carrier transmission, the peak-to-average ratio is also reduced significantly (by
several dB) relative to multicarrier modulation.
4.12.1 SC-FDE System Description
Frequency domain equalization is used in both OFDM and SC-FDE systems primarily in order to reduce
the complexity inherent to time-domain equalization.
The block diagrams for OFDM and SC-FDE are compared in below figure in which we can see that the
only apparent difference between the two systems is that the IFFT is moved to the end of the receive
chain rather than operating at the transmitter, to create a multicarrier waveform as in OFDM.

Fig.4.21: Comparison between an OFDM system and an SC-FDE system.
An SC-FDE system still utilizes al cyclic prefix at least as long as the channel delay spread, but now the
transmitted signal is simply a sequence of QAM symbols, which have low PAR, on the order of 4-5 dB
depending on the constellation size.
Considering that an unmodulated sine wave has a PAR of 3 dB, it is clear that the PAR cannot be
lowered much below that of an SC-FDE system.
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
just as in OFDM, with the important distinction being that now the frequency domain version X [m] is
not precisely the data symbols, but rather the FFT of the data symbols x[n]. Analogously, recall that in
OFDM system the transmitted time-domain signal x[n] was not the actual data symbols, but rather the
IFFT of the actual data symbols.
After FFT, a sample 1-tap FEQ can be applied that inverts each virtual subscriber, so that
[ ]
̂[ ]
[ ]
The resulting signal can then be converted back into the time domain using an IFFT operation to give in
x[n], which are estimates of the desired data symbols.
Naturally, in practice H[m]must be estimated at the receiver using pilot signals or other standard
methods
4.12.2. SC-FDE Performance vs. OFDM
The primary difference in terms of performance between SC-FDE and OFDM comes from the way they
treat noise.
In both OFDM and SC-FDE receivers, the FEQ typically inverts each frequency bin, that is, the FEQ
consists of L complex taps each of value 1/Hl.

As noted earlier for OFDM does not result in damaging noise enhancement since the SNR of each data
symbol is unchanged by multiplying by factor.
High SNR symbols remain at high SNR, and low SNR symbols remain at low SNR.
The discrepancies between the SNR on each carrier can be handled by either per-subcarrier adaptive
modulation or coding and interleaving.
In LTE, short scale variations in SNR would generally be addressed by coding and interleaving, which
would allow considerable number of degraded (low-SNR) symbols to be corrected.
In SC-FDE, however, the FEQ does not operate of data symbols themselves but rather on the
frequency domain dual of the data symbols.
Therefore, just is in OFDM's FEQ, low SNR parts of the spectrum have their power increased by a
factor of | 1/Hl|2 while the noisepower is increased by a factor of | 1/H2l|
Unlike in OFDM, however, in SC-FDE when the ensuing IFFT is applied to move the signal back into
the time domain for detection, the amplified noise is spread by the IFFT operation over all the data
symbols.
Therefore, although the total noise amplification is the same in OFDM und SC-FDE, the noise
amplification is not isolated to a single symbol in SC-FDE, but instead affects all the symbols prior to
decoding and detection.
4.12.3. Design Considerations for SC-FDE and OFDM

Since the performance difference between SC-FDE and OFDM is not that significant, other
considerations are more important in determining which is the appropriate method to use for a given
application.
An obvious difference is that SC-FDE has a lower complexity transmitter but a higher-complexity
receiver, compared to OFDM.
Since the receiver was already considerably more complex than the transmitter in a typical OFDM
system due to channel estimation, synchronization, and the error correction decoder, this further skews
the symmetry:
In a cellular system like LTE, this asymmetry can in fact be a favorable feature, since the uplink could
utilize SC-FDE and the downlink could utilize OFDM.
In such a situation, the base station would therefore perform 3 IFFT/FFT operations and the mobile,
which is more power- and cost-sensitive, would perform only a single FFT operation (to receive its
OFDM waveform from the base station).
Adding in SC-FDE's benefits of reduced PAR and the commensurate cost and power savings, it appears
that the case for using SC-FDE in the uplink of a wideband data system is favorable indeed.
Channel estimation and synchronization are a bit different in practice for an SC FDE System vs. an
OFDM system.
In a typical wireless OFDM System—including LTE, WiMAX, und 802.11a/g/n channel estimation and

synchronization are accomplished via a preamble of known data symbols, and then pilot tones, which
are inserted at known positions in all subsequent OFDM symbols.
Although SC-FDE systems would typically also include a preamble, this preamble is in the time domain
so it is not as straightforward to estimate the frequency domain values Hl.
Similarly, it is not possible to insert pilot tones on a per-frame basis. As we will see, however, in next
module we see that SC-FDMA overcomes these potential problems for LTE by using both a DFT and
an IFFT at the transmitter.
4.13. Computational Complexity Advantage of OFDM and SC-FDE.
Advantage of frequency domain equalization relative to time domain equalization is that FDE whether in
OFDM or SC-FDE systems- requires much lower computational complexity, especially for high data
rates.
A time domain equalizer consists of series of multiplications with several delayed versions of signal.
The number of delay taps in an equalizer depends on the symbol rate of the system and the delay spread
in the channel.
To be more precise, the number of the equalizer taps is proportional to the bandwidth-delay spread
product ⁄ We have been calling this quantity or the number of ISI channel taps.
An equaliser with taps perform complex multiply and accumulate (CMAC) operations per received
symbols.
Therefore the complexity of an equalizer is of the order of
In an OFDM or SC-FDE system, the IFFT and FFT are the principal computational operation.
It will be known that the IFFT and FFT each have a complexity of , Where L is the FFT of
block size.
In case of OFDM, L is the number of subcarriers. For a fixed cyclic prefix overhead, the number of
subcarriers L must grow linearly with the bandwidth delay spread product Therefore the
computational complexity for each OFDM symbol (or SC- FDE block) is of the order of
.
There are ⁄ OFDM symbols sent each second. Since L this means there are order ⁄
OFDM symbol per second, so the computational complexity in terms of CM ACs for OFDM is
The complexity of a time domain equalizer grows as a square of the data rate since both the symbol rate
and the number of taps increases linearly with the data rate.
For an OFDM or a SC-FDE system, the increase in complexity grows with the data rate only slightly
faster than linearly.
This difference is automatic for very large data rates as shown in figure.
It is noted here that LTE uses SC-FDMA, which is not same as SC-FDE.
The complexity of SC—FDMA still scales as , but there are twice as many FFT/IFFT
operations as there are in SC-FDE.
Fig.4.22. OFDM and SC-FDE have an enormous complexity advantages over equalization for
broadband data rates.
The delay spread is 𝑐, the OFDM symbol period is T 𝑐, 16 QAM (4 bps/Hz) is used,
and the considered time-domain equalizer is a DFE.
SL No. OFDM SC-FDE
1. OFDM provides high performance Relatively less performance
The high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) The low Peak-to-Average Power Ratio
2.
associated with OFDM (PAPR) associated with SC-FDE
SNR ratio of each data symbol is
SNR ratio of each data symbol is changeby
3. doesn’t change by multiplyingconstant
multiplying constant factor receiver.
factor at receiver.
OFDM has a nominally less dispersive SC-FDE has a nominally more dispersive
4.
spectrum. spectrum.
OFDM's sharper spectrum results inless CCI

Due to dispersive spectrum results moreco-
(Common Channel Interference) and/or less
5. channel interference and/or more
restrictive RF roll-
restrictive RF roll-off requirements.
off requirements.
In SC-FDE, however, the FEQ does not

In OFDM, short-scale variations in SNR would operate on data symbols themselves but rather
6.
generally be addressed by coding and interleaving. on the frequency domain dual of the data
symbols
The noise amplification is isolated, hence it does The noise amplification is not isolated to a
7. not affects all the symbols prior to decoding and single symbol in SC-FDE, but instead affects
detection. all the symbols prior to decoding and detection.
On the whole, OFDM continues to be much more
8. SC-FDE less popular than OFDM.
popular than SC-FDE
Text Books:
1. “Fundamentals of LTE” Arunabha Ghosh, Jan Zhang, Jefferey Andrews, Riaz Mohammed,
Pearson education (Formerly Prentice Hall, Communications Engg and Emerging

Technologies), ISBN-13: 978-0-13-703311-9.

Wireless & Cellular Communication - Module 5 18EC81
Wireless and CELLULAR COMMUNICATION (18EC81)

Module-5
LTE - 4G
OFDMA and SC-FDMA – Multiple Access for OFDM Systems, OFDMA, SCFDMA, Multiuser
Diversity and Opportunistic Scheduling, OFDMA and SC-FDMA in LTE, OFDMA system Design
Considerations. (Text 1, Sec 4.1 – 4.6)
The LTE Standard – Introduction to LTE, Hierarchical Channel Structure of LTE, Downlink OFDMA
Radio Resources, Uplink SC-FDMA Radio Resources. (Text 1, Sec 6.1 – 6.4) L1, L2, L3
Frequency Domain Multiple Access: OFDMA and SC-FDMA

Multiple access strategy used in cellular communication
First Generation (IG), example AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service): FDMA
Second Generation (2G) example 2G GSM or IS-54: TDMA, CDMA.
Third Generation (3G), example UMTS: 3G WCDMA.
Fourth Generation (4G), example LTE: OFDMA for down link, SC-FDMA for uplink.
5.1. Multiple Accesses for OFDM Systems,

• OFDM has wide acceptance in wireless communications as an appropriate broadband
modulation scheme.
• OFDM divides a wideband frequency-selective channel into narrowband flat fading sub-
channels.
• In multi-user systems, these sub-channels can be allocated among different users to
provide multiple access schemes
• The use of adaptive techniques in these sub-channels can further increase the spectral
efficiency of the wireless system.
• Therefore, a main advantages of OFDM is the flexibility in combining adaptive
modulation and multiple access techniques
Multiple-access strategies typically attempt to provide non-interfering, communication
channels for each active base station-subscriber link.
• OFDM is a technique to overcome frequency selectivity (inter symbol Interference).
• OFDM create many parallel streams of data that can principle be used by different users.
• OFDM system such as DSL, 802.11a/g/WiMAX uses single user.
Dr. Asha K & Prof. Prabha K, Dept. of ECE, SVIT Page 1

