ALEVELBIBLICALSTUDIES9484

THEPROPHETSOFTHEOLDTESTAMENT

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THEPROPHETSOFTHEOLDTESTAMENT
Briefhistoricalbackground
Shortlyaftertheturnofthe2ndMillenniumBCE,Israel’sancestorsAbram(Abraham)migrat
edfromMesopotamia(Haran)intothelandofCanaan(Palestine).
Theancestors/
patriarchsofIsraelmovedaboutintothenewcountryofCanaanwithAbraham,IsaacandJac
ob(Israel)succeedingoneanother.
EventuallyduringatimeoffamineJacobs’familymigratedtoEgypt.
AfterenjoyinginitialfavourinEgyptthedescendantsofJacobweresubjectedtoforcedlabo
urbyPharaoh.
UndertheleadershipofMosesabout1300BCEtheyescapedintothedesertandmovedtot
hepromisedlandofCanaan.
MosesdidnotreachCanaanbutitwasJoshuawhofinishedhistask.
1.TheEgyptianbondage
ThecomingoftheEgyptianoppressionandtheExodusjourneywererevealedtoAbrahamby
Yahwehlongbackbeforetheyoccurred.EvidenceforthisisfoundinGenesis15:13-
16.ThebiblicalstoryonhowtheHebrewsbecameservantsinEgyptstartswiththefaminestor
yinthelandoftheHebrews.Thisleftthemwithonlyonechoice,thatwastogoandseekfoodels
ewhere.SotheywenttoEgyptseekingforfood.Thewordinthebforthiserrandis“Sojourney.”
Astheysoughtreliefthere,eventuallytheystayedtherelongerandthenbecomesubjectedto
theEgyptiansasslaves.ThisespeciallyoccurredafterthedeathofJoseph,theirfellowtribes
man(afellowHebrew)whohadbecomesoprominentintheEgyptiangovernment(Genesis
47-
50).TheHebrewssufferedoppressionandenslavementforhundredsofyearsuntilGodcam
etotheirrescuebythehandofMoses.Mosesledtheirliberationfrombondageandwentwitht
hemonawildernessjourneythatlastedforty(40)years,thoughMosesdiedonthewaybefore
theyreachedthepromisedlandofCanaan(Deuteronomy34:1-12)
2.TheMosaicCovenant
TheMosaicbiblicalstorysaysthathewascalledbyGodforapoliticalandreligiousmissioninE
gyptwhereGod’speople(Hebrews)wereenslaved.Thecallingoccurredataburningbushin
thewildernessofSinaiwherehewasherdingsheep.TheothernameforSinaiisHoreb.Sinai
means“themountainofthe-
bushaccordingtoDeuteronomy33:16.ThecallofMosesisthenfollowedbyGod’scommand
togotoEgypttoconfrontPharaoh.MosestookthisupwiththehelpofhisbrotherAaronandhis
sisterMiriam.Insubsequentnarratives,theMosaiccovenantproper,dealswiththegivingoft
heDecalogue(tencommandmenttoMosesbyGod(Exodus19-
24:11).ThisDecalogueisakeyfeatureoftheMosaiccovenant.Itisthiscovenantwhichthelat
erprophetssoughttoratifybyurgingtheIsraelitestorememberit.Theactivityoflaterprophet
sonthisissuemainlytookplaceaftertheIsraeliteshadsettledinCanaan,thatis,afterthewilde

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rnessjourney.ItwasJoshuawholedthefinalpartofthewildernessjourney,andtooktheHebr
ewsintoCanaan.Joshuawasamilitaryman(soautomaticallyajudge).Heisthemanwhodist
ributedlandtotheIsraelitesinCanaanusingasystemoflotstodeterminewhoshouldtakewhi
chpieceoflandafterdefeatingtheinhabitants(nativesofCanaan)inaseriesofwarsthatwere
backedbyastrongGod(Joshua10-
19).TheruleofjudgesremainedsubjugatedtoYahweh.TheyhadtoconsultYahwehonalliss
ues.Thissuggeststhattheyhadnoautonomytorule.ThereforetheauthoritywaswithYahwe
h,hencewesaytheperiodfromJoshuatoSamuelwasoneoftheocraticrule(i.erulebyGod).T
heocraticruleendedwhenSaulwasanointedthefirstkingofIsraelbySamuelafteravigorous
demandbythepeopletohaveakinginlinewiththetrendsintheneighbouringstates.Although
Yahwehallowedthemaking,inthefigureofSaul,Heneverblessedtheneworder.Rulebyaki
ngiswhatiscalled“themonarchy.”Thedictumiscorrecttosaythat,“thecommencementofth
emonarchyinIsraelisassociatedwithcommencementofrealprophetisminIsrael.”
References1.McCarter.P.KJr1SamuelAnchorBible8.GardenCity.N.Y.Double,19802.
GunnD.ThefateofKingSaul.Aninterpretationofabiblicalstory.
3.Whatisaprophet?
Variousscholarsdefinetheterm“Prophet”withclosereferencetotherelationshipbetween
Godandaparticularindividualwhoiscalledtobeaprophet.HermannGunkeldefinedaproph
etasapersonwhohasarelationshipwiththedivinityorGod.JamesMuilenburgsaysthatapro
phetwasacovenantmediatorwhorepresentedthecovenantdemandstothepeoplefromthe
perspectiveofthedeity.Hefurthersaystheprophetusesthemessenger–
styleofspeech,“ThusSaystheLord”tolegitimizehisdivinemission.RobertWilsondefineda
prophetasonewhostoodbetweenGodandhumanbeings.Prophetsareintermediaries.Ber
nardAndersondefinedaprophetasonewhocommunicatesthedivinewill.Aprophetcouldb
edefinedasaspokesmanormouthpieceofadeityorsomeonewhospeaksonbehalfofanoth
er.E.g.whenMosescouldnotspeakfluentlybeforePharaoh,Aaronbecamehisspokespers
on,henceprophecy.Thisissupportedbytheuseofthemessengerformular;“thussaysYahw
eh.”Acommonaspectinallthesedefinitionsistheemphasisonthe“master–
servant”relationshipbetweenGodandhisprophet.Thelatterwouldservethewilloftheforme
r.ThesedefinitionswillhelptounderstandhowandwhyprophecybeganinIsrael.
SeersinIsrael
ThephenomenonofseersinIsraelformstheearliestideaofGod’smessengersinIsrael.Ase
ercouldbedefinedas“achosenone”giftedwithsecondsight.Thegrowthoftheterm“seer”ste
rmsfromtheHebrewword“roehorhozeh”whichmeans“seer”.J.LMcKenziehasregarded
theterm“seer”asanoldertitleoftheprophet.ForinstanceinIsrael,formerlywhenamanwentt
oinquireofGodhesaid“ComeletusgototheSeer”forhewhoisnowcalledaprophetwasform
erlycalledaseer.
(1Samuel9:9)AseerwillbesomeonewhotriedtodiscoverGod’swillbysemi-
magicalmeans;muchlikeamodernfortuneteller.Theterm“roeh”becamerareandanewter
m“nabi”cameintoexistencemeaning,“tocall”henceaprophet.A.GAuldinthearticle“Cities
ofreligioninIsraelitetradition”,JournalforthestudyoftheOldTestament10,1978submittedt
hatseerswerevisionaryratherthanecstatic.InIsraeltheyappearedasindividualsindepend
entofthecult.Itwasaseer’sroletoprophesyi.e.toactasa“nabi”.Forexample,asseeninAmo

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s7:12.TheseersguidedIsraelbytherevealedwillofYahweh.Yahwehcalledseersjustlike“N
abis”.ThemissionofseersbecameafoundationfortheoriginsofprophecyinIsrael.Relevant
examplesareElishawhohadagifttoforgivesinsfromafar;andGideon,ajudge,wholedtheIsr
aelitesintovictoriesinwaratJerichothroughprayer.TheseseerswererespectedmenofGod
towhichpeoplewenttoinquireaboutdifferentthings.AgoodexampleisSamuel,towhomSa
ulandhisservantwenttoinquireabouttheirlostdonkeys.
TheseerSamuelreceivedavisionofSaulasGod’sking-
elect,andtheseerplayedtheroleoftheanointerofthefirstkingofIsrael.Samuelissingledout
asthemostpopularseerofIsrael.J.LMcKenziehassaidthatSamuelwasprobablynotajud
geinthesenseofrealjudges.Neitherwasheaprophetintherealsenseofthelaterprophets,
buthewastheearliestreligiousfigureafterMoseswhoresemblesaprophet(seer)andthe
propheticschoolwasnotwronginseeinghimastheearliestrepresentativeofprophecyinIsr
ael.

4.TheoriesontheemergencyofprophecyinIsrael
TherearevariousviewsontheemergencyofprophecyinIsrael.Thefundamentalque
stionishowdiditbegin?Thefollowingviewsshallbeconsidered:
 ThatitoriginatedamongsttheIsraelites.
 ThatitwascopiedfromtheEgyptians.
 Thatitwasborrowedfromthesurroundingnations.
 ThatitwassyncreticallyobtainedfromtheCanaanites.
a.ProphecyoriginatedamongsttheIsraelites:BernardAndersonnotesthatprophecywast
hereinIsraelsincethecreationofthenation.Hiswidedefinitionof“aprophet”qualifiesAbraha
masaprophet(cfGen20:7)andevenNoah.JamesMuillenburg’sdefinitionofaprophetinpar
ticularqualifiesNoahasaprophet.ButthisfeelingcannotbetakentoofarinthedebateonIsra
eliteprophetismbecausenotmuchissaidaboutpropheticactivitiesbyNoahintherealsense
ofprophetism.TheycommunicatedwithGodonbehalfofthepeopleandnothingmore.Butre
alprophetisminIsraelisattributedtoMoses.Hewasformerlycalledtothepropheticofficeata
burningbushwherehewasgivenaspecificmandatetoliberatetheHebrewsfromEgyptandt
oleadthemthroughthewildernesstothepromisedland.Ecstaticprophecyisalsosaidtohav
estartedduringthetimeofMoses.TheincidentofEldadandMedadwhoprophesiedecsta
ticallyinthecamp(Num11:24-
29)provesthatevenecstaticprophetismoriginatedamongsttheIsraelitesthemselv
es.
ThisstoryofEldadandMedadinNumbers11:24-
29showsthatIsraelhadthistypeofprophecyfromthetimeoftheexodus.SayingthatIsr
aelborrowedorcopiedistantamounttosayingthatGodhimselfemulatedwhatwasbeingdo
nebyforeigngods.Thiswayofthinkingisunsustainable.Thesemantictheorywouldperhaps
takeusoutofthemessbyproposingthatmattersofsemanticsandterminologyshouldnotbea
llowedtopaintthepropheticdebate”withjustonebrushandonecolour.Thebrandofprophec
yinIsraelwasdifferentfromthatofotherreligionsinitsethosandauthority.

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b.ProphecywascopiedfromEgypt.
AnotherhypothesispostulatesthattheIsraeliteswereexposedtoworksofmagiciansandex
orcistswheresomeofthemworkedthemselvesoutintoecstaticbehavior.PossiblytheIsrael
itescopiedfromsuchexperiencesandpracticeditamongstthemselves.BernardAnderson
highlightsthestoryofWenAmon,asmallboywhowaspossessedbyanecstaticspiritatafesti
valatByblos.SuchaneventcouldpossiblyinfluencetheIsraeliteswhosawit.
c.Prophecywasborrowedfromsurroundingnations
ThethrustofthisviewisthattheIsraeliteswereinfluencedbyreligionsofthesurroundingnatio
ns.ThePhilistinespracticedbaalism,withitsprophetswhoworkedthemselvesintoe
cstaticbehavior.ThelandofCanaanwasdominatedbythereligionofbaal.Atsettleme
nttheIsraelitescompromisedYahweismwithbaalism(religioussyncretism).Thema
rriageofAhabtoJezebelbroughtinhundredsofprophetsofbaalintotheIsraelitesoci
ety.AsaresultbaalismandYahweismexistedinjuxtapositionwitheachother.Sucha
setupwouldpermitacompromiseofcultures.ThisscenarioalsoexplainswhyElijah
quarrelledwithAhabandaccusedhimofbeing“atroublerofIsrael”.Theviewthatitwa
sborrowedfromthesurroundingnationsissupportedbyNumbers22whereBaalam,
aMoabiteseercoulddeclareablessingoracurse.HealsoreceivedamessagefromYahwe
hthathecouldnotcurseIsraelandhecompliedcontrarytowhatBalakhadplanned.Prophecy
wasalsofoundinSyriaandEgypt,assupportedbyarcheologicalevidencediscoveredbypro
fessorParrotatMari.AkkadiansourcesfromMesopotamiashowthattheMahhuwasbothap
rophetandapriest.
(TheMahhufunctionedasaprophetwhospecializedinwild,ecstatictrance-
inducedbehavior).ThustherewasakindofprophecyatMariwhereprophetswhowerereligi
ousfunctionariesandothersbroughtmessagestotheattentionoftheking.Althoughthisview
isplausibleitisnotconclusivetosaythatpriortothiscontacttherewasnoprophetisminIsrael.
TheviewcanpartiallyexplaintechnicalaspectsofIsraeliteprophetism,butnotthegenesisofi
t.ProphetisminIsraelemanatedfromGodparticularlyafterthegreattheophanyatMtSinai(E
xodus19)whenGodcouldnolongerfacehispeople.Theneedforarepresentativebecamep
aramount;henceprophetismbeganinthewilderness.Otherviewsstressfurtherthepossibil
ityofIsraelborrowingfromotherreligions.
c.ThelegendofWen-
Amonisproposedasoneoftheeventsthatmighthaveinfluencedtheecstatictypeofprophec
yIsraelpracticed.ThelegendtellsthestoryofaPhoenicianboy,who,atthecityofByblos,gotp
ossessedbyaspiritandgaveoracles.TheviewfromAndersonisthatpossiblytheIsraelitesto
okexperienceofthatevent.AnotherviewisthatthetrendinAsiaMinorcouldhavealsoinfluen
cedIsraeliteprophecy.ApopulargroupknownastheOrgiesofDionysusinAsiaMinorpractic
edthegrouptypeofprophecywhichdischargeditspropheticactivitiesecstatically.Theywer
epopularfortheirextremelyseveretypeofprophecywheretheycouldcutandscratchtheirbo
diesandtearoffclothesduringthepractice.Theytravelledextensivelyperformingprophetic
activities.Thoughthesehypothesesarepropoundedinthebiblicaldebate,theyarenotinany
wayconclusiveonthematter.Israelhadauniquetypeofprophecy.Whatmakesituniqueisth
espiritofYahwehthatinspiredit.Thereforetheborrowingaccusationcanonlybelimitedtoth
emethodologiesofearlyprophecy.Conservativescholarsrallybehindthetraditionaltheory

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andtheevolutionarytheorieswhosethrustisthatIsrael’sprophecyoriginatedwiththeexodu
s.TheyfocusontheMosaictypologyofprophecywhereGodactuallyselected“hisman,”and
gavehimtheauthoritytospeak.Theecstatictypehasitsprecedentinthewilderness.

5.EarliestmanifestationsofprophecyinIsrael.HowdidprophecybegininIsrael?
TheneedforcommunicationbetweenGodandhispeopleIsraelnecessitatedthecallofprop
hets.JohannesLindblomlistedthefollowingastheearliestformsofprophecyinIsrael:
a.visions
b.dreams
c.inspiration
d.divination
a.VisionsTheyareagiftofsecondsightfromGod.Godgivespicturestotheinner–
eyeofanindividuale.g.GodspoketoMosesinavisionatMountSinai(Exodus3).Apictureofa
neventorasceneisscreenedtotheindividual.HehearsavoiceofGodspeakingtohim.
Theindividualanswers.Aformofdialoguegoesonduringthevision.FromthatsceneGoda
ssertshisauthoritywhiletheindividualmayshowreluctancetoobey.Fearmayaffecttheindiv
idualandexcusesmaybegiven.IntheearliestdaysofIsraeliteprophecythisoccurredtoMos
eswhenhesawaburningbushatMountSinai.Godcommandedhimtotakeoffhisshoesandli
stentohim.GodintroducedhimselftoMoses.ItwasthisvisionaryencounterthatgaveMoses
hismandatetobeaprophet.
b.DreamsAdreamisaneventthatisseenbyapersonwhenheisasleep.Godcanvisitaperso
ninadreamandspeakwithhime.g.Samuelwascalledintopropheticofficeinadream(1Sam
3).Dreamswererespectedfromancienttimes.Kingsalsoreliedondreamse.gJosephinterp
retedPharaoh’sdreams;DanielinterpretedNebuchadnezzar’sdreams.InearlyIsraelitepr
ophecySamuelispresentedasaprophetwhoreceivedhiscallinadream.InspirationItiswhe
napersonismovedorarousedbytheSpirittoactorwriteinacertainway.Inspirationcouldinflu
enceone`sbehaviour.Earliestformsofinspirationinfluencedpeopletobehaveecstatically,
hencewehearofecstaticprophecyinconnectionwithSaulwhobehavedecstaticallyin(1Sa
m10:5-
9).Ecstasyisastatewherebythespiritofagodovershadowstherecipientsuchthathisorherp
owerofreasoningcouldbesuspended.OnecouldbeinspiredbyGodtoprophesyataparticul
artime.Inthistypeofprophesythepowertoprophesywouldbetemporary.Itcouldbeinduced
bymusic,vigorousdancingandcheering.Thesepreconditionsarecarriedoutbyotherpeopl
einthegroupwhoarenotthemselvesinspired.Inthemidstofhyperactivityanindividualisins
piredorfilledwiththespiritofGod.Heiscompelledbythespirittospeakoutcertainmatters.Int
heprocesstheindividualmaybehavestrangely.Hemaytakeoffcloths,drophimselfdown,ru
nwildly,scratchhisbodyalloveretctotheamazementofon–
lookers.AnexampleofthisiswhenSaul,thesonofKishjoinedabandofsingersanddancersa
ndhewaspossessedandprophesiedecstatically.(1Sam10:5-9)
c.Inspiration

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Prophetsgottheirmessagesbyinspiration.Amosdeniedbeingaseer.Thereforetheissueof
developmentsandchangesinIsraeliteprophecyshouldbroadlyfocusonfunctions,roles,m
ethodsandstructures

d.Divination
Itwasatechnicalwayofdeducinginformation-
usingobjects.BonesanddicewerecommonlyusedbyexpertswhoclaimedtobeusingGod`
spowerstointerpretbehaviourofobjectse.gJoshuausedlotstoallocatelandtoIsraelitesats
ettlementinCanaan.DivinerswouldclaimthatwhattheydidhadtheauthorityofGod;thatthei
roraclesweresanctionedbyGod.Theycouldbeconsultedonvariousmattersataprice.Necr
omancersalsofellintothecategoryofdiviners.Saulapproachedawomannecromancerindi
sguisetorequestadivineoverthedeadSamuel.(1Sam28:3-17).
CharacteristicsofDivinationItmakesuseofobjectssuchasbones;dice;arrows.Lotswer
ealsousedindivinationintheformofcurvedsticksorboneswhichhaddifferentsymbolsonitsf
acescarryingcertainmeanings.Archery(useofarrows)wasalsousedindivination.Thebeh
aviorofarrowscouldbeinterpretedbysuchexpertsasJonathantogivecertainmeanings.
Witchcraftandnecromancewerealsoformsofdivination.
Togetaclearpictureofthepracticesofdivinationasawayofpredictingandinterpretingevent
s,youmustreadthefollowingsectionsfromthebible:1Sam20:18-24;1Sam20:35-
41,1Sam14:41and1Sam28:1-17.

Characteristicsofecstaticprophecy
EcstaticprophecyasaformofinspirationBernardAndersondefinedecstasyas:anemotion
whichissopowerful,whichtakescontroloftheself.Ecstaticprophecywasarousedbymusic
anddancing.

(1)ItwascatalyzedbyMusic,vigorousdancingandcheering(seetheRSVBiblefortextualevi
denceat1Sam10:5)
(2)Itwaspracticedbyagroupofpeople.Thegroupwasalsocalledabandoraguildbecauseth
eyusedmusicalinstrumentstoinducethespirit.
(3)Itwasalsoassociatedwithmilitaryactivitiesofthenationtogiveencouragementtowithsta
ndtheenemy.Theevidencethatisin1Sam10:5saysthatthebandwhichSauljoinedwasperf
ormingnearaPhilistiniangarrison
(4)Thebandbelongedtoaleaderwhomtheyreferredtoasthe“father.”Hewasnotabiological
fatherassuchbutaleaderwhoregulatedtheiractivities,“Andwhoistheirfather?”(1Sam10:1

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2)Thisquestionpurportstoimplythateverygrouphadaleaderwhoisregardedas“theirfather
.”MostscholarsbelievethatthisgroupbelongedtoSamuel.
(5)Theybehavedinanawkwardmannerduringtheprocessofprophesying,“Whathashapp
enedtothesonofKish?”(1Sam10:11).ThisquestionsuggestssurpriseonthewaySaulwast
henbehaving.
(6)Thepossessedprophetmightonlyprophesyonceandnomoreagaininhislifetime.Eldad
andMedad(thetwoecstaticsmentionedinNumbers11:25,prophesiedecstaticallyintheca
mpandtheydiditnomore
Thepractitionersofitweremembersofagrouporaband.Theirroleswereofasocial,politicala
ndreligiousnature.Theyperformedtheiractivitiesunderaleaderwhomtheycalled“theirfath
er”.Arguablytheychargedfeesfortheirservices.Somescholarsarguethattheseecstaticsdi
dnotchargefares,buttheyacceptedtokensofappreciation.ThecaseofSaulisaclassicexa
mpleoftheseearlyprophets.Itisreportedin1Sam10:9-
13thatSauljoinedagroupofecstaticswhowerepreparingforwaragainstPhilistines.Whent
hegroupdancedandsang,Saulgotpossessedandprophesiedecstatically,
“IsSaulalsoamongtheprophets?”(1Sam10:12).Thisquestionshowsthat:
(i)Theso-calledprophetswereexpectedtobehavethisway.
(ii)Saulwasnotknowntobelongtothisgroup
Thefollowingsectionsshouldbestudiedcarefullyinthebibleonecstasyanddivinationtoacq
uaintyourselfwithevidenceforearlyformsofprophecyinIsrael.1Samuel10:5-
8,1Samuel20:18-
24,2Kings2:4and2Kings4:1;1Sam19:20;2Kings3:15;Num11:25,Num22:6;1Sam28:1–
17;1Sam14:41;Sam20:35-41.

6.RolesoftheearlyProphets(Ecstaticsanddiviners)
EcstaticsanddivinersofIsraelaredepictedperformingrolesthatwereofanindividualnature
andnationalnature.Predominantlytheyfocusedonfortunetelling,fore-tellingandforth–
telling.Fortune-telling-
hadtodowithtellingaboutone’schancese.g.SaulwenttotheseerSamueltoenquireabouthi
sfather’slostdonkeys(1Sam.9);Thiswaspersonalbusiness.Fortune-
tellingcouldalsobedoneonmattersofnationalinterests,“ShallIgