Data Collection, Survey

Preparation
BIOSTATISTICS 2023
ÇAĞLA ŞAFAK
1/5/2023
Reminder
Data is:

• Plural of datum.

• Facts that can be analyzed or used in an effort to gain knowledge or make

decisions; information (The Free Dictionary by Farlex. www.thefreedictionary.com/data).

• Factual information (such as measurements or statistics) used as a basis

for reasoning, discussion, or calculation (Merriam-Webster Dictionary,
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/data).

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Reminder

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Example:
Variables Qualitative Quantitative
Scale Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous
Color hair
Number of
accidents
Stage of cancer
Favourite pizza
Speed of cars.
Kinds of
smartphone
Pain intensity
Number of siblings
Height of children
Number of workers
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Education Levels
Example:
Variables Qualitative Quantitative
Scale Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous
Color hair X
Number of X
accidents
Stage of cancer X
Favourite pizza X
Speed of cars. X
Kinds of X
smartphone
Pain intensity X
Number of siblings X
Height of children X
Number of workers X
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Education Levels X
What is Data Collection?
• It is the process by which the
researcher collects the
information needed to answer
the research problem.

• The task of data collection

begins after a research
problem has been defined.

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Data Collection
• Aim of gathering and summarizing the
data: Transform data into meaningful
information in order to identify and
measure variables.

• An ideal data collection procedure should

be clear, unbiased, reliable and valid.

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In collecting the data, the researcher must
decide:

• Which data is to collect?

• How to collect the Data?

• Who will collect the Data?

• When to collect the Data?

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The Purpose of Data Collection
• To obtain information
• To keep on record
• To make decisions about
important issues
• To pass information on to
others

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Selection of methods of data collection
• Nature of phenomenon under study
• Type of research subjects
• Type of research study
• Purpose
• Size of sample
• Distribution of target population
• Time frame of study
• Literacy level of the subjects
• Availability of resources and manpower
• Researchers knowledge level and competence

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Criteria of evaluation/assessment of
collection methods

• Accuracy and completeness

• Compatibility with educational level, socio cultural
values and beliefs
• In accordance with nature of phenomenon,
purpose, time frame and resources

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Types of Data According to Source
Data may also be classified as Primary and Secondary.

• PRIMARY DATA

Primary data are those which are

collected for the first time and are
original in character.
• SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data are those which
have already been collected-by
someone else.
• Two important questions to be
considered are:
• Who will provide that data?
• Where will the data be collected?
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Data Collection Method
Primary Data Collection Method
• Involves data collection directly
from the subjects by the
researcher or trained data
collector.
• Data collected are specifically
for the purpose of research.
• Example: Surveys, Interview,
Observations etc.
Secondary Data Collection Methods
• It involves of use of the data
that were collected for various
purposes other than current
research.
• Example: Diaries, nurses notes,
care plans, patient medication
record, statistical absracts,
census reports neither
published or unpublished data
etc.
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Primary Data

Advantages
• Tailored according to research
needs
• The researcher can determine
exactly what data will be
collected and can identify the
specific tools that will be used.
• Defined and consistent protocol
• Completeness of data is ensured.
Disadvantages
• Time consuming.
• Rely on subjects recall and
communication abilities.
• Bias may accor due to various
factors.
• Need to check reliability of
raters.

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Secondary Data

Advantages Disadvantages
• It is easier and quicker. • Accuracy, completeness and
reliability depend upon original
• Absence of researcher’s
individual collecting the data.
biases.
• May not be suitable for
• Economical and time saving. answering current research
• Participant’s co-operation may question.
not be necessary it eliminates • Missed data and inaccuracy are
the biases related to common.
participant awareness. • Biases are commonly expected.
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Primary Data v/s Secondary Data

Primary Data Secondary Data

• Real time • Past data
• Sure about the sources • Not sure about sources
• Can answer research question. • Refining the research
• Cost and time. problem
• Can avoid bias • Cheap and no time
• More flexible • Bias can’t be ruled out
• Less flexible

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Methods of Collecting Primary Data
• There are several methods of collecting primary data:

• Observation
• Surveys
• Interviews
• Questionnaires
• Schedules

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Observation Method
• Observation method is a method under which data
from the field is collected with the help of
observation by the observer or by personally
going to the field.

• Is watching people, programs, events, communities,

etc.