• For example 802.1 a/g WiFi systems, nearby users share the 20MHz bandwidth by
transmitting at different time after contending for the channel.
• OFDM accommodated by time sharing the channel.
5.1.1. Multiple-Access Overview
The most common ways to divide the available channel among the multiple users is through
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Each user receives a unique carrier
frequency and bandwidth.
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Each user is given a unique time slot, either on
demand or in a fixed rotation.
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Systems allow each user to share both the bandwidth
and time slots with many other users.
TDMA, FDMA, and orthogonal CDMA all have the almost same theoretical capacity in an
additive noise channel.
 Limitation of above multiple access:
 FDMA, TDMA, CDMA are bandwidth or interference limited system.
 Orthogonality is not possible in dense wireless systems.
 The above techniques only guarantee orthogonality between users in the same cell.
 Different multiple access techniques have different delay characteristics and so may be appropriate for
different types of data.
 Conclusion: The above limitation of conventional multiple access can be mitigated by principle merits of
OFDMA.
5.1.2. Random Access Vs. Multiple Access
• CSMA-Carrier Sense Multiple Access
• Used in Packet based communication System eg., Ethernet and wireless LAN such as 802.11.
• In random access, users contend for the channel, rather than being allocated a reserved time, frequency, or
code resource. Eg., ALOHA, SLOTTED ALOHA, CSMA.
• In ALOHA users simply transmit packets at will without regard to the other users. If the packet is not
acknowledged by the receiver after some period, it is assumed and is retransmitted.
• ALOHA is an inefficient method and delay is more as intensity of the traffic increases, as many
transmission result in collision and hence retransmission.
• SLOTTED ALOHA overcomes the problem of ALOHA by a factor of two since users transmits on
specified time boundaries hence collision reduces.
• CSMA improves upon ALOHA, SLOTTED ALOHA through carrier sensing, in which users listen to the
channel before transmitting in order to avoid collision.
• CSMA uses Distributed coordination function (DCF) of 802.11 in which user waits for a random amount

of time after the channel is clear before transmitting in order to reduce the probability to two stations
transmitting immediately after the channel becomes available
• The random access tends to be inefficient, systems sophisticated enough to have a frequency and code slots
generally opt for coordinated multiple access, rather than random access
5.1.3. Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDM-FDMA)
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) can be readily implemented in OFDM systems by assigning
different users their own sets of subcarriers.
 Available sub-carriers are distributed among all the users for transmission at any time instant
 Each user is allocated a pre-determined band of subcarriers. Allows adaptive techniques per sub-carrier,
based on sub-channel condition.
Fig. 5.1. FDMA (left) and a combination of FDMA with TDMA (right)
 The simplest method is a static allocation of subcarriers to each user, as shown on the left of figure 5.1. For
example, in a 64-subcarrier OFDM system, user 1 could take subcarriers 1-16, with users 2, 3, and 4 using
subcarriers 17-32, 33-48, and 49-64, respectively.
 The allocations are enforced with a multiplexer for the various users before the IFFT operation.
 OFDMA in LTE, however, has explicit time-sharing and procedures to allow for the dynamic allocation of
subcarriers.
 In LTE use dynamic subcarrier allocation based upon channel state conditions. For example, due to
frequency selective fading, user 1 may have relatively good channels on subcarriers 33- 48, while user 3
might have good channels on subcarriers 1-16. Obviously, it would be mutually beneficial for these users to
swap the static allocations
5.1.4. Time Division Multiple Access (OFDM-TDMA)
• A particular user is given all the sub-carrier of the system for any particular symbol duration.
• Each user is assigned a time slot during which all the sub-carriers can be used for the particular user

• Adaptive loading can be performed on all the subcarriers, depending on channel conditions.
• The number of symbols per frame can be varied based on each user’s requirement.
• Power consumption reduction (less activity). Degrading performance should be taken into account in delay
constrained systems.
• A packet-based system like LTE can employ more sophisticated scheduling algorithms based on
queue-lengths, channel conditions, and delay constraints to achieve much better performance than
static TDMA.
5.1.5. Code Division Multiple Access (OFDM-CDMA or MC-CDMA)
• User data is spread over several sub-carriers and/or OFDM symbols using spreading codes, and combined
with signals from other users. OFDM and CDMA are shown in fig. 5.2.
• Hybrid access scheme that combines benefits:
• OFDM: Provides a simple method to overcome the ISI effect of the multi-path frequency selective channel
• CDMA: Provides frequency diversity and multi-user access scheme
• Several users transmit over the same sub-carriers.
• In wireless broadband networks the data rates already are very large, so spreading the spectrum further is
not viable.
• OFDM and CDMA are not fundamentally incompatible; they can be combined to create a Multicarrier
CDMA (MC-CDMA) waveform. MC-CDMA is not part of the LTE standard
Fig.5.2. OFDM and CDMA
The advantages and disadvantages in multiple types is shown in table 5.1
5.2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)

OFDMA systems allocate subscribers time-frequency slices (in LTE, "resource grids").
• A resource block (RB) is the smallest unit of resources that can be allocated to a user.

• It consisting of M subcarriers over some number of consecutive OFDM symbols in time.

The M subcarriers can either be
• Spread out over the band, It often called a "distributed," "comb," or "diversity" allocation or
Bunched together in M contiguous subcarriers which is often called a "band AMC," "localized," or
"grouped" cluster.
• The distributed allocation achieves frequency diversity over the entire band, and would typically rely on
interleaving and coding to correct errors caused by poor subcarriers.
• In a highly mobile system, then a distributed allocation would typically be preferred in order to maximize
diversity.
• The band AMC mode, instead attempts to use subcarriers where the SINR is roughly equal and to choose
the best coding and modulation scheme for that SINR.
• If accurate SINR information can be obtained at the receiver about each band's SINR, then band AMC
outperforms distributed subcarrier allocation.
Table 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages in multiple types
Multiple types Advantages Disadvantages

Simple implementation
OFDM_TDMA Frequency-reuse factor ≥ 3
Flexibility
Power savings Simple resource
Relatively high latency
OFDM_FDMA allocation Frequency-reuse factor ≥ 3
Lowest flexibility
Easiest to implement
Spectral efficiency
Frequency diversity Requirement of power control
OFDM_CDMA MAI and ICI interference resistance
Frequency-reuse factor = 1 Implementation complexity
Highest flexibility
•
•

Fig.5.3. OFDMA downlink transmitter
The Table 4.2 shows the notations used in OFDMA

Table 5.2 OFDMA notations
Symbol Explanation
K Number of Active users
L Total number of subcarriers
M Number of subcarriers per active user k
Envelope of the channel gain for user k in subcarrier l
Transmit power allocated for user k in subcarrier l
AWGN power spectrum density
Total transmit power available at the base station
B Total transmission bandwidth
Fig. 5.4. OFDMA downlink receiver for user 1.

5.2.1. OFDMA Working
• The block diagram of downlink OFDMA transmitter and receiver is shown in figure 5.3 and 5.4
respectively.
• Each of the K active users—who by design have orthogonal subcarrier assignments—have a different
receiver that only detects the Mk subcarriers intended for it
• In theory it is possible to have users share subcarriers, this never occurs in practice, so ∑ = 𝐿 and each

subcarrier only has one user assigned to it.

• At each receiver, the user cares only about its own 𝑘 subcarriers, but still has to apply an L point FFT to
the received digital waveform in order to extract the desired subset of subcarriers.
• Receiver has to know which time-frequency resources it has been allocated in order to extract the correct
subcarriers: the control signaling that achieves.
• OFDMA downlink receiver must mostly demodulate the entire waveform, which wastes power, but
digital separation of users is simple to enforce at the receiver and the amount of residual inter user
interference is very low compared to either CDMA or FDMA.
Fig. 5.5. OFDMA uplink transmitter for user 1, where user 1 is allocated subcarriers 1,2….M of L total subcarriers.
[Adaptive modulation and coding]
Fig.5.6. OFDMA uplink receiver. All K active users-who by design have orthogonal subcarrier assignments—are
aggregated at the receiver and demultiplexed after the FFT. [EQ-equalizer]
OFDMA is not used in the LTE uplink. The block diagram of uplink OFDMA transmitter and receiver is
shown in figure 5.5 and 5.6 respectively.
• The transmitter modulates user 𝑘′𝑠 bits over just the subcarriers of interest: in this case, we
have chosen 𝑘 = for all users, and shown user 1 occupying subcarriers 1,2, • • , M of the L
total subcarriers.
• All the users' signals collide at the receiver's antenna, and are collectively demodulated using the
receiver's FFT.
• Assuming each subcarrier has only a single user on it, the demodulated subcarriers can be de-
mapped to the detectors for each of the K served users.

• It should be noted that uplink OFDMA is considerably more challenging than downlink OFDMA
since the uplink is naturally asynchronous, that is the users' signals arrive at the receiver offset
slightly in time (and frequency) from each other.
• This is not the case in the downlink since the transmitter is common for all users. These time and
frequency offsets can result in considerable self-interference if they become large.
• Particularly in the distributed subcarrier mode, sufficiently large frequency offsets can severely
degrade the orthogonality across all subcarriers.
• The timing offsets also must typically be small, within a fraction of a cyclic prefix.
• In LTE the uplink multi access scheme uses only the localized subcarrier mode due to the SC-
FDMA nature of the uplink.
• In this case, the lack of perfect frequency and time synchronization between the multiple users
leads to some ICI (Inter Channel Interference) but this is limited only to the subcarriers at the
edge of the transmission band of each user.
• Frequency and timing synchronization for the uplink is achieved relative to the downlink
synchronization, which is done using the synchronization channels.
• A higher level view of OFDMA can be seen in figure 5.7 Here, a base station is transmitting a
band AMC-type OFDMA waveform to four different devices simultaneously.
• The three arrows for each user indicate the signalling that must happen in order for band AMC-
type OFDMA to work.
• First, the mobiles measure and feedback the quality of their channel, or channel state
information (CSI) to the base station.
• Usually, the CSI feedback would be a measurement corresponding to SINR.
• The base station would then allocate subcarriers to the four users and send that subcarrier
allocation information to the four users in an overhead message.
• Finally, the actual data is transmitted over the Subcarriers assigned to each user.
• Here, it can be seen that the base station was successful in assigning each user a portion of the
spectrum where it had a relatively strong signal.

Fig. 5.7. In OFDMA, the base station allocates each user a fraction of the subcarriers, preferably, in a range where
they have a strong channel.
5.2.2. OFDMA Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of OFDMA start with the advantages of single user OFDM in terms of robust multipath
suppression, relative low complexity, and the creation of frequency diversity.
 In addition OFDMA is a flexible multiple access techniques that can accommodate many users with
widely varying applications, data rates and QoS requirements.
 Because the multiple access is performed in digital domain (before the IFFT operation) dynamic, flexible,
and efficient bandwidth allocation is possible. This allows the time and frequency scheduling algorithms.
 Lower data rates such as voice and burst data are handled much more efficiently in OFDMA than in single
user OFDM (i.e., OFDM-TDMA) or with CSMA.
 Take the first case voice as an example. If OFDMA has not used, each downlink user receive a very high
data at signal for a very short period of time- particularly in channels with a large bandwidth such as 10 or
20 MHz,
 This requires receiver to quickly process large amount of data, would have bad latency and jitter properties
as voice decompressor (vocoder) would frequently have to wait for a while before new decoded bits were
available.
 The switching between the user is very Rapid more frequency overhead signalling would be
required, reducing the overall system throughput
 In the uplink OFDM-TDMA would be even more toxic as in addition to these concerns the subcarrier
would have to transmit avoid signal at very high total power for a very short time. This would put a large

strain on the power amplifier.

 OFDMA does not suffer from these problems because the allocation of time-frequency resources to users
is extremely flexible and can be adopted dynamically to meet arbitrary throughput delay and possibly
other QoS constraints.
5.3. Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SCFDMA)

• SC-FDMA is employed in the LTE uplink.
• Conceptually, this system evolves naturally from SC-FDE modulation approach.
• SC-FDE is a single-carrier modulation technique; it is not possible for an uplink user to use only
part of the spectrum. SC-FDMA can reasonably be called "FFT (or DFT) pre-coded OFDMA.
• SC-FDMA more closely resembles OFDMA because it still requires an IFFT operation at the
transmitter in order to separate the users.
• The goal of SC-FDMA is
• Take the low peak-to-average ratio (PAR) properties of SC-FDE.
• Achieve an OFDMA-type system that allows partial usage of the frequency band.
5.3.2. SCFDMA-Working
SC-FDMA uplink transmitter:
• SC-FDMA uplink transmitter is shown in figure 5.8.
Fig. 5.8: SC-FDMA uplink transmitter for user 1, where user 1 is allocated subcarriers 1, 2,…...M of L total
subcarriers
• The only difference that the user's 𝑘 complex symbols are pre-processed with an FFT of size 𝑘
and refer as time-domain complex symbols as x[n].

• In LTE, 𝑘 is related to the number of resource blocks allocated to the user 𝑘 for its uplink
transmission.
• The FFT operation creates a frequency domain version of the signal X[m] = FFT(x[n],

• The time-domain outputs of the IFFT correspond to an over-sampled and phase-shifted

version of the original time-domain signal x[n].
• x[n] is oversampled by a factor of L/M and experiences a phase shift that depends on which inputs
to the IFFT are used.
The SC-FDMA uplink receiver:
• Figure 5.9 shows SC-FDMA uplink receiver, here we explicitly assume that each user occupies a
fraction M/L of the spectrum like OFDM.
• The difference now being that for each user's 𝑘 "subcarriers," an additional small IFFT must be
applied prior to detection to bring the received data back into the time domain.
• Frequency domain equalization is applied to each user's signal independently after the FFT, and
users' signals are de-mapped based on the current subcarrier allocation.
Fig.5.9. SC-FDMA uplink receiver.

5.3.2. SC-FDMA Advantages and Disadvantages
Table 5.3: SC-FDMA Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
It is similar to OFDMA SC-FDMA can experience more spectral leakage than
OFDMA, and achieve frequency diversity differently,
leading to slight difference in performance.
Only one part of frequency spectrum is used by SC-FDMA has complexity disadvantages vs. OFDMA
any one user at a time. in both TX and Rx as an additional FFT of size Mk has
to be performed for each user at the TX And RX
The band used to be chosen adaptively for
higher throughput.
PAR of SC-FDMA is significantly lower than
the OFDMA.
Reducing PAR reduces the cost of RF power
amplifier. Hence the SC-FDMA is suitable for
uplink
Suitable For uplink due to simple transmitter.

5.4. Multiuser Diversity and Opportunistic Scheduling,

 Multiuser diversity is a diversity technique using user scheduling in multiuser wireless channels where
user scheduling allows the base station to select high quality channel users so as to transmit information
through a relatively high quality channel in time, frequency and space domains based on the channel
quality information fed back from all candidate UEs (User Equipment).
 Multiuser diversity describes the gains available by selecting a user from a subset of users that have "good"
conditions.
 Adaptive modulation is the means by which good" channels can be exploited to achieve the higher data
rates their high SINRs make viable.
5.4.1. Multiuser Diversity
The main motivation for adaptive subcarrier allocation in OFDMA systems is to exploit multiuser diversity.
Even though OFDMA has number of subcarriers, here we focus on the allocation for a single subcarrier among
multiple users.
Consider a K-user system, where the subcarrier of interest experiences independent and identically distributed
(i.i.d).
Rayleigh fading, that is each user’s channel gain is independent of the others, and is denoted by h k. The probability
density function (PDF) of user k’s channel gain is given by
The base station only transmits to the user with highest channel gain, expressed as
.
It is easy to verify that the PDF of is
Figure 5.10 shows the PDF of for different values of K.

As the number of users’ increases, the PDF of shifts to right, which means the probability of getting a large
channel gain, improves.
Figure 5.11 shows how this increased channel gain improves the channel capacity and bit error rate (BER) for
uncoded QPSK.
Both the graph show that the Multiuser Diversity gain improves as the number of users in the system increases,
but the majority of the gain is achieved from just the first few users.

Fig. 5.10. Probability density function of , the maximum of K users’ channel gains
Fig. 5.11. Avearge capacity (left) and QPSK bit error rate (right) for different numbers of users K.
5.4.2. Opportunistic Scheduling Approaches for OFDMA
The idea is to develop algorithms for determining which users to schedule. How to allocate subcarriers to
them, and how to determine the appropriate power levels for each user on each subcarrier.
The different possible approaches to resource allocation are discussed here. Obtaining high throughput with fairness
among the users in the system is the class of technique used.

We generally assume that the outgoing queues for each user are full, but in practice the algorithms discussed here
can be modified to adjust for queue length. The subcarrier mapping must be broadcast to all users whenever
the resource allocation changes:
Typically, the resource allocation must be performed on the order of the channel coherence time;
The resource allocation is usually formulated as a constrained optimization problem to either
(1) Minimize the total transmit power with a constraint on the user data rate or to
(2) Maximize the total data rate with a constraint on total transmit power.
The first objective is appropriate for fixed-rate applications (e.g., voice), while the second is more appropriate for
bursty applications like data and other IP applications.
5.4.3. Maximum Sum Rate Algorithm
The objective of the maximum sum rate (MSR) algorithm is to maximize the sum rate of all users, given a total
transmit power constraint.
The drawback of the MSR algorithm is that it is likely that a few users that are close to the base station (and
hence have excellent channels) will be allocated all the system resources.
The SINR, data rate, and power and subcarrier allocation that is achieved by the MSR algorithm are
discussed.
Let denote user k's transmit power in subcarrier l. The signal-to-interference plus-noise ratio for user k in
subcarrier l, denoted as can be expressed as
∑
𝐿
where AWGN power spectrum density
L Total number of subcarriers
B Total transmission bandwidth

Using the Shannon capacity formulas the throughput measure, the MSR algorithm maximizes the following
quantity:
∑∑
𝐿
with the total power constraint
∑∑
The sum capacity is maximized if the total throughput in each subcarrier is maximized.
Hence, the max sum capacity optimization problem can be decoupled into L simpler problems, one for each
subcarrier.
Further, the sum capacity in subcarrier l, denoted as , can be written as

∑
𝐿
here denotes other users' interference to user k in subcarrier l.

It is easy to show that is maximized when all available power is assigned to just the single user with the
largest channel gain in subcarrier l. This is sometimes referred to as a "greedy" optimization.
5.4.4 Maximum Fairness Algorithm
Although the total throughput is maximized by the MSR algorithm, in a cellular system like LTE where
the path loss attenuation will vary by several orders of magnitude between users, some users will be
extremely underserved by an MSR-based scheduling procedure.
The maximum fairness algorithm aims to allocate the subcarriers and power such that the minimum
user's data rate is maximized.
This essentially corresponds to equalizing the data rates of all users, hence the name "Maximum
Fairness."
The maximum fairness algorithm can be referred to as a Max-Min problem, since the goal is to
maximize the minimum data rate.
The optimum subcarrier and power allocation is considerably more difficult to determine than in the
MSR case because the objective function is not concave.
It is particularly difficult (NP-hard) to simultaneously find the optimum subcarrier and power
allocation.
Therefore, low-complexity suboptimal algorithms are necessary, in which the subcarrier and power
allocation are done separately.
A common approach is to assume initially that equal power is allocated to each subcarrier, and then to
iteratively assign each available subcarrier to a low-rate user with the best channel on it.
Once this generally suboptimal subcarrier allocation is completed, an optimum (waterfilling) power
allocation can be performed.
It is typical for this suboptimal approximation to be very close to the performance obtained with an
exhaustive search for the best joint subcarrier-power allocation, both in terms of the fairness achieved
and the total throughput.
5.4.5. Proportional Rate constraints Algorithm

A weakness of the Maximum Fairness algorithm is that the rate distribution among users is not
flexible.
Further, the total throughput is largely limited by the user with the worst SINR, as most of the resources
are allocated to that user, which is clearly suboptimal.

In a wireless broadband network, it is likely that different users require application-specific data rates that
vary substantially.
A generalization of the Maximum Fairness algorithm is the Proportional Rate Constraints (PRC)
algorithm, whose objective is to maximize Sum throughput, with the additional constraint that each
user's data rate is proportional to a set of pre-determined system parameters . Mathematically, the
proportional data rate's constraint can be expressed as
where each user's achieved data rate is
∑
𝐿
𝐿
and can only be the value of either 1 or 0, indicating whet her subcarrier is used by user k or not. Clearly, this
is the same setup as the Maximum Fairness algorithm if =1 for each user.
The advantage is that any arbitrary data rates can be achieved by varying the values.
The PRC optimization problem is also generally very difficult to solve directly, since it involves both
continuous variables and binary variables and the feasible set is not convex.
As for the Maximum Fairness case, the prudent approach is to separate the subcarrier and power allocation, and to
settle for a near-optimal subcarrier and power allocation that can be achieved with manageable complexity.
5.4.6. Proportional Fairness Scheduling
The three algorithms we have discussed thus far attempt to instantaneously achieve an objective such as the total
sum throughput (MSR algorithm), maximum fairness (equal data rates among all users), or pre-set
proportional rates for each user.
Alternatively one could attempt to achieve such objectives over time, which provides significant additional
flexibility to the scheduling algorithms.
In this case, in addition to throughput and fairness, a third element enters the tradeoff, which is latency.
In an extreme case of latency tolerance, the scheduler could simply just wait for the user to get close to the base
station before transmitting.
In fact, the MSR algorithm achieves both fairness and maximum throughput if the users are assumed to have the
same average channels in the long term (on the order of minutes, hours, or more), and there is no constraint with
regard to latency.
Since latencies even on the order of seconds are generally unacceptable, scheduling algorithms that balance
latency and throughput and achieve some degree of fairness are needed.
The most popular framework for this type of scheduling is Proportional Fairness (PF) scheduling.
The PF scheduler is designed to take advantage of multiuser diversity, while maintaining comparable long-
term throughput for all users.

