CHAPTER 7
Choose the right setting Establishing a trusting
ASSESSMENT OF THE LEARNERS
Learner Characteristics
1. Culture
2. Age
3. Emotional Status
4. Socio-economic level
Determinants of Learning
► The first and the most important step in
instructional design:
► 1. Nursing Assessment of Needs
► 2. Readiness to Learn
► 3. Styles of Learning
► The effectiveness of nursing interventions clearly
depends on the scope, accuracy, and
comprehensiveness of assessment prior to
interventions.
Assessing learning needs
► Learning needs must be examined first because
there may be no reason to assess readiness to learn
or learning styles if, by chance, learning needs are
non–existent.
► Assessment is essential to determine learning
needs so that an instructional plan can be designed
to address deficits in any of the cognitive, affective,
or psychomotor domains.
► The purposes of assessing learning needs are
1. to discover what has to be taught and
2. to determine the extent of instruction or if
instruction is necessary at all.
Learning Needs
► defined as gaps in knowledge that exist between
a desired level of performance and the actual level of
performance.
► A learning need is the gap between what
someone knows and what someone needs to know.
► Such gaps exist because of a lack of knowledge,
attitude, or skill.
The important steps in the assessment of learning
need
1. Identify the learner The development of formal
and informal education programs for patients and
their families, nursing staff, or students must be
based on accurate identification of the learner. For
example, an educator may believe that all post-
partum mothers need a formal class on safety issues
for the newborn .His perception may be based on
the educator’s interaction with one patient and may
not be true of all post-partum mothers.
2.
environment will help learners feel a sense of
security in confiding information, believe their
concerns are taken seriously and considered
important, and feel respected. Assuring privacy and
confidentiality is essential to establishing a trusting
relationship.
3. Collect data on the learner Once the learner is
identified, the educator can determine the
characteristic needs of the population
▪ exploring typical health problems or issues of
interest to that population.
4. Include the learner as a source of information
Learners themselves are usually the most important
source of needs assessment data. Actively engaging
learners in defining their own problems and needs
allow them to learn in the process and also
motivates them to learn because they have an
investment in planning for a program specifically
tailored to their unique circumstances.
5. Involve members of the healthcare team Other
healthcare professionals may have insight into
patients' or family needs or the educational needs of
the nursing staff or students as a result of their
frequent contact with consumers as well as
caregivers. Nurses are not the sole teachers, and
they must remember to collaborate with other
members of the healthcare team for a richer
assessment of learning needs.
6. Prioritize needs A list of needs can become endless
and seemingly impossible to accomplish. Maslow’s
(1970) hierarchy of human needs may help the
educator prioritize identified learning needs The
educator can then assist the learner to meet the
most basic need first.
7. Determine the availability of educational
resources If the proper equipment is not available
for demonstration/return demonstration at that
moment, it might be better for the nurse educator to
concentrate on teaching the signs and symptoms the
patient might experience when having poor
exchange than to cancel the encounter altogether.
Thereafter, the educator would work immediately
on obtaining the necessary equipment for future
encounters.
8. Assess demands of the organization The educator
should be familiar with the standards of
performance required in various employee
categories, along with job descriptions and hospital,
professional, and agency regulations.
▪ If, for example, the organization is focused on
health promotion versus trauma care, then there
likely will be a different educational focus or
emphasis that dictates the learning needs of both
consumers and employees.
9. Take time–management issues into account the
educator should emphasize some important points
with respect to time-management issues:
▪ do a good initial assessment than have to waste
time going back to discover the obstacles to learning
that prevented progress in the first place.
▪ Learners must be given time to offer their own
perceptions of their learning needs if the educator
expects them to take charge and become actively
involved in the learning process.
Methods to Assess Learning Needs
 The nurse educator must obtain objective
data about, and subjective data from, the
learner. This can be achieved by using one or
more of the following methods:
1. Informal conversation:
▪ Often, learning needs are identified during
informal talks with other healthcare
providers, and between the nurse and the
patient/ family.
2. Structured interviews:
▪ The nurse asks the patient direct and often
predetermined questions.
▪ Establishing trust, using open-ended
questions, a quiet environment, and allowing
the patient to state what his learning needs
are, merit attention.
3. Focus groups:
▪ The educator gets together 4-12 learners to
determine areas of educational need.
▪ The educator leads the discussion and asks
open-ended questions.
4. Self-administered questionnaires:
▪ The learner’s responses to questions about
learning needs can be obtained by self-
administered questionnaires.
5. Tests:
▪ Written pre-tests given before teaching can
help identify the knowledge level of learners
regarding a particular subject matter and
assist in identifying the specific needs of
learners.
▪ Tests are useful as they prevent the
educator from repeating already-known
material.
6. Observation:
▪ Watching a learner perform a skill more
than once is an excellent way of assessing
psychomotor needs.
▪ Educators can assess whether all steps are
performed correctly.
Readiness to Learn
▪ Can be defined as the time when the
learner demonstrates an interest in learning
the type or degree of information necessary
to maintain optimal health or to become
more skillful in a job.
▪ Readiness to learn can be determined by
the learner’s characteristics as follows:
P – Physical Readiness Measures of ability
Complexity of task Environmental effects
Health status Gender
E – Emotional Readiness Anxiety level
Support system Motivation Risk-taking
behavior Frame of mind Developmental
stage
E – Experiential Readiness Level of
Aspiration Past coping mechanisms Cultural
background Locus of control Orientation
K – Knowledge Readiness Present knowledge
base Cognitive ability Learning disabilities
Learning styles.
A. Physical Readiness
1. Measures of Ability
▪ Strength, flexibility, and endurance must be
present.
▪ If the task requires gross movements using
the large muscles of the body, then adequate
2. Complexity of Task
▪ In learning to perform a skill, the nurse
educator must take into account the
difficulty level of the subject or task to be
mastered by the learner.
3. Environmental Effects
▪ An environment conducive to learning will
help to keep the learner’s attention and
stimulate interest in learning.
4. Health status
▪ Assessment of the learner’s health status is
important to determine the amount of
energy available as well as present comfort
 level --- both of these factors heavily
influence one’s readiness to learn.
5. Gender
▪ Research has indicated that women are
generally more receptive to medical care and
take fewer risks to their health than men.
This difference may arise because women
traditionally have taken the role of
caregivers and therefore are more open to
health promotion teaching.
B. Emotional Readiness
1. Anxiety level
▪ Anxiety is a factor that influences the
ability to perform at a cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor level.
▪ Depending on the level of anxiety, it may
or may not be a hindrance to the learning of
new skills.
▪ Fear is a major contributor to anxiety and
thus negatively affects readiness to learn in
any of the learning domains.
2. Support system
▪ The availability and strength of a support
system also influence emotional readiness
and are closely tied to how anxious someone
might feel.
3. Motivation
▪ The motivation and interest on the part of
the learner to achieve a task also led to more
meaningful teaching --- learning experiences.
4. Risk-Taking Behavior
▪ Educators can help nurses and other
healthcare providers learn how to take risks.
1. the decision has to be made to take the
risk.
2. develop strategies to minimize the risk.
3. the learner must decide whether the
worst–case scenario developed is acceptable.
4. Frame of mind
▪ Frame of mind involves concern about the
here and now.
▪ If survival is of primary concern, then
readiness to learn will be focused on meeting
basic human needs.
▪ Physical needs such as food, warmth,
comfort, and safety as well as psychosocial
needs of feeling accepted and secure must
be met before someone can focus on higher
learning.
5. Developmental Stage
▪ Each task associated with human
development produces a peak time for
readiness to learn, known as a “teachable
moment”.
▪ They see learning as relevant when they
can apply new knowledge to help them solve
immediate problems.
C. Experiential readiness
1. Level of aspiration
▪ The extent to which someone is driven to
achieve is related to the type of short- and
long-term goals established, not by the
educator, but by the learner.
2. Past coping mechanisms
▪ The coping mechanisms someone has been
using must be explored to understand how
the learner has dealt with previous
problems. 3. Cultural Background
▪ Knowledge on the part of the educator
about other cultures and being sensitive to
behavioral differences between cultures are
important to avoid teaching in opposition to
cultural beliefs.
3. Locus of control
▪ Internal locus control ― they are ready to
learn
▪ External locus control ― they are externally
motivated --- then someone other than
themselves must encourage a feeling of
wanting to know something.
4. Orientation
▪ The tendency to adhere to a parochial or
cosmopolitan point of view is known as
orientation.
D. Knowledge readiness Present knowledge base
▪ How much someone already knows about a
particular subject or how proficient that
person is at performing a task is an
important factor to determine before
designing and implementing instruction.
Cognitive ability
▪ The extent to which information can be
processed is indicative of the level at which
the learner is capable of learning.
Learning styles
▪ A variety of preferred styles of learning
exist, and assessing how someone learns
best will help the educator to select teaching
approaches accordingly.
Learning disabilities
▪ Other than those deficits and low-level
reading skills are not necessarily indicative of
an individual’s intellectual abilities but will
require special or innovative approaches to
 instruction to sustain or bolster readiness to Methods, Strategy, Aid, Approach
learn.  Teaching Method tend to be synonymous
with technique according to Webster
Learning styles  Teaching Strategy – “careful plan” that
▪ Refer to the ways individuals process serves an important function in achieving a
information. specific outcome.
Each learner is unique and complex, with a distinct  Instructional aids includes:
learning style preference that distinguishes one  Chalkboard, Flip chart, PowerPoint
learner from another.  Overheads, VCR, Real Objects, etc.
Six learning style principles  Teaching Approach is a “holistic process”
1. Both the style by which the teacher prefers to  Includes the teaching steps, problem-solving
teach and the style by which the students prefer to strategies, and teaching methods.
learn can be identified. What Factors do we consider when selecting an
▪ Identification of different styles offers specific clues instructional method?
as to the way a person learns. 1. The intended specific outcome or purpose
2. Teachers need to guard against over-teaching by 2. Size of group
their own preferred learning styles. 3. Learners’ preference for learning (learning
▪ Nurse educators need to realize that just because styles)
they gravitate to learning a certain way, it does not 4. The content sometimes dictates the
mean that everyone else can or wants to learn this method
way. 5. Required preparation
3. Teachers are most helpful when they assist
students in identifying and learning through their Teaching strategies classification
own style preferences. A. Teacher controlled teaching (monologue,
▪ Making learners aware of their individual style autocratic teaching)
preferences will lead to an understanding of which B. Interactive procedure of teaching
teaching–learning approaches work best for them. (Democratic, dialogue teaching)
4. Students should have the opportunity to learn C. Learning controlled teaching ( self-study,
through their preferred style. laissez– faire teaching)
▪ The nurse educator can provide the means by D. Group controlled teaching (Action
which each learner can experience successful oriented, democratic teaching)
learning. E. Clinical teaching method
5. Students should be encouraged to diversify their
style preferences. A. Teacher controlled teaching (monologue,
▪ Today, learners are constantly faced with learning autocratic teaching)
situations where one approach to learning will not 1. Lecture methods
suffice if they are to reach their fullest potential. 2. Demonstration methods
6. Teachers can develop specific learning activities 3. Lecture demonstration
that reinforce each modality or style. 4. Team teaching methods
▪ Nurse educators must become aware of various 5. Individualized instruction
methods and materials available to address and
augment the different learning styles B. Interactive procedure of teaching (Democratic,
dialogue teaching)
CHAPTER 8 1. Question answer method
Teaching/Instructional Methods 2. Interactive procedure
Definition 3. Group discussion methods
 Instructional strategies determine the 4. Tutorial methods
approach a teacher may take to achieve 5. Seminar methods
learning objective. 6. Panel methods
 Instructional methods are used by teachers 7. Symposium
to create learning environments.
 Teaching methods is the stimulation, C. Learning controlled teaching ( self-study, laissez
guidance, direction and encouragement for – faire teaching)
learning. 1. Programmed instruction
2. Self-directed learning (SDL)
3. Library methods •A lecture (from the Latin “Lectura” meaning
4. Computer assisted instruction “reading” (process) is an oral presentation
5. Laboratory methods intended to present information or teach people
6. Assignments about particular subject.

D. Group controlled teaching (Action oriented, LECTURE DELIVERY

democratic teaching) •Speaker-audience distance
1. Project methods •Body movement and stand
2. Simulation instruction •Facial expression
3. Field trip •Gesture
4. Field work, survey •Voice Strength
5. Workshop •Enunciation
6. Problem- solving method •Pronunciation
7. Problem based learning •Rate of Speech
8. Role play •Variety
9. Narrative •Pauses
10. Conducting experience L - Lively
11. Story telling E – Educative
12. Field observation C – Creative
13. Model building T – Though provoking
14. Buzz sessions U – Understanding
R – Relevant
E. Clinical teaching method E – Enjoyable
1. Client family centered methods
2. Observation PLANNING THE LECTURE
3. Conference •Before starting to prepare a lecture, the teacher
a) Clinical conference must be able to answer four basic questions:
b) Individual conference  Who is your audience? (Who)
c) Group conference  What is the purpose of your lecture? (Why)
d) Staff conference  How much time is available? – How long
e) Nursing care conference  What is the subject matter? What
4. Bedside clinic
5. Nursing rounds and medical rounds ADVANTAGES OF LECTURE METHODS
6. Demonstration and re-demonstration of •Factual information
procedure •Useful for large gathering
7. Ward teaching •Cost effective
8. Ward class •Quick and straightforward way
9. Ward clinic •Useful methods for auditory learner
10. Case study/ case presentation/ case history •Easier to create
methods •Familiar methods
11. Group discussion •Time saving
12. Brain storming methods
13. Process recording DISADVANTAGES
14. Laboratory methods •Content centered
15. Planned health talks •One sided affair
16. Nursing care study •Need proficient oral skills – teacher need oral skill
17. Organizing exhibition in delivering lecture. If they don’t have this skill then
18. Incidental teaching lecture become boring and uninteresting.
19. Problem solving methods •Passive audience
20. Research projects •Minimizes feedback
•No place for any practical activity, observation
LECTURE METHODS experimentation and demonstration.
•The lecture is a teaching procedure consisting of the •Failure with student of lower class. Not appropriate
clarification or the explanation of facts, principles, or for children below grade 4.
relationships.
HOW TO IMPROVE LECTURE METHOD
•Fit the lecture to the audience
•Focus your topic
•Prepare an outline that includes 5-9 major points
you want to cover in one lecture.
•Organize your points for clarity
•Repeat point when necessary
•Be aware of your audience – notice their feedback
•Be enthusiastic
A GOOD LECTURE
•Tailor speech and writing
•Proper use of body language
•Topic based on need and interest
•Clarify concepts with examples
•Lecture with receptivity of students
•Manage lecture in time
•Avoid annoying mannerisms
Using the Lecture Method
1. Lecture Introduction (1st 5 min.)
▪ Outlines the obj., outcomes and expectations.
▪ Outline the key concepts that will be addressed.
▪ Rationale for the lecture.
▪ Conclude intro by establishing an open
atmosphere,
2. Body of the lecture
▪ Begin with definition of concepts, principles.
▪ Should be well-organized, with smooth transitions
between topics.
3. Lecture conclusion (last 5 min.)
▪ Objectives and outcomes statements should be
reiterated
▪ Review of the key points or topics covered (recap).