• Involves all 5 senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, and

taste – observation includes more than just “seeing”

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Observation is used…
• To provide information about real-life situations
and circumstances

• To assess what is happening

• Because you cannot rely on participants’

willingness and ability to furnish information

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When is observation useful?
• When you want direct information
• When you are trying to understand an ongoing behavior,
process, unfolding situation, or event
• When there is physical evidence, products, or outcomes
that can be readily seen
• When written or other data collection methods seem
inappropriate

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Observations
Advantages Disadvantages
• Produces Large quantities of data. • May require training
• All data obtained from observations are • Observer’s presence may create artificial
usable. situation
• The observation technique can be stopped or • Interviewing selected subjects may provide
begun at any time. more information, economically, than waiting
• Relative Inexpensive for the spontaneous occurrence of the
situation.
– Potential for bias
– Potential to overlook meaningful aspects
– Potential for misinterpretation
– Difficult to analyze

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Observation – Purpose, benefits
• Can see things in their natural context
• Can see things that may escape conscious awareness, things that are not
seen by others
• Can discover things no else has ever really paid attention to, things that are
taken for granted
• Can learn about things people may be unwilling to talk about
• Inconspicuous – least potential for generating observer effects
• Least intrusive of all methods
• Can be totally creative – has flexibility to yield insight into new realities or
new ways of looking at old realities

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Observation – Limitations
• 1. Potential for bias

Effect of culture on what you observe and interpret

2. Reliability

Ease of categorization Usually you do not rely on

observation alone; combine your observations with
another method to provide a more thorough account of
your program.
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Steps For An Effective Observation
Determine what needs to be observed

Select participants
Random/Selected

Conduct the observation

(venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs )

Compile data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

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Types of OBSERVATION Methods
1- Structured Observation

When the observation is characterized by a careful definition of

the units to be observed (predefined), the style of recording the
observed information, standardized conditions of observation and
the selection of related data of observation.

2- Unstructured Observation
• When it takes place without the above characteristics.
• (Not predefined)

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Types of OBSERVATION Methods
3- Participant Observation

When the observer is member of the group which he is observing then it is Participant Observation.

4- Non-Participant Observation

When the observer is not the member of the group which he is observing then it is Non-
Participant Observation.

Observer is observing people without giving any information to them then it is Non-Paricipant
Observation.

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Types of OBSERVATION Methods
5- Uncontrolled Observation

When the observation takes place in natural contition i.e.,

uncontrolled observation.It is done to get spontaneous
picture of life and persons.

6- Controlled Observation

When observation takes place according to pre-arranged

plans, with experimental procedure then it is controlled
observation generally done in laboratory under controlled
condition.

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Steps in planning for observation
• Determine who/what will be observed.
• Determine aspects that will be observed (characteristics, attributes,
behaviors, etc.).
• Determine where and when observations will be made.
• Develop the observation record sheet.
• Pilot test the observation record sheet.
• Train the observers and have them practice.
• Collect the information.
• Analyze and interpret the collected information.
• Write up and use your findings.
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Who/what to observe
• People (individuals, groups, communities)
– Characteristics
– Interactions
– Behaviors
– Reactions
• Physical settings
• Environmental features
• Products/physical artifacts

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Recording your observations
• Observations need to be recorded to be credible.
• You might use:
– Observation guide
– Recording sheet
– Checklist
– Field note
– Picture
– Combination of the above

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Observational rating scales
• Written descriptions
– written explanations of each gradation to observe
• Photographs
– series of photos that demonstrate each of the grades on the rating
scale
• Drawings, sketches, etc.
– other visual representations of conditions to be observed

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Who are the observers?
• You
• program staff
• Participants
• Stakeholders
• Colleagues
• Volunteers
• College students

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Training observers
• Training is often necessary:

– To learn what to look for

– To learn how to record observations
– To practice
– When want standardized observations across sites: important that all
observers use same methods, rate same observation in same way

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Practice
• For our workshop today, what observational data could we collect
that would tell us …

– whether learning is occurring

– the characteristics of attendees
– whether the setting is conducive to learning
– whether the materials are easy to use

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Practice
• Imagine you are sitting in a room where ten youth are participating in
a computer demonstration.
• If you were looking for indicators of student interest and learning
from the demonstration, what would you look for? (Remember to
include verbal and nonverbal indicators.)

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Surveys
• ONE OF THE WIDELY USED RESEARCH DESIGN TO COLLECT DATA IS
Surveys.
• A structured way to collect information using questionnaires.
• A researcher can collect information either
by observation or by asking.

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Survey Methods
• Surveys are typically conducted through the mail (electronic or
surface), phone, or internet.
Survey
Methods

Telephonic Personal Electronic

Survey

In-Home Computer-Assisted E-mail Internet

Personal Interviewing
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Surveys are used…
• To collect standardized information from large numbers
of individuals

• When face-to-face meetings are inadvisable

• When privacy is important or independent opinions and

responses are needed

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Steps in planning a survey
1. Decide who should be involved in the process.
2. Define survey content.
3. Identify your respondents.
4. Decide on the survey method.
5. Develop the questionnaire.
6. Pilot test the questionnaire and other materials.
7. Think about analysis.
8. Communicate about your survey and its results.
9. Develop a budget, timeline, and management process.

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.Interview Method
• Talking and listening to people

• Verbally asking program participants the program

evaluation questions and hearing the participant’s
point of view in his or her own words.

• Interviews can be either structured or unstructured, in

person or over the telephone.

• Done face-to-face or over the phone

• Individual; group

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Interviews are useful…
• When the subject is sensitive

• When people are likely to be inhibited in

speaking about the topic in front of others

• When people have a low reading ability

• When bringing a group of people together is

difficult (e.g., in rural areas)
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Interviews
Advantages
• deep and free response
• flexible, adaptable
• glimpse into respondent’s tone,
gestures
• ability to probe, follow-up
Disadvantages
• costly in time and personnel
• requires skill
• may be difficult to summarize
responses
• possible biases: interviewer,
respondent, situation
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Types of interviewing
• 1- Structured Interviews :
• In this case, a set of predecided questions
are there.

• 2- Unstructured Interviews :
• In this case, we don’t follow a system of
pre-determined questions.

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3- Focused Group Interview

• Unstructured and Free flowing

• Focus Group has one Moderator
• Moderator maintains control and focuses discussion
• It involves 6 to 10 people
• Group interview start with broad topic and focus in on specific issues
• Relatively homogeneous
• Similar lifestyles and experiences
• Generate discussion and interaction
• Listens to what people have to say
• Everyone gets a chance to speak

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4- Clinical Interviews :

• Information is generated and utilized at every step this process

including the activities of investigation, observation,
monitoring, diagnosis, planning, treatment and review.

• They also record their plans, orders, procedures performed,

observations, test results, opinions and discussions.

5- Group Interviews :

• It is done in a group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.

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6- Qualitative and quantitative Interviews :

• It is divided on the basis of subject matter i.e., whether

qualitative or quantitative.

7- Individual Interviews :

• Interviewer meets a single person and interviews him.

8- Selection Interviews :

• Done for selection of people for certain Jobs.

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.Questionnaires
• Data collection instruments used to collect standardized
information that can be expressed numerically or through
short answers
• Basic instruments of surveys and structured interviews
• Appropriate when…
– you want information from many people
– you have some understanding of the situation and can ask
meaningful questions
– information is sensitive or private
− anonymous questionnaires may reduce bias
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Steps For An Effective Questionnaire
Prepare questions

(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies)

Select your respondents

Random/Selected

Administer the questionnaire

(date, venue, time )

Tabulate data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

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Questionnaires

Advantages Disadvantages
• can reach large numbers • might not get careful feedback
• provide for anonymity • wording can bias client’s
• relatively inexpensive response
• easy to analyze • response rate is often low
• literacy demands

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When should a questionnaire be used?
• Respondents can provide useful information about the topic.

• You know what it is you want to know and are reasonably sure
that you can ask standardized questions to get the information.

• Respondents can be relied upon to provide the information you

need (perhaps with incentives). This means they can
comprehend the questions and respond properly, they are
truthful, and they are motivated enough to respond carefully.

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Good questionnaires are NOT EASY!
• Developing a good questionnaire, takes time, time, and more
time.

• Multiple (even a dozen!) drafts may be involved before the

questionnaire is ready.

• It’s important to involve others in writing the questionnaire.

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Questionnaire design − Considerations
• Kind of information: What do you want to know? Is the information
already available?
• Wording of questions and responses
• Formatting the questionnaire
• Pre-testing
• Cover letters and introductions
• When/where will the questionnaire be distributed?
• How will returns be managed? How will the data be analyzed?
• Who is responsible for each task?

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Questionnaire design
• Is the information already available?

• Don’t ask a question unless it has a use.

– Eliminate the “nice to know.”

• What will you do with each piece of information gathered?

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Questionnaire design
• Write questions through your respondent’s eyes.

– Will the question be seen as reasonable?

– Will it infringe on the respondent’s privacy?
– Will the respondent be able and willing to answer the question?

• Be selective and realistic when writing questions.

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6 Steps In Developing Effective
Questionnaires
1. Decide what information you need.
2. Determine sample – respondents.
3. Develop accurate, user-friendly questionnaire.
4. Develop plan for distribution, return, and follow-up.
5. Provide clear instructions and a good cover letter.
6. Pilot test.

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Step 1: What information is needed?
• Be specific

• Need to know vs. would like to know

• Check to see if information exists elsewhere

• What do you want to be able to say: counts, percentages,

relationships, narratives

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Step 2: Sample
• Who will complete the questionnaire?

• What do you know about their preferences, abilities,

and cultural characteristics that may affect the way
they respond?

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Step 3: Develop questionnaire
• Make sure questions cover
information needed.
• Word questions carefully.
• Consider cultural nuances.
• Sequence questions
appropriately.
• Attend to formatting.
• Write clear, complete directions.
• Review to see if it is user-
friendly; consider the
respondent.
• Make the questionnaire
attractive.
• Work as a team.
• Plan on writing several draft
questionnaires.
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Step 4: Plan distribution, return, follow-up
Distribution: when, where

– At meetings, sites, through mail, email, internet

Return: when, where

– Return to individual, collection box

– Return envelope addressed/stamped
– Return envelope addressed only Follow-up

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Step 5: Cover Letter − Explanation
• Purpose of questionnaire
– how information will be used
• Why they are being asked to fill it out
• Importance of their response
• How and when to respond
• Whether response will be anonymous or confidential
• Your appreciation
• Promise results, if appropriate
• Signature − sponsorship

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Step 6: Pilot test
• Always with people as similar to respondents as possible

– Do they understand the questions? The instructions?

– Do questions mean same thing to all?
– Do questions elicit the information you want?
– How long does it take?

• Revise as necessary

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Kinds of information – What do you want to
know?
• Knowledge
− what people know, how well they understand something
• Beliefs
− attitudes, opinions
• Behaviors
− what people do
• Attributes/Demographics
− what people are and what people have

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Change in knowledge
• Impact of divorce on children
• As a result of this program, to what extent do you understand the
following about children and divorce:

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Types of questions
1- Open-ended questions
• This gives the respondents the ability to respond in their
own words.

2- Close-ended or fixed alternative questions

• This allows the respondents to choose one of the
given alternatives.
• Types:- Dichotomous questions and Multiple Questions.

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Open-ended questions
• Do not provide any specific responses from which the participant
would choose.
• Allow respondents to express their own ideas and opinions.

Examples:
• What communication skills did you learn in this workshop that you
will use with your children?
• What benefits do you receive from this organization?

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Closed-ended questions
• Provide specific answers from which the participant must choose.
• Sometimes called “forced choice.”
• Response possibilities include: one best
• Example − one best answer: What does the word “nutrition” mean to you?
(Circle one number.)
1. Getting enough vitamins
2. The food you eat and how your body uses it
3. Having to eat foods I don’t like
4. Having good health answer, multiple responses, rating, or ranking scale.

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Example − multiple responses:
• Of the communication skills taught in this workshop, which will you
use with your children? (Check all that apply.)

___active listening
___acknowledge feelings
___ask more open-ended questions
___provide one-on-one time for discussion
___negotiation
___other_____________________

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Example − rating scale:
• To what extent do you agree or disagree with the new
zoning code? (Circle one.)

1. Strongly disagree
2. Mildly disagree
3. Neither agree or disagree
4. Mildly agree
5. Strongly agree

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When wording the questions, consider…
• The particular people for whom the questionnaire is being
designed

• The particular purpose of the questionnaire

• How questions will be placed in relation to each other in

the questionnaire

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Use clear, specific, simple wording.
• Match vocabulary and reading skills of your respondents.

• Are any words confusing? Do any words have a double

meaning?

• Avoid the use of abbreviations and jargon.

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Example: Use clear, specific, simple wording
• Avoid jargon or technical language.

Jargon: What kind of post-litigation concerns have you and

your ex-spouse had?

Better: Since having your visitation rights set by a judge, what

other concerns have you and your ex-spouse had about
visitation?

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Include all necessary information.

• Avoid vague questions and answers.

• Avoid ambiguous words or phrases.

• Avoid questions that may be too specific.

• Avoid making assumptions.

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Example: Vague questions
• Vague: How will this seminar help you?

• Better: What skills did you learn in this seminar that will help you
follow the child custody arrangements set by the court?

____how to negotiate changes or with my ex-spouse

____how to explain visitation arrangements to my children
____steps to requesting a change in arrangements from the court
____how to separate child support from visitation disputes

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Example: Avoid ambiguous words or phrases.
• Ambiguous: How has your child demonstrated improved
communication skills since participating in “Let’s
Communicate”?

• Too specific: How many meals have you eaten as a family

during the past year?

___________ number of meals

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Example: Avoid making assumptions
• Question for teachers that makes assumptions: What practices have
you used to get more parents to read to their children?

• -maybe she didn’t use..

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Avoid leading questions.
• Biased questions

– Influence people to respond in a certain way

– Make assumptions about the respondent
– Use language that has strong positive or negative appeal

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Example: Leading questions
• Leading: Do you think this seminar will help you stop fighting
with your spouse about the children?

• Better: How do you think this seminar will help you work with
your spouse to address your children’s concerns?

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Avoid double-barreled questions
• Ask one question at a time.

• Avoid ambiguity
− questions that have multiple responses.

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Example: Double-barreled question
• Double: How will this seminar help you communicate better with
your children and their grandparents about your divorce?

• Better: How will this seminar help you communicate with your
children about your divorce? How will this seminar help you
communicate with your children’s grandparents about their
relationship with their grandchildren?

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Make the response categories clear, logical,
and mutually exclusive.

• Only one possible answer

• Similar-sized categories
• Responses in a logical order

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Example: Clear, logical, and mutually exclusive
responses

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Example: Vague quantifier
• Vague: How often did you
attend an Extension- • Better: How often did you
sponsored workshop during attend an Extension-sponsored
the past year? workshop during the past year?

a. Never a. Not at all

b. Rarely b. One to two times
c. Several times c. Three to five times
d. Many times d. More than five times

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Essentials of Good Questionnaire
• Should be short and simple
• Follow a sequence of questions from easy to
difficult one
• Technical terms should be avoided
• Should provide adequate space for answers in
questionnaire
• Directions regarding filling of questionnaire
should be given Physical Appearance – Quality
of paper, Color
• Sequence must be clear

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Schedules
• Very similar to Questionnaire method

• The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the

enumerator who is specially appointed for the purpose.

• Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them

the questions from the Questionnaire in the order
listed, and records the responses in the space
provided.

• Enumerator must be trained in administering the

schedule.

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Questionnaire Vs. Schedule
Questionnaire
• Q generally send to through
mail and no further assistance
from sender.
• Q is cheaper method.
• Non response is high.
• In questionnaire, it is not
confirmed that expected
respondent have filled the
answers.
Schedule
• Schedule is filled by the
enumerator or research
worker.
• Costly requires field workers.
• Non response is low.
• In schedule identity of person
is known.
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Questionnaire Vs. Schedule
Questionnaire
• Very slow method.
• Incomplete and wrong
• Information is more.
• No personal contacts.
• Depends on the quality of
questionnaire.
• Q can used only when respondent
is educated and well cooperative.
Schedule
• Information is collected well
on time.
• Depends on Honesty of the
enumerator.
• Direct personal contacts.
• Relatively more correct and
complete.
• Information can be collected
from illiterates also.
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Secondary Data Collection Methods
• Data gathered and recorded by
someone else.
• Secondary data is data that has been
collected for another purpose.
• It involves less cost, time and effort.
• Secondary data is data that is being
reused. Usually in a different context.
• For example: data from a book.

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SOURCES of secondary data collection
INTERNAL SOURCES
Internal sources of secondary data are usually for marketing
application-
• Sales Records
• Marketing Activity
• Cost Information
• Distributor reports and feedback
• Customer feedback

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External sources of secondary data

• Journals
• Books
• Magazines
• Newspaper
• Libraries
• The Internet

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Secondary Data Sources

• Other Sources of secondary data collection:

• Publications of Central, state , local government
• Technical and trade journals
• Books, Magazines, Newspaper
• Reports & publications of industry ,bank, stock exchange
• Reports by research scholars, Universities, economist
• Public Records

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Factors to be considered before using secondary
data
• Reliability of data - Who, when , which methods, at what time etc.
must be investigated.

• Suitability of data – Object ,scope, and nature of original inquiry

should be studied, as if the study was with different objective then
that data is not suitable for current study

• Adequacy of data– Level of accuracy, • Area differences then data is

not adequate for study

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Selection of proper Method for collection of Data

• Nature ,Scope and object of inquiry

• Availability of Funds

• Time Factor

• Accuracy Required

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disadvantages of secondary data Method

Advantages
• Ease of Access
• Low Cost to Acquire
• Clarification of Research
question
• May Answer Research Question
Disadvantages
• Quality of Research
• Not Specific to Researcher’s
Needs
• Incomplete Information
• Not Timely

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Thank
You...
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