Let denote the instantaneous data rate that user k can achieve at time t, and be the average
throughput for user k up to time slot t.
The Proportional Fairness scheduler selects the user, denoted as k*, with the highest for
transmission.
In the long-term, this is equivalent to selecting the user with the highest instantaneous rate relative to its mean
rate.
The average throughput for all users is then updated according to
( ) 𝑘 𝑘
( ) 𝑘 𝑘
{
Since the Proportional Fairness scheduler selects the user with the largest instantaneous data rate relative to
its average throughput, "bad channels for each user are unlikely to be selected.
On the other hand, users that have been consistently underserved receive scheduling priority, which promotes
fairness.
The parameter controls e latency of the system. If is large, then the latency increases, with the benefit of
higher sum throughput. If is small, the latency decreases since the average throughput values change more
quickly, at the expense of some throughput.
The Proportional Fairness scheduler has been widely adopted in packet data systems such as HSPDA and
lxEVDO, where is commonly set between 10 and 20.
One interesting property of PF scheduling is that as , the sum of the logs of the user data rates is
maximized. That is, PF scheduling maximizes ∑ or equivalently∏ .
Although the Proportional Fairness scheduler was originally designed for a single users channel, time-
slotted system, it can be adapted to an OFDMA system.
In an OFDMA system, due to the multiple parallel subcarriers in the frequency domain, multiple users can
transmit on different subcarriers simultaneously.
The original PF algorithm can be extended to OFDMA by treating each subcarrier independently.
Let be the supportable data rate for user k in subcarrier in at time slot t. Then for each subcarrier the
user with the largest is selected for transmission.
Let denote the set of subcarriers in which user k is scheduled for transmission at time slot t, then the
average user throughput is updated as

( ) ∑
for k = 1,2,.. . , K. Other weighted adaptations and evolutions of PF scheduling of OFDMA are certainly
possible.
5.4.7. Performance Comparison
In this section, we briefly compare the performance of the various scheduling algorithms for OFDMA that we
have discussed, in order to gain intuition on their relative performance and merits.
In these results, an exponentially decaying multipath profile with six multipath components was used to
generate the frequency diversity.
All users have the same average SNR. The absolute capacity numbers are not especially important; what are
important are the trends between the different curves.
Throughput First, we consider the multiuser diversity gains of the different types of algorithms. Figure 5.12
shows the capacity (normalized by the total bandwidth) for static TDMA (round robin), Proportional Fairness,
and the maximum sum rate (MSR) algorithm.
As expected, the MSR algorithm achieves the best total throughput, and the gain increases as the number of
users’ increases, on the order of log log K.
Static TDMA achieves no multiuser gain, since the users transmit independent of their channel realizations.
It can be seen that the proportional fairness algorithm approaches the throughput of the MSR algorithm, with an
expected penalty due to its support for under-served users.
Fairness Now, let us consider how the worst user in the system does: this is shown the left of Figure 5.13.
As expected, the Maximum Fairness algorithm achieves the best performance for the most under-served user,
with a slight gain for optimal power allocation over its allocated subcarriers (waterfilling) relative to an equal
power allocation.
Also as expected, the MSR algorithm results in a starved worst case user-in fact, Static TDMA performs in-
between the two, with the percentage loss relative to the Maximum Fairness algorithm increasing as the number
of user’s increases, since TDMA does not take advantage of multiuser diversity

Fig. 5.12 Sum capacity vs. number of users for a single carrier system (scheduling is in time domain only).
Consider a heterogeneous environment with eight users. The first user has an average SINR of 20dB, the second
user has an average SINR of 10 dB and user3-8 have average SINRs of 0dB. This is a reasonable scenario in which
user 1 is close to the base station, user 3-8 are near the cell edge and user 2 is in between.
As shown in figure 5.13. MSR algorithm allocates bulk resources to user 1and user 2 and user3-8 has a through put
of approximately zero. A Proportional rate constraint algorithm (PRC) is balanced algorithm used.
Fig. 5.13. (Left) Minimum user capacity in multiuser OFDMA vs. the number of users (right). Normalized
average throughput per user in a heterogeneous environment
Summary of Comparison
 Table 5.5 compares the four resource allocation algorithms that this chapter introduced for OFDMA
systems.
 In summary, the Maximum Sum Rate allocation is the best in terms of total throughput, achieves a low
computational complexity, but has a terribly unfair distribution of data rates.

 Hence, the MSR algorithm is viable only when all users have nearly identical channel conditions and a
relatively large degree of latency is tolerable.
 The Maximum Fairness algorithm achieves complete fairness while sacrificing significant throughput,
and so is appropriate only for fixed, equal rate applications.
 The Proportional Rate Constraints (PRC) algorithm allows a flexible tradeoff between these two
extremes, but it may not always be possible to aptly set the desired rate constraints in real time.
Table 5.5 Comparison of different OFDMA Adaptive Resource Allocation Schemes.

Algorithm Sum Fitness Complexity
Capacity
Maximum Sum Rate Best Poor and inflexible Low
Maximum Fairness algorithm Poor Best but inflexible Medium
Proportional Rate Constraints (PRC) Good Most flexible High
algorithm
Proportional Fairness algorithm Good Flexible Low
5.5. OFDMA and SC-FDMA in LTE,
• Any OFDMA-based standard specify following things in order for the system to work.
• It must specify the "quanta," or units, of time-frequency resource (RB) that can be assigned.
• It must specify messaging protocols that allow the MS to request resources when necessary, and
to know what resources they have been assigned, both for transmission and reception.
• Ranging procedures must be specified so that simultaneous uplink transmissions from several
different mobile units can be reliably decoded at the base station.
• In LTE, mobile units are allocated groups of subcarriers over time and frequency known as a
resource block (RB).
• The size of the resource block is chosen to balance a tradeoff between granularity and
overhead.
• For example, if assign any subcarrier to any user in any time slot increase very large amount of
overhead to specify the current allocation to all the mobile units.
• Much lower overhead would be achieved by an OFDM-TDMA type system, but not efficient in
many respects including total throughput, delay, and the required peak power

Fig.5.13a The Structure of LTE Time –Frequency Grid (LTE FDD frame of 1.4 MHz channel)
Throughput, delay, and fairness, they are not specified by LTE. Rather, LTE simply specifies how resources may be
assigned, and how to notify the mobile units of the assignment. Figure 5.13a shows the structure of LTE Time –
Frequency Grid (LTE FDD frame of 1.4 MHz channel)
5.5.1. The LTE Time Frequency Grid

In LTE, mobile units are allocated groups of subcarriers over time and frequency known as a resource block.
The size of the resource block is chosen to balance a tradeoff between granularity and overhead.
On the one hand, it would be nice to be able to assign any subcarrier to any user in any time slot; but then
it would take a very large amount of overhead to specify the current allocation to all the mobile units.
On the other hand, the much lower overhead would be achieved by an OFDM-TDMA type system where one
user has access to all the subcarriers and uses the same AMC level on all of them-but as discussed this is not
efficient in many respects including total throughput, delay, and the required peak power.
The downlink resource block of LTE is shown in figure 5.10: a typical resource block consists of 12 subcarriers
over 7 OFDM symbols, also referred to as a timeslot.
A timeslot in LTE spans 0.5 msec and two consecutive timeslots create a subframe.
Resources are allocated to users in units of resource blocks over a subframe, that is, 12 subcarriers over 2 x 7 =
14 OFDM symbols for a total of 168 "resource elements," which used for data since some are used for various
layer 1 and layer 2 control messages.
The subcarriers of a resource block can be allocated in one of two ways.
The first way, known as distributed subcarrier allocation, takes advantage of frequency diversity by
spreading the resource block hop across the entire channel bandwidth. This can be accomplished by using a
"comb" pattern at any given point of time for a given user, so that its subcarriers occur at even intervals across

the entire frequency bandwidth. This approach is typically used in the downlink (OFDMA) when distributed
subcarrier allocation is used.
Alternatively, frequency diversity can be achieved by hopping a contiguous block of subcarriers in time, for
example, the 12 subcarriers in a resource block could hop to a different part of the spectrum over each of the 14
OFDM symbols utilized.
Since the channel is generally relatively constant over 14 OFDM symbols, frequency diversity is achieved as
long as sufficient interleaving is employed: this is certainly the case 1n LTE systems, which are heavy on
interleaving.
This approach is used in the uplink, Since SC-FDMA transmitters in general operate on contiguous sets of
subcarriers as seen in figure 5.8.
The second way to allocate subcarriers is adjacent subcarrier allocation. This approach relies on a channel-
aware allocation of resources, so that each user can be allocated a resource block where they have a strong
channel. Since a block of 12 subcarriers is typically smaller than the coherence bandwidth of the channel,
frequency diversity is not achieved, which is helpful as long as the scheduler is able to assign "good" blocks to
each user.
5.5.2. Allocation Notification and Uplink Feedback

In order for each MS to know which subcarriers to use in downlink reception and transmission, the BS
must broadcast this information to the pool of active users in its cell.
Similar to previous UMTS standards such as wideband CDMA, overhead signalling is done on a logical
control channel, in this case, the PDCCH (physical downlink control channel).
The PDCCH specifies the following:
 Downlink resource block allocation
 Uplink resource blocks allocation.
 QAM constellation to use per resource block
 Type and rate of coding to use per resource block
Once a user is able to decode the PDCCH, it knows precisely where to receive (downlink or to transmit
(uplink), and how. The PDCCH is sent over the first 2-3 OFDM symbols of each subframe across all the
subcarriers.
Each allocation, which consists of a resource block subframe, consisted of 168 subcarriers over 14 OFDM
symbols. Since the first 2-3 symbols in each subframe are used by the PDCCH, about 14-21% of the total
downlink capacity is used by the PDCCH.
Additional downlink capacity is also used by other control channels and the pilot symbols.

To aid the base station in uplink scheduling, LTE units utilize buffer status reporting (BSR), wherein each
user can notify the BS about its queue length, and channel quality information (CQI) feedback.
Once the BS is well informed about the channels to/from the users and their respective queue lengths, it can
more appropriately determine users. In the downlink, the BS has inherent knowledge of the amount of
buffered data for each user, while in the uplink it can estimate the channel from each user.
Hence, BSR feedback is only used for uplink scheduling while CQI feedback is only used for downlink
scheduling and AMC-mode selection. The CQI reporting can be either periodic or aperiodic, wideband or
subband, and multiple CQI feedback modes are defined for different scenarios.
5.5.3. Power Control

Although OFDMA (and SC-FDMA) systems are designed to have orthogonality within a cell (unlike many
CDMA systems, for example), they still suffer from two forms of self-interference.
The first is intercell interference, whereby neighbouring cells allocate the same time frequency resource blocks
and hence cause interference. This intercell interference can occur in either the uplink or the downlink, but is
typically the most problematic for cell edge in the downlink since they are approximately equidistant between
two base stations and hence doubly suffer from lower desired power and higher interference power.
Interference-aware allocation approaches that can mitigate this problem and power control is one part of the
solution.
The second form of self-interference is related to imperfect time-frequency-power synchronization between

the different uplink users,
This is not a problem in the downlink since each mobile station receives a single waveform from the base
station.
On the other hand, in the uplink, the received waveform is aggregated “in the air” as the summation of the
different transmits waveforms for each user.
Because these distributed transmitters are bound to be at least slightly unsynchronized in time and frequency,
the orthogonality of the subcarriers will be degraded at the receiver, for OFDM.
Furthermore, if power control is not used, the different signals may be received with very different powers,
which causes a dynamic range problem when the signal is A/D converted-that is, the strong users will dominate
the A/D dynamic range and the weak users will experience severe quantization noise, making digital
reconstruction of those signals difficult or impossible.
In short, some uplink power control is needed in OFDMA (or SC-FDMA) systems.

In LTE, closed-loop power control is possible in the uplink where the BS can explicitly indicate the maximum
transmit power density (power per resource block) that can be used by each user.
This information is carried on the PDCCH when the uplink allocation for each user is specified.
The uplink loop power control algorithm in LTE is flexible in terms of the amount of channel inversion it
performs.
On one extreme, channel inversion can be used, which results in the same received power for all users
regardless of their channel conditions.
This maximizes fairness. On the other hand, no power control can be used-all users transmit at full power- but
low battery efficiency and poor fairness, as cell edge users are disadvantaged.
These two extremes can be balanced by fractional power control, whereby the channel is partially inverted, that
is, the transmit power is proportional to where s is a fractional value between 0 and 1. Note that fixed
transmit power corresponds to s =0 and full channel inversion to s = 1.
Fractional power control is the open-loop power control scheme in LTE. In the downlink, no closed-loop
power control is specified in the standard
5.6. OFDMA system Design Considerations.
The first concerns the allocation of resources n à cellular network, where the actions of one base station affect
its neighbours.
The second is a point is diversity gain from opportunistic scheduling in a system like LTE and channel using
coding, adaptive modulation, OFDM, and multiple antenna techniques.
5.6.1. Resource Allocation in Cellular System

The scheduling algorithms discussed thus far in this module are all very dependent on the perceived SINR tor
each user.
For example, if a certain MS near the cell edge (presumably with a low SINR) is selected to transmit in the
uplink at high power, this will lower the effective SINRs of all the users in the cell next to it, hence perhaps
changing the ideal subcarrier allocation and burst profile for that cell. Therefore, a cellular OFDMA system
greatly benefits from methods for suppressing avoiding the interference from adjacent cells.
A simple approach is to use a unique frequency hopping pattern for each base station to randomize to the
other cell interference, an approach popularized by the Flarion (now part of Qualcomm) scheme called FLASH-
OFDM. Although this scheme reduces the probability of a worst-case interference scenario, under a high-
system load the interference levels can still rapidly approach untenable levels and the probability of collision
can grow large.

A more sophisticated approach is to develop advanced receivers that are capable of cancelling the interference
from a few dominant interference sources. This is a challenging proposition even in a single-carrier system, and
its viability in a cellular OFDMA system is open to debate.
An appealing approach is to revisit the resource allocation algorithms discussed in Section 5.4.2 in the context
of a multi-cell system. If each base station is unaware of the exact conditions in the other cells, and no
cooperation among neighbouring base stations is allowed, the subcarrier and power allocation follows the theory
of non-cooperative games and typically results in a Nash equilibrium, where no user can benefit by unilaterally
deviating from their current allocation.
Simply put, this scenario is the equivalent of gridlock: for example, the users reach a point where neither
increasing nor decreasing their power improves their capacity.
The convergence time of such approaches is generally not fast enough to be of much use in an LTE system
anyway.
Better performance can be obtained if there is some cooperation between the base stations. For example, there
could be a master scheduler for all the base stations that knew the channels in each and every base station and
made multi-cell resource allocation schedules accordingly.
This would be prohibitively complex, though, due to (1) transferring large amounts of real-time information to
and from this centralized scheduler, and (2) the computational difficulties involved in processing this quantity
of information to determine a globally optimal or near-optimal resource allocation.
5.6.2. Fractional Frequency Reuse in Cellular System

Compared to CDMA based cellular Systems OFDMA-based cellular systems are more vulnerable to inter-cell
interference, which especially degrades the performance of users at the cell edge.
Frequency planning techniques have been proposed for LTE systems to mitigate inter-cell interference instead
of standard universal frequency reuse.
Fractional frequency reuse (FFR) is one such strategy that partitions a cell into several regions and applies
different frequency reuse factors in each region.
The inter-cell interference can be significantly reduced since FFR increases the spatial distance between
neighbouring interferers.
Figure 5.14 shows examples of the two main types of FFR deployments:

Strict FFR and Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR). In a Strict FFR system, users in the interior of the cells
universally share a common sub-band of frequencies, while the cell edge users' bandwidth is
partitioned based on a reuse factor of N, requiring a total of N+1 sub-bands.
It is termed "strict" because interior users do not share any spectrum with edge users, which reduces interference
for both interior users and edge cell users.
Fig.5.14. Strict fractional frequency Reuse (left) and Soft Frequency Reuse (right) geometry with N=3 cell
edge reuse factors.
Soft Frequency Reuse employs a similar partitioning strategy as Strict FFR, with the exception that interior
users can share the same bandwidth as edge users in adjacent cells.
As a result, cell interior users typically transmit at lower power levels than the cell-edge users in order to reduce
interference to neighbouring cells.
While SFR is more bandwidth efficient than strict FFR, it allows more interference to both cell interior and edge
users.
Since the cell partitions are based on the geometry of the network, the locations of the users are important in
order to determine the frequency partitions.
However, one practical method to determine user classifications is for each cell to use the average received
SINR of its users, which is usually a good indicator of the distance of the user from its base station.
The base station then classifies users with average SINR less than a pre-determined threshold as edge users,
while users with average SINR greater than the threshold are classified as interior users.
Figure 5.15 shows the results of a simulation comparing the two main FFR schemes with standard N = 1
frequency reuse.
A total of 48 resource blocks (RBs) are available, users are uniformly distributed over the 12-cell network, and a
high traffic load is assumed.

The cell coverage radius is 1 km and the interior radius, which determines the number of interior and edge users
served, is varied from 0.25 to 0.95 km.
The plot on the left of figure 5.15 shows the significant benefit the Strict FFR scheme provides for edge users
over SFR and universal frequency reuse.
However, the plot on the right shows that if the network has a moderate or high traffic load, this benefit comes
at a cost of not being able to fairly serve all users.
Fig. 5.15 Edge user performance (left); Spectral efficiency of the reuse schemes
5.6.3 Multiuser Diversity vs. Frequency and spatial Diversity

Diversity is a key source of performance gain in OFDMA systems.
In particular, OFDMA exploits multiuser diversity among the different MSs, frequency diversity across the
subcarriers, and time diversity by allowing latency.
Spatial diversity is also a key aspect of LTE systems. One important observation is that these sources of
diversity will generally compete with each other.
For example, imagine that the receiver has two sufficiently spaced antennas.
If two-branch selection diversity is used for each subcarrier, then the amount of variation between each
subcarrier will decrease significantly, since most of the deep fades will be eliminated by the selection process.
Now, if ten different users were to execute an OFDMA scheduling algorithm, although the overall
performance would increase further, the multiuser diversity gain would be less than that without the selection
diversity, since each user has already eliminated their worst channels with the selection combining.
The intuition of this simple example can be extended to other diversity-exploiting techniques, like coding and
interleaving space-time and space-frequency codes, and so on.
In short, the total diversity gain will be less than the sum of the diversity gains from the individual techniques.
Figure 5.16 shows the combined effect off multiuser and spatial diversity for five different configurations of

2 x 1 MIMO systems: single antenna (SISO), opportunistic beamforming, Alamouti STBCs (Space Time
Block Coding), and transmit beamforming with limited feedback (1-bit CSI) and perfect CSI.
For a single user, the SISO and opportunistic BF is the lease effective, since opportunistic BF requires
multiuser diversity to get a performance gain over SISO.
Alamouti codes increase performance, in particular reducing the probability; of a very low SINR from
occurring.
The CSI-endowed techniques do the best; notably the perfect CSI case is always 3 dB better than Alamouti
codes regardless of the number of users.
When the system does have 50 users, however, some of the conclusions change considerably.
Now, Alamouti codes actually perform worse than single-antenna transmission. This is because Alamouti
codes harden the received SINR toward the average and so the SINR difference between the users is attenuated
but this is exactly what is exploited by a multiuser scheduler that picks the best out of the 50 users.
Fig. 5.16 The SINR of multiuser diversity combined with antenna diversity techniques.
The numbers of users K=1 (left), K=50 (right).

The LTE Standard: Overview and Channel Structure of LTE
Fig. 5.17. Radio Interface architecture of UTRAN and E-UTRAN

The LTE project in 3GPP focusses on enhancing the UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA).
Another parallel project in 3GPP is the evolved packet core (EPC), which focuses on the core network evolution
with flatter all IP, packet based architecture.
A Radio Interface of a wireless network is the interface between the mobile terminal and the base station.
UTRAN consists of two logical entities.
The Node-B (radio base station).and the RNC (radio network controller).
Radio Interface architecture of UTRAN and E-UTRAN are shown in figure 5.17. Compared to the traditional
Node-B, the e-Node B supports features such as radio resource control, admission control, and mobility
management; these were present in RNC (Radio Network Controller).
E-UTRAN provides higher throughput and low latency over the radio interface.
5.7. Introduction to LTE

• LTE is the next step in the evolution of mobile cellular systems and was standardized as part of the 3GPP
Release & specifications.
• Unlike 2G and 3G cellular systems that were designed mainly with voice services in mind, LTE was
designed primarily for high-speed data services, which is why LTE is a packet-switched network from end
to end and has no support for circuit-switched services.
• However, the low latency of LTE and its sophisticated quality of service (QoS) architecture allow a
network to emulate a circuit-switched connection on top of the packet-switched framework of LTE.

5.7.1. Design Principles

The basic design principles that were agreed upon and followed in 3GPP while designing the LTE specifications
include:
Network Architecture:
• Unlike 3G networks, LTE was designed to support packet- switched traffic with support for various QoS
classes of services.
• Previous generations of networks such as UMTS/HSPA and IxRTT (Single carrier Radio Transmission
Technology/EvDO-Evolution Data Optimized) also support packet-switched traffic but this was
achieved by subsequent add-ons to the initial version of the standards.
• For example, HSPA, which is a packet-switched protocol (packet-switched over the air), was built on
top of the Release 99 UMTS network and as a result carried some of the unnecessary burdens of a
circuit-switched network.
• LTE supports packet switching for high data rate services from thestart.
• The LTE radio access network, E-UTRAN, was designed to have the minimum. number of interfaces (i.e.,
the minimum. number of network elements) while still being able to provide efficient packet-switched
transport for traffic belonging to all the QoS classes such as conversational, streaming, real-time, non-
real-time, and background classes.
Data Rate and Latency:
• The design target for downlink and uplink peak data rates for LTE are 100 Mbps und 50 Mbps,
respectively, when operating at the 20MHz frequency division duplex (FDD) channel size.
• The user-plane latency is defined in terms of the time it takes to transmit a small IP packet from the UE
to the edge node of the radio access network (also called as base station) or vice versa measured on the IP
layer.
• The target for one-way latency in the user plane is 5 ms in an unloaded network, that is, if only a
single UE is present inthe cell.
• For the control-plane latency, the transition time from a camped state to an active state is less than 100
ms, while the transition time between a dormant state and an active state should be less than 50 ms.
Performance Requirements:
• The target performance requirements for LTE are specified in terms of spectrum efficiency, mobility, and
coverage, and they are in general expressed relative to the 3GPP Release 6 HSPA.
• Spectrum Efficiency

• The average downlink user data rate und spectrum Efficiency target is three to four times that of the
baseline HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access) network. Similarly, in uplink the average user
data rate and spectrum efficiency.
• Similarly, in the uplink the average user data rate and spectrum efficiency target is two to three times that
of the baseline HSUPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Access) network.
• The cell edge throughput, measured as the 5th percentile throughput, should be two to three times that of
the baseline HSDPA and HSUPA
Mobility
• The mobility requirement for LTE is to be able to support hand off/ mobility at different terminal speeds.
• Maximum performance is expected for the lower terminal speeds of 0 to 15 km/hr, with minor degradation
in performance at higher mobilespeeds up to 120 km/hr.
• LTE is also expected to be able to sustain a connection for terminal speeds up to 350 km/hr but with
significant degradation in the system performance.
Coverage
• For the cell coverage, the above performance targets should be met up to 5 km.
• For cell ranges upto 30km, a slight degradation of the throughput is tolerated and a more
significant degradation for spectrum efficiency is acceptable, but the mobility requirements
should be met.
• Cell ranges up to 100 km should not be precluded by the specifications.
MBMS Services:
• LTE should also provide enhanced support for Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Services (MBMS)
compared to UTRA operation.
Radio Resource Management:
The radio resource management requirements cover various spots such as enhanced support for
 end-to-end QoS,
 efficient support for transmission of higher layers,
 and support for load sharing/balancing and
 Policy management enforcement across different radio access technologies.
Deployment Scenario and Co-existence with 3G
 LTE supports two deployment scenarios:
 Standalone deployment scenario, where the operation deploys LTE either with no previous network
deployed in the area or with no requirement for interworking with the existing UTRAN/GERAN (GSM

EDGE radio access network).
 Integrating with existing UTRAN/GERAN deployment scenario, where the operator already has either
a UTRAN and/or GERAN network deployed with full or partial coverage in the same geographical area.
Flexibility of Spectrum and Deployment:
In order to become a truly global standard, LTE was designed to be operable under a wide variety of spectrum
scenarios, including its abilityto coexist and share spectrum with existing 3G technologies.
Service providers in different geographical regions often have different spectrums in terms of the carrier
frequency and total available bandwidth, which is why LTE was designed to have a scalable bandwidth from
1.4MHz to 20MHz.
In order to accommodate flexible duplexing options, LTE was designed to operate in both frequency division
duplex (FDD) and time division duplex (TDD) modes.
Interoperability with 3G and 2G Networks:
Multimode LTE terminals, which support UTRAN and/or GERAN (GSM EDGE Radio Access Network) (
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) GSM-Global System for Mobile Communication) operation
should be able to support measurement of, and handover from and to, both 3GPP UTRAN und 3GPP GERAN
systems with acceptable terminal complexity and network performance.

Fig.5.18: LTE end to end network architecture
5.7.2. Network Architecture

Figure 5.18 shows the end-to-end network architecture of LTE and the various components of the network.
The entire network is composed of the radio access network (E-UTRAN) and the core network (EPC), both of
which have been defined as new components of the end-to-end network in Release 8 of the 3GPP specifications.
In this sense, LTE is different from UMTS since UMTS defined a new radio access network but used the same
core network as the previous-generation Enhanced GPRS (EDGE) network. The main components of the E-
UTRANand EPC are
• UE: The mobile terminal. (User Equipment).
• eNode-B: The eNode-B (also called the base station) terminates the air interface protocol and is the first
point of contact for the UE.
As in figure 5.17.The eNode-B is the only logical node in the E-UTRAN, so it includes some
functions previously defined in the RNC of the UTRAN, such as radio bearer management, uplink
and downlink dynamic radio resource management and data packet scheduling, and mobility
management.
• Mobility Management Entity (MME): MME is similar in function to the control plane of legacy Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN). It manages mobility aspects in 3GPP access such as gateway selection and
tracking area list management.
• Serving Gateway (Serving GW): The Serving GW terminates the interface towards E-UTRAN, and
routes data packets between E-UTRAN and EPC.
• It is the local mobility anchor point for inter eNode-B handovers and also provides an anchor for inter-3GPP
mobility. The other responsibilities include lawful intercept, charging and dome policy enforcement. The
Serving GW and the MME may be implemented in one physical node or separate physical nodes.
• Packet Data Network Gateway (PDN GW): The PDN GW terminates the SGi interface toward the Packet
Data Network (PDN). It routes data pickets between the EPC and the external PDN, and is the key node for
policy enforcement and charging data collection. It also provides the anchor point for mobility with non-
3GPP accesses. The external PDN can be any kind of IP network as well as the IP Multimedia Subsystem
(IMS) domain. The PDN GW and the Serving GW may be implemented in one physical node or separated
physical nodes.
• S1 Interface: The S1 interface is the interface that separates the E-UTRAN and the EPC. It is split into two

parts:
• the S1-U, which carries traffic data between the eNode-B and the Serving GW, and the
• S1-MIME, which is a signaling-only interface between the eNode-B and the MME.
• X2 Interface: The X2 interface is the interface between eNode-Bs, consisting of two parts:
• The X2-C is the control plane interface between eNode-Bs,
• While the X2-U is the user plane interface between eNode-Bs.
• It is assumed that there always exists an X2 interface between Node-Bs that needs to communicate with
each other, for example, for support of handover.
5.7.3. Radio Interface Protocols
LTE radio interface is designed based on a layered protocol stack, which can be divided into control plane and
user plane protocol stacks and is shown in figure 5.19. The packet flow in the user plane is shown in figure 5.20.
The LTE radio interface protocol is composed of the following layers
Radio Resource Control (RRC): The RRC layer performs the control plane functions including paging,
maintenance and release of an RRC connection- security handling-mobility management, and QoS management.
Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP):
The main functions of the PDCP sub layer include IP packet header compression and decompression based on
the Robust Header Compression (ROHC) protocol, ciphering of data and signaling and integrity protection for
signaling. There is only one PDCP entity at the eNode-B and the UE per bearer.
Fig. 5.19: The LTE radio interface protocol stack

Radio Link Control (RLC): The main functions of the RLC sublayer are segmentation and concatenation of

data units, error correction through the Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) protocol, and in-sequence delivery of
packets to the higher layers. It operates in three modes:
– The Transparent Mode (TM): The TM mode is the simplest one, without RIC header addition, data
segmentation, or concatenation, and it is used for specific purposes such as random Access.
– The Unacknowledged Mode (UM): The UM mode allows the detection of packet loss and provides packet
reordering and reassembly, but does not require retransmission of the missing protocol data units (PDUs)
– The Acknowledged Mode (AM): The AM mode is the most complex one, and it is configured to request
retransmission of the missing PDUs in addition to the features supported by the UM mode.
There is only one RLC entity at the eNode-B and the UE per bearer.
Medium Access Control (MAC): The main functions of the MAC sublayer include error correction through
the Hybrid-ARQ (H-ARQ) mechanism, mapping between logical channels and transport channels,
multiplexing/'demultiplexing of RLC PDUs on to transport blocks, priority handling between logical channels
of one UE, and priority handling between UEs by means of dynamic scheduling.
Physical Layer (PHY): The main function of PHY is the actual transmission and reception of data in the
forms of transport blocks. The PHY is also responsible for various control mechanisms such as
signalling of H-ARQ feedback, signalling of scheduled allocations, and channel measurements.
Fig. 5.20: The packet flow in the user plane
5.8. Hierarchical Channel Structure of LTE,
To efficiently support various QoS classes of services, LTE adopts a hierarchical channel structure. There
are three different channel types defined in LTE
-- Logical channels: What to transmit

--Transport channels: How to Transmit
--Physical channels: Actual Transmission
Each layer is associated with a service access point (SAP) between different layers.
These channels are used by the lower layers of the protocol stack to provide services to the higher
layers. The radio interface protocol architecture and the SAPs between different layers are shown in figure
5.21.
Logical channels provide services at the SAP between MAC and RLC layers, while transport channels
provide services at the SAP between MAC and PHY layers.
Physical channels are the actual implementation of transport channels over the radio interface.
Fig. 5.21: The radio interface protocol architecture and the SAPs b/w different layers
5.8.1. Logical Channels: What to Transmit

Logical channels are used by the MAC to provide services to the RLC. Each logical channel is defined
based on the type of information it carries. In LTE, there are two categories of logical channels depending
on the service they provide: logical control channels and logical traffic channels.
• Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): A downlink common channel used to broadcast system

control information to the mobile terminals in the cell, including downlink system bandwidth,
antenna configuration, and reference signal power. Due to the large amount of information carried on
the BCCH, it is mapped to two different transport channels: the Broadcast Channel (BCH) and the
Downlink Shared Channel (DL- SCH).
• Multicast Control Channel (MCCH): A point-to-multipoint downlink channel used for

transmitting control information to UEs in the cell. It is only used by UEs that receive
multicast/'broadcast services.
• Paging Control Channel (PCCH): A downlink channel that transfers paging information to
registered UEs in the cell, for example, in case of a mobile-terminated communication session.
• Common Control Channel (CCCH): A bi-directional channel for transmitting control

information between the network and UEs when no RRC connection is available, implying the UE is
not attached to the network such is in the idle state. Most commonly the CCCH is used during the
random access procedure.
• Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): A point-to-point, bi-directional channel that transmitted

dedicated control information between a UE and the network. This channel is used when the RRC
connection is available, that is, the UE is attached to the network.
The logical traffic channels, which are to transfer user plane information, include:
• Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH): A point-to-point, bi-directional channel used between a

given UE and the network. It can exist in both uplink and downlink.
• Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH): A unidirectional point-to-multipoint data channel that transmits
traffic data from the network to UEs. It is associated with multicast/broadcast service.
5.8.2 Transport Channels: How to Transmit
The transport channels are used by the PHY to offer services to the MAC.
A transport channel is basically characterized by how and with what characteristics data is transferred over the
radio interface, that is, the channel coding scheme, the modulation scheme, and antenna mapping.
LTE defines two MAC entities: on in the UE and one in the E-UTRAN, which handle the following
downlink/uplink transport channel.
Downlink Transport Channels
• Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH): Used for transmitting the downlink data, including both control

and traffic data, and thus it is associated with both logical control and logical traffic channels. It supports H-
ARQ, dynamic link adaption, dynamic and semi-persistent resource allocation, UE discontinuous reception,
and multicast/broadcast transmission.
• Broadcast Channel (BCH): A downlink channel scouted with the BCCH logical channel and is used to
broadest system information over the entire coverage area of the cell. It has a fixed transport format defined
by the specifications.
Multicast Channel (MCH): Associated with MCCH and MTCH logical channels for the
multicast/broadcast service. It supports Multicast/Broadcast Single Frequency Network (MBSFN)
transmission, which transmits the same information on the same radio resource from multiple synchronized
base stations to multiple UEs.
• Paging Channel (PCH): Associated with the PCCH logical channel. It is mapped to dynamically
allocate physical resources, and is required for broadcast over the entire cell coverage area. It is transmitted
on the Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH), and supports UE discontinuous reception.
Uplink Transport Channels
• Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH): The uplink counterpart of the DL-SCH. It can be associated to
CCCH, DCCH, and DTCH logical channels. It supports H-ARQ, dynamic link adaption, and dynamic and
semi-persistent resource allocation.
• Random Access Channel (RACH): A specific transport channel that is not mapped to any logical
channel. It transmits relatively small amounts of data for initial loss or, in the case of RRC, state changes.
• Downlink Control Information (DCI): It carries information related to downlink/uplink scheduling
assignment, modulation and coding scheme, and Transmit Power Control (TPC) command, and is sent
over the Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH). The DCI supports 10 different formats, listed in
Table 5.6. Among them, Format 0 is for signalling uplink transmission allocation, Format 3 and 3A
for TPC andthe remaining formats ire for signalling downlinks transmission allocation.
Control Format Indicator (CFI): It indicates how many symbols the DCI spans in that sub frame. It takes
values CFI = 1, 2, or 3, and is sent over the Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH).
• H-ARQ Indicator (HI): It carries H-ARQ acknowledgment in response to up link transmissions, and is
sent over the Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Chanel (PHICH). HI = 1 for a positive acknowledgement
(ACK) and HI = 0 for a negative acknowledgment (NAK).
Table 5.6 DCI Formats
SL. Format Carried Information

NO

1 Format 0 Uplink scheduling assignment
2 Format 1 Downlink scheduling for one codeword
3 Format 1A Compact downlink scheduling for one codeword and random access
procedure
4 Format 1B Compact downlink scheduling for one codeword with precoding

information
5 Format 1C Very compact downlink scheduling for one codeword
6 Format 1D Compact downlink scheduling for one codeword with precoding and power
offset information
7 Format 2 Downlink scheduling for UEs configured in closed-loop spatial

multiplexing mode
8 Format 2A Downlink scheduling for UEs configured in open-loop spatial multiplexing

mode
9 Format 3 TPC commands for PUCCH and PUSCH with 2-bit power adjustment
10 Format 3A TPC commands for PUCCH and PUSCH with 1-bit power adjust
5.8.3. Physical Channels: Actual Transmission:
 These channels are also used in both direction downlink and uplink directions.
 Each physical channel corresponds to a set of resources elements in the time frequency grid that carry
information from higher layers.
 The basic entities of physical channel are resources elements and resources blocks.
 A resource element is a single subcarrier over one OFDM symbol and typically carry one symbol.
 A resource block is a collection of resource elements and in the frequency domain this represents smallest
quanta of resources that can be allocated.
Downlink Physical Channel
Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH): It carries information about the transport format and
resource allocation related to the DL-SCH and PCH transport channels, and the H-ARQ information related
to the DL-SCH. It also informs the UE about the transport format, resource allocation, and H-ARQ
information related to UL-SCH. It is mapped from the DCI transport channel.

Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH): This channel carries user data and higher-layer signalling.
It is associated to DL-SCH and PCH.
Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH): It-corresponds to the BCH transport channel and carries system
information.
Physical Multicast Channel (PMCH): It carriers multicast/broadcast information for the MBMS service.
Physical Hybrid-ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH): This channel carries H-ARQ ACK/NAKs associated
with uplink data transmissions. It is mapped from the HI transport channel.
Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH): It informs the UE about the number of OFDM
symbols used for the PDCCH. It is mapped from the CFI transport channel.
Uplink Physical Channels
Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH): It carries uplink control information including Channel
Quality Indicators (CQI), ACK/NAKs for H-ARQ in response to downlink transmission, and uplink
scheduling requests.
Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH): It carries user data and higher layer signalling. It corresponds
to the UL-SCH transport channel.
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH): This channel carries the random access preamble sent by
UEs.
The physical signals defined in the LTE specifications are
Reference signal: It is defined in both downlink and uplink for channel for estimation that enable
coherent demodulation. Three different receive signal in downlink are
Cell-specific reference signals, associated with non-MBSFN (Multicast/Broadcast Single

Frequency Network ) transmission.
MBSFN reference signals, associated with MBSFN transmission
UE-specific reference signals: There are two types of uplink reference signals:
Demodulation reference signal, associated with transmission of PUSCH or PUCCH
Sounding reference signal, to support uplink channel-dependent scheduling
Synchronization signal: It is split into a primary and a secondary synchronization signal, and is only
defined in the downlink to enable acquisition of symbol timing and the precise frequency of the downlink
signal.
5.8.4. Channel Mapping
From the description of different channel types, we see that there exists a good correlation based on the purpose

and the content between channels in different layers.
.
Fig. 5.23: Mapping between different channel types
This requires a mapping between the logical channels and transport channels at the MAC SAP (Service
Access Points) and a mapping between transport channels and physical channels at the PHY SAP.
Such channel mapping is not arbitrary, and the allowed mapping between different channel types is shown in
Figure 5.23, while the mapping between control information and physical channels is shown in Figure 5.24.
It is possible for multiple channels mapped to a single channel, for example, different logical control channels
and logical traffic channels are mapped to the DL-SCH transport channel
Fig. 5.24: Mapping of control information to physical channels
5.9. Downlink OFDMA Radio Resources,
In LTE, the downlink and uplink use different transmission schemes due to different considerations.
Here, we describe downlink and uplink radio transmission schemes, respectively. In the downlink, a scalable
OFDM transmission/multi-access technique is used that allows for high spectrum efficiency by utilizing
multiuser diversity in a frequency selective channel.

On the other hand, SC- FDMA transmission, multi-access technique is used in the uplink since this reduces the
peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) of the transmitted signal.
The transceiver structure of OFDM with FFT/IFFT enables scalable bandwidth operation with a low
complexity, which is one of the major objectives of LTE.
As each subcarrier becomes a flat fading channel, compared to single-carrier transmission OFDM makes it
much easier to support multi-antenna transmission, which isa key technique to enhance the spectrum efficiency.
• OFDM enables multicast/broadest services on a synchronized single frequency network, that is, MBSFN,
as it treats signals from different base stations is propagating through a multipath channel and can efficiently
combine them.
The multiple access in the downlink is based on OFDMA. In each TTI (Transmission Time Interval), a
scheduling decision is made where each scheduled UE is signed a certain amount of radio resources in the time
and frequency domain. The radio resources allocated to different UEs are orthogonal to each other, which
mean there is no intra-cell interference.
Further, we describe the frame structure and the radio resource block structure in the downlink, as well as
the basic principles of resource allocation and the supported MIMO modes.
5.9.1. Frame Structure
Before going into details about the resource block structure for the downlink, we first describe the frame
structure in the time domain, which is a common element shared by both downlink and uplink.
In LTE specifications, the size of elements in the time domain is expressed as a number of time units T =
1/(15000 x 2048) seconds. As the normal subcarrier spacing is defined to be f = 15kHz, T, can be regarded as
the sampling time of an FFT-based OFDM transmitter/receiver implementation with FFT size N = 2048. Note
that this is just for notation purpose, as different FFT sizes are supported depending on the transmission
bandwidth. LTE supports both TDD and FDD.
Frame Structure Type 1

Frame stricture type 1 is applicable to both full duplex and half duplex FDD. There are three different kinds of
units specified for this frame structure, illustrated in figure 5.25. The smallest one is called a slot, which is of
length. = 1536* = 0.5ms. Two consecutive slots are defined as a sub frame of length 1ms, and 20 slots,
numbered from 0 to 19, constitute a radio frame of 10ms.
Channel-dependent scheduling and link adaptation operate of a sub frame level. Therefore, the subframe
duration corresponds to the minimum downlink TTI, which is of 1 ms duration, compared to a 2 ms TTI for
the HSPA and a minimum 10 ms TTI for the UMTS. A shorter TTI is for fast link adaptation and is able to
reduce delay and better exploit the time-varying channel through channel-dependent scheduling.

Figure 5.25: Frame structure type 1 . For the normal CP, =160. 𝑠for the first OFDM symbols. and
=144. 𝑠 for the remaining OFDM symbols, which together fill the entire slot of 0.5ms. For extended
CP, =512. 𝑠
Frame Structure Type 2:

Frame structure type 2 is applicable to the TDD mode. It is designed for coexistence with legacy systems such
as the 3GPP TD-SCDMA-based standard. As shown in figure 5.26 each radio frame of frame structure type 2 is
of length ; = 30720 * = 10 ms, which consists of two half-frames of length 5ms each.
Each half frame is divided into five subframes with 1ms duration.
There are special subframes consists of three fields
 Downlink Pilot TimeSlot(DwPTS)
 Guard Period (GP)
 Uplink Pilot TiemSlot(UpPTS)

Figure 5.26: Frame structure type 2
The DwPTS field: This is the downlink part of the special subframe, and can be regarded is as on ordinary but
shorter downlink sub frame for downlink data transmission. Its length can be varied from three up to twelve
OFDM symbols.
The UpPTS field: This is the uplink part of the special subframe, and has a short duration with one or two
OFDM symbols. It can be used for transmission of uplink sounding reference signals and random access
preambles.
The GP field: The remaining symbols in the special sub frame that have not been allocated to DwPTS or
UpPTS are allocated to the GP field, which is used to provide the guard period for the downlink-to-uplink and
the uplink-to-downlink switch.
5.9.3 Physical Resource Blocks for OFDMA

The physical resource in the downlink in each slot is described by a time-frequency grid, called a resource grid,
is illustrated in Figure5.27. Such a time-frequency plane representation is a common practice for OFDM
systems, which makes it intuitive for radio resource allocation. Each column and each row of the resource grid
correspond to one OFDM symbol and one OFDM subcarrier, respectively. The duration of the resource grid in
the time domain corresponds to one slot in a radio frame. The smallest time frequency unit in a resource grid is
denoted as a resource element. Each resource grid consists of a number of resource blocks, which describe the
mapping of certain physical channels to resource elements. The detail of these resource units is described as
follows.
Resource Grid
The structure of each resource grid is characterized by the following three parameters
The number of downlink resource blocks : It depends on the transmission bandwidth and shall fulfill
, Where and =110 are for the smallest and largest downlink
channels bandwidth, respectively. the values of for several current specified bandwidth are listed.
The number of subcarriers in each block ( ): It depends on the subcarrier spacing =180kHz, that is
each resource block is of 180kHz wide in the frequency domain.
The values of ) for different subcarrier spacing’s are shown in table.
The total number of ) subcarriers in each resource gird.
The number OFDM symbol in each block ( : It depends on both the CP length and the subcarrier
spacing, as specified in table 5.4.
Therefore, each downlink resource grid has )X X resouces elements.
• Cell-specific reference signals support a configuration of 1, 2, or 4 antenna ports
• MBSFN reference signals are transmitted on antenna port p=4.

• UE-specific reference signals are transmitted on antenna port p=5.

Resource Element
Each resource element in the resource grid is uniquely identified by the index pair (k, l) in a slot. where k
= 0. 1.... and l = = 0,1,... , are indices in the frequency and time domains,
respectively. The size of each resource element depends on the subcarrier spacing f and the CP length.
Resource Block
The resource block is the basic element for radio resource allocation. The minimum size of radio
resource that can be allocated is the minimum TTI in the time domain, that is, one subframe of 1ms,
corresponding to two resource blocks. The size of each resource block is the same for all bandwidths,
which is 180 kHz in the frequency domain. There are two kinds of resource blocks defined for LTE:
physical and virtual resource blocks, which are defined for different resource allocation schemes and
are specified in the following section.

Fig. 5.27: The structure of the downlink resource grid

5.9.3 Resource Allocation
Resource allocation's role is to dynamically assign available time-frequency resource blocks to different
UEs in an efficient way to provide good system performance. In LTE channel-dependent scheduling is

supported, and transmission is based on the shared channel structure where the radio resource is shared
among different UEs.
With OFDMA, the downlink resource allocation is characterized by the fact that each scheduled UE
occupies a number of resource blocks while each resource block is assigned exclusively to one UE at any
time. Physical resource blocks (PRBs) and virtual resource blocks (VRBs) are defined to support
different kinds of resource allocation types.
The VRB is introduced to support both block-wise transmission (localized) and transmission on non-
consecutive subcarriers (distributed) as a means to maximize frequency diversity. The LTE downlink
supports three resource allocation types: type 0, 1, and 2. The downlink scheduling is performed at the
eNode-B based on the channel quality information fed back from UEs, and then the downlink resource
assignment information is sent to UEs on the PDCCH channel.
A PRB is defined as consecutive OFDM symbols in the time domain and Consecutive
subcarriers in the frequency domain, as shown in figure 5.27. Therefore, each PRB corresponds to one
slot in the time domain (0.5 ms) and 180 kHz in the frequency domain. PRBs are numbered from 0 to
in the frequency domain. The PRB number of a resource element (k, l) in a slot is given
by
𝑘
The PRB is to support resource allocations of type 0 and type 1, which are defined for the DCI format 1,
2, and 2A.
In type 0 resource allocations, several consecutive PRBs constitute a resource block group (RBG), and
the resource allocation is done in units of RBGs. Therefore, a bitmap indicating the RBG is sufficient to
carry the resource assignment. The allocated RBGs to a certain UE do not need to be adjacent to each
other, which provide frequency diversity. The RBG size P, that is, the number of PRBs in each RBG,
depends on the bandwidth and is specified in Table 5.6. An example of type 0 resource allocation is
shown in Figure 5.28, where P = 4 and RBGs 0, 3, 4,.. are allocated to a particular UE.
In type 1 resource allocations, all the RBGs are grouped into a number of RBG subsets, and certain
PRBs inside a selected RBG subset are allocated to the UE.
There are a total of P RBG subsets, where P is the RBG size. An RBG subset p, where 0≤ p < P, consists
of every P-th RBG starting from RBG p.

Therefore the resource assignment information consists of three fields:

The first field indicates the selected RBG subset,
The second field indicates whether an offset is applied and
The third field contains the bitmap indicating PRBs inside the selected RBG subset.
Table5.7 :Resource Allocation RBG Size vs. Downlink System Bandwidth
Fig. 5.28 Examples of resource allocation type 0 and type 1, where the RBG size P=4
This type of resource allocation is more flexible and is able to provide higher frequency diversity, but it
also requires a larger overhead.
An example of type resource allocation is shown in Figure 5.28, where P = 4 and the RBG subset 0
selected for the given UE.

In type 2 resource allocations that are defined for the DCI format 1A, 1B, 1C and 1D, PRBs are not
directly allocated. Instead, VRBs are allocated, which are then mapped onto PRBs. A VRB is of the same
size as a PRB. There are two types VRBs ; VRBs of the localized type and VRBs of the distributed type.
5.9.4 Supported MIMO Modes.

Multi antenna transmission and reception (MIIMO) is a physical layer technique that can improve both the
reliability and throughput of the communication over wireless channels.
It is considered a key component of the LTE physical layer from the start.
The baseline antenna configuration in LTE is two transmit antennas at the cell site and two receive antennas at
the UE.
The higher-order downlink MIMO is also supported with up to four transmit and four receive antennas.
The downlink transmission supports both single-user MIMO (SU-MIMO) and multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO).
For SU-MIMO, one or multiple data streams are transmitted to a single UE through space-time processing: for
MU-MIMO, modulation data streams are transmitted to different UEs using the same time-frequency resource.
The supported ST-MIMO modes are listed as follows:
 Transmit diversity with space frequency block codes (SFBC)
 Open-loop spatial multiplexing supporting four data streams
 Closed-loop spatial multiplexing, with closed-loop precoding as a special case when channel rank = 1.
 Conventional direction of arrival (DOA)-based beamforming
The supported MIMO mode is restricted by the UE capability. The PDSCH physical channel supports all
the MIMO modes, while other physical channels support transmit diversity except PMCH, which only
supports single-antenna-port transmission,
5.10. Uplink SC-FDMA Radio Resources.

For the LTE uplink transmission, SC-FDMA with a CP is adopted. SC-FDMA possesses most of the merits of
OFDM while enjoying a lower PAPR. A lower PAPR is highly desirable in the uplink as less expensive power
amplifiers are needed at UEs and the coverage is improved.
In LTE, the SC-FDMA signal is generated by the DFT-spread-OFDM. Compared to conventional OFDM, the SC-
FDMA receiver has higher complexity, which however, is not considered to be an issue in the uplink given the
powerful computational capability at the base station.
An SC-FDMA transceiver has a similar structure as OFDM, so the parameterization of radio resource in the uplink
enjoys similarities to that in the downlink. Nevertheless, the uplink transmission has its own properties. Different
from the downlink, only localized resource allocation on consecutive subcarriers is allowed in the uplink.
In addition, only limited MIMO modes are supported in the uplink.

5.10.1. Frame Structure

The uplink frame structure is similar to that for the downlink. The difference is that now we talk about SC-FDMA
symbols and SC-FDMA subcarriers. In frame structure type 1, an uplink radio frame consists of 20 slots of 0.5 ms
each, and one subframe consists of two slots, as in Figure 5.25. Frame structure type 2 consists of ten subframes,
with one or two special subframes including DwPTS, GP, and UpPTS fields, as shown in Figure 5.26. A CP is
inserted prior to each SC-FDMA symbol. Each slot carries seven SC-FDMA symbols in the case of normal CP, and
six SC-FDMA symbols in the case of extended CP.
5.10.2 Physical Resource Blocks for SC-FDMA
As SC-FDMA can be regarded as conventional OFDM with a DFT-based precoder, the f our grid for the uplink
is similar to the one for the downlink, illustrated in figure 5.29, that is, it comprises a number of resource blocks
in the time-frequency plane.
The number of resource blocks in each resource grid, NH depends on the uplink transmission bandwidth
configured in the cell and should satisfy
Where Correspond to the smallest and largest uplink bandwidth respectively

there are
Resource elements in each resource block.
5.10.3 Resource Allocation
 Similar to the downlink, shared-channel transmission and channel-dependent scheduling are supported
in the uplink. Resource allocation in the uplink is also performed at the eNode-B.
 Based on the channel quality measured on the uplink sounding reference signals and the scheduling
requests sent from UES, the eNode-B assigns a unique time frequency resource to a scheduled UE,
which achieves orthogonal intra-cell transmission.
 Such intra-cell orthogonality in the uplink is preserved between UEs by using timing advance such
that the transport blocks of different UEs are received synchronously at the eNode-B.
 This provides significant coverage and capacity gain in the uplink over UMTS, which employ's non-
orthogonal transmission in the uplink and the performance is limited by inter-channel interference.
 In general, SC- FDMA is able to support both localized and distributed resource allocation.
 In the current specification, only localized resource allocation is supported in the uplink, which
preserves the single-carrier property and can better exploit the multiuser diversity gain in the

frequency domain.
Fig. 5.29: The structure of the uplink resource gird
 Compared to distributed resource allocation, localized resource allocation is less sensitive to

frequency offset and also requires fewer reference symbols.
 The resource assignment information for the uplink transmission is carried on the PDCCH with DCI
format 0, indicating a set of contiguously allocated resource blocks.
 However, not all integer multiples of one resource block are allowed to be assigned to a UE, which is to
simplify the DFT design for the SC-FDMA transceiver.
 Only factors 2, 3, and 5 are allowed. The frequency hopping is supported to provide frequency diversity,
with which the UEs can hop between frequencies within or between the allocated subframes.
5.10.4. Supported MIMO Modes
 For the MIMO modes supported in the uplink, the terminal complexity and cost are among the major
concerns.
 MU-MIMO is supported, which allocates the same time and frequency resource to two UEs with each
transmitting on a single antenna. This is also called Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA).
 The advantage is that only one transmit antenna per UE is required. To separate streams for different
UEs, channel state information is required at the eNode-B, which is obtained through uplink reference
signals that are orthogonal between UEs.
 Uplink MU-MIMO also requires power control, as the near-far problem arises when multiple UEs are
multiplexed on the same radio resource.
 For UEs with two or more transmit antennas, closed loop adaptive antenna selection transmit diversity
shall be supported.
 Here UE only needs one transmit chain and amplifier. The antenna selection is based on feedback from
eNode-B.
TEXT BOOK
 “Fundamentals of LTE” Arunabha Ghosh, Jan Zhang, Jefferey Andrews, Riaz Mohammed,
Pearson education (Formerly Prentice Hall, Communications Engg and Emerging Technologies),
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-703311-9.

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Module1_WCC

Mobile Radio Propagation –

1. Mobile Radio Propagation – The Cellular Concept, Fading and Multipath

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 1

Fig. 1.1 Small-scale and large-scale fading

1.2. Free Space Propagation Model,

where Pt, is the transmitted power,

Pr(d) is the received power which is a function of the T-R separation,

Gr, is the receiver antenna gain,

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 2

The Fraunhofer distance is given by

Received power in free space at a distance greater than is given by

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 3

If is in units of dBm the received power is given by

( )is in units of watts.

using equation (1.7a) far field distance is obtained as

Example2: The transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the transmit power in

using equation 1.9

the transmitter power

the receiver power can be obtained using the equation 1.1

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 4

1.3. Relating Power to Electric Field,

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 5

In free space, the power flux density (expressed in W/m2) is given by

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 6

= -91.5 dBW = -61.5 dBm

1.4. Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 7

Figure 1.4 a) E-field in the plane of incidence

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 8

Figure 1.4 b) E-field normal to the plane of incidence

In figure i, r, and t refer to Incident, reflected and transmitted fields.

is the conductivity of the material measured in Siemens/meter

is the intrinsic impedance of the ith medium (i=1,2) √ ⁄

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 9

is either || or ⟂, depending on weather the E-field is in vertical or normal to the plane

Where is the angle between the two sets of axes.

The depolarization Matrix is given by

for the case of reflection and for the case of transmission.

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 10

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 11

Figure 1.6 Magnitude of reflection coefficients as a function of angle of incidence for

1.5.2 Brewster Angle

Brewster angle occurs only for vertical polarization

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 12

Thus Brewster angle for e, = 4 is equal to 26.56

1.5.3 Reflection from perfect conductor

and (E-filed in plane of incidence ( )

(E-filed normal to the plane of incidence) ( )

1.6. Ground Reflection (two Ray model)

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 13

Figure 1.7 Two ray ground ray reflection model.

According to laws of reflection in dielectrics given in Section 1.5.1

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 14

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 15

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 16

Using trigonometric identities, Equation (1.47) can be expressed as

which implies that Equation (1.48) may be simplified whenever

Thus, as long as d satisfies (1.50), the received E-field can be approximated as

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 17

A Length of the antenna, L = /4 = 0.333/4 0.0833 m = 8.33 cm.

Dr. Asha K, SVIT Bangalore-64 Page 18

Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed region.