▪ Clarification of issues presented.
▪ Offering suggestions related to the application and
transfer of knowledge.
Points to polish your Presentation Skills
1. Convey enthusiasm
2. Know the content
3. Use notes.
4. Speak to an audience of 200 as if they were a
single student.
5. Make an eye contact.
6. Use creative movement.
7. The use of a stage or podium places an automatic
barrier between the speaker and the listeners.
8. Create a change of pace.
9. Distribute a skeletal outline only if it will help the
learners to identify key points.
DISCUSSION METHODS
•Discussion involves two-way communication
between participants
•In the classroom situation an instructor and
trainees all participate in discussion
•During discussion, the instructor spends some time
listening while trainees spend sometimes talking
•The discussion is , therefore, a more active learning
experience for the trainees than lecture
•A discussion is the means by which people share
experiences, ideas, and attitudes
•As it helps to foster trainee’s involvement in what
they are learning, it may contribute to desired
attitudinal changes.
DEFINITION
•The group discussion defined as the process of
reaching and counters reaction between two or
more than two person on a common subject with the
objective of achieving some specific conclusion or
result.
ADVANTAGE OF DISCUSSION METHODS
•Effective learning
•Emphasis on students experience
•Development of critical thinking
•Participation of everybody
•Self-expression
•Peer learning is the one of the most direct benefits
resulting from the discussion methods.
DISADVANTAGE
•May dominate with personal feeling
•Chances of deviation from topic
•Dominance by a person
SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION
•Small group have fewer than 5-20 or so members
making it easier for people to actively participate.
•They meet as small gathering or as break-outs of
large meetings and offer may opportunities for
creative, flexible interchange of ideas
IMPORTANT FEATURE
•Actively participated and interaction
•There is time limit for given activity
•Specific task then or goal
•Participation is improved
•Group members are activated
•Enhance contribution from members
SPECIFIC SMALL GROUP TECHNIQUE
INCLUDE
•Breakouts groups
•Workshop
•Roundtable
•Study circle
LIMITATION
BUZZ METHOD •Depends on the leader
•The buzz group technique is a patient discussion •Cannot be used in all situations
group with a high degree of student involvement in •It is useful in defining problem or questions,
which small group of 2-3 participants discuss a developing a list possible goals, refining ideas
specific question or issue in order to come-up with
many ideas in short time. ACTIVITY-BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES
•Buzz group is cooperative learning technique •Activity implies active learning on the part of the
consisting in the formation of small discussion learner. All of the strategies discussed in this
groups with the objective of developing a specific chapter, cooperative learning, simulations and
task (idea generation, problem-solving, and so on) or games, case-study, problem-based learning and self-
facilitating that a group of people reach a consensus learning modules-require the learner to do more
on their ideas about a topic in a specific period of than listen and study
time. •Learners engaged in these strategies are involved in
creating and storing up knowledge for themselves
FEATURES OF BUZZ GROUP DISCUSSION
•Small group (2-3 participants) COOPERATIVE LEARNING
•Method is informal •Cooperative learning is not new. It is based on the
•No need to move for discussion/no need of premise that learners work together and are
syndicate rooms responsible for not only their own learning but also
•Discussion on only one issue, questions, point (no for the learning of other group members (Lindauer
need of in-depth analysis) and Petrie, 1997)
•Less time consuming (5-15 min.) •A working definition of cooperative learning is that
•Can be used as “ice Breaker” involves structuring small groups of learners who
•Buzz group leader is not there work together toward achieving shared learning
•Can be used as a supplemented method of other goals.
methods
•Allocate 5-10 min. time for discussion TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING
•Have them share and discuss on their points within GROUPS
group
Formal Informal Based Groups
•Supervise each group and encourage individuals to Groups Groups
participate Purpose To complete To enhance To provide
•Stop discussion after the allocated time has expired a specific understanding encouragement
learning task of a specific and to monitor
•Ask each group to share their points preferably one consisting of unit of progress
points from each group at a time concepts information; throughout the
skills. to make learning
•Record them on the board or chart sheet connections experience
•Discuss on the points and conclude to prior to
•Relate them with the key learning points learning
Length of One class to No more than Usually long
existence many weeks one class and term
ADVANTAGE perhaps for
•Every person in group is involved in discussion only few
minutes
•Produce useful resulting in minimum time during a class
•Wholesome effects on group members
•Creates informal atmosphere ADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING
1. Group members learn to function as a part of a
DISADVANTAGES team
•Effectiveness of the group may be lowered by the 2. Working in a group for any length of time can
immature behavior of a few. teach or enhance social skills
•It may not be effective for younger groups or 3. Cooperative learning groups can help to address
groups that know each other too well each other’s individual learning needs and learning styles
opinions seriously 4. Cooperative learning is the fact that critical
•It can be time consuming when dealing with very thinking is promoted.
large group

SIMULATIONS
• Simulations are controlled representations of
reality.
• They are exercises that learners engage in order to
learn about the real world without the risk of real
world thereby it adds fun
• Simulation exercise is a controlled representation
of a piece of reality that learners can manipulate to
better understand the corresponding real situation
• It primarily focuses on process learning.
Participants learn how to make decisions, solve
problems or application of theory
• Many organizations apply this process like for
instance Wildman and Reeves (1997) used
simulation exercise to teach nursing students how to
apply management theories to organize the work of
a hospital clinic unit
• It is designed to help learners apply and masters
psychomotor and clinical skills
4 TYPES OF SIMULATIONS
Simulation Games
•focus on either content or process learning
1. Content games - focus on teaching or
reinforcing factual information. Crossword puzzles
and Bingo games are examples that aim to teach
terminology and help previously learned facts
2. Process learning - emphasizes problem-solving
or application of information. An example of
simulation game is Sim City described by Bareford
(2001) as the use of computer program to help
nursing students apply critical thinking skills to
community assessment and planning.
Role Playing
•A form of drama in which learners spontaneously
act out roles in an interaction involving the play, the
participants do not have script to follow and no
rehearse because they are given only a written or
verbal explanation of the simulated situation and are
expected to have enough general knowledge about
the situation.
•This teaching method is effective in helping people
gain skill in interpersonal conflicts.
•It is a means of helping people develop the quality
of empathy and to understand social problems of
groups of people.
Case Studies
•It is an analysis of an incident or situation in which
characters and relationships are described, factual or
hypothetical evens transpire, and problems need to
be resolved or solved.
•Case studies can be used successfully to apply
principles discussed in class, to encourage
independent study and critical thinking and to safely
expose learners to real world situations they will
encounter in the future.
•When you would like to provide learners with
certain decision-making clinical experiences but
cannot do so for various practical reasons, a case
study can be used to provide at least part of that
experience vicariously.
•Case study can range from the simples and short to
complex and lengthy.
TEACHING APPROACH
Problem-based learning
•It is an approach to learning that involves
confronting students with real-life problems.
•It is based on the premise that students:
•Working together in small groups Analyze a case
•Identify their own needs for information
Self-learning modules
•a.k.a. self-directed learning modules, self-paced
learning modules, self-learning packets, and
individualized learning activity packages.
• a self-contained unit or package of study materials
for use by an individual
Self-directed learning is based on some of the
principles of adult learning such as:
1. Adults are self-motivated to learn material for
which they see relevance.
2. Adult’s prior experience is a resource for further
learning.
3. Adults are problem focused and readily learn
material they can use to solve problems
COMPONENTS OF SELF-LEARNING
MODULES
•Introduction and instructions
•Behavioral objectives
•Pre test
•Learning activities
•Self-evaluation
•Post test
Introduction and Instructions
•Tells the learner how to work through the module,
how to use the pretest and self-evaluation guides,
where to locate resources, what procedures to use
for handing in assignments or scheduling skills test
and what are the roles of the educator and learner
are.
Behavioral Objectives
•Express in clear language, what the learner will be
able to do on completion of the module.
Pretest
•Include questions about the main topic
•Also include some questions that assess knowledge
of the content of the module itself.
Learning Activities
•make up the most creative portion of the self-
learning module
•designed that will help the learner achieve the
objective
•Activity should also appeal to people with differing
learning styles.
Self-evaluation
•Usually included at the end of every lesson or sub
concept
•Generally some form of quiz, either multiple choice
questions or short answer questions.
Post test
•Used to determine whether learners have mastered
module objectives
TEACHING PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The Psychomotor Domain
•Includes the skills requiring the use and
coordination of skeletal muscles, as in the physical
activities of performing, manipulating, and
constructing.
Psychomotor Objectives - Levels
Imitation
•demonstrates an observed action
Manipulation
•performs an action
Precision
•performs an action with accuracy
Articulation
•Performs a coordinated activity in an efficient. and
coordinated manner
Psychomotor Skills - Steps
•State the objective(s)
•Present an overview or demonstration
•Have learners perform the skill
•Provide guidance and feedback
•Gradually raise criteria for satisfactory performance
VISUAL AIDS
•What is a visual aid? Any slideshow, background,
prop, costuming, or other intentional object used to
help the audience focus, understand, or engage.
•Merriam-Webster: something you look at (such as a
chart or film) that is used to make something easier
to understand.
WHY USE VISUAL AIDS IN PRESENTATIONS?
•Makes presentation more interesting and lively
•Helps audience understand the presentation
•Helps speaker present information more
systematically
•Reinforce and add impact to information
• Illustrate a relationship between ideas
•Show information patterns or pictures
•Present figures, graphs or charts
•Summarize key points
•Help audience follow passages or quotations.
TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS
1) Handouts
•Audience can concentrate better
•Too many can be distracting
•Should be distributed earlier
2) Flipcharts
•Economical and easy to use
•Suitable for small groups
• Can be prepared in advance or spontaneously
•Make drafts and transfer to the flipchart
3) Photographs and prepared
diagrams/posters
•used at the precise moment to illustrate point
•visible throughout presentation
•consider how it should be displayed
•may need a pointer
4) Objects/models
•adds sensory dimension to presentation
•consider cost and benefit
5) Whiteboards
•Flexible and interactive
•suits small group
•Writing clearly can be slow.
•Back to the audience.
6) PowerPoint Slides
•Colorful and professional looking
•Suits groups of various sizes
•Hard to keep audience attentive
•Technical problems
•lighting issues

7) Video clip
•can show clips of specific examples discussed
•add another dimension to presentation
•possible technical problem

8) Transparencies
•can be prepared in advance
• can add or create transparencies while presenting
•Lighting problem

TIPS FOR DESIGNING VISUAL AIDS

•KEEP IT SIMPLE: Display ONE IDEA on each visual

•MINIMISE WORDS - 25 words/slide
•KEYWORDS and PHRASES
•COLOUR
 clear & appropriate
 One colour for main idea, two
complementary colour for sub points. - avoid
red-green and pastels
•LAYOUT and SPACE
•STYLE - Select one style and use consistently
•Text STYLE AND SIZE - Choose carefully
•AVOID GIMMICKS - Computer graphics
(background, patterns, clip art etc.) should be used
to enhance presentation.
•PROOFREAD! Proofreed! Profread! Proof read!
ProofreaD! Proofread!
•PLAN AHEAD
•INTEGRATE visual aids
•REHEARSE with your visual aids
• Maintain EYE CONTACT
•DO NOT READ from your visual aid
•STOP SPEAKING while audience read
•DO NOT PASS OUT items while presenting
•REVEAL AIDS only when NEEDED
•USE THEM, don’t just display them!
•CHECK ROOM & EQUIPMENT in advance
•CHECK visual is VISIBLE to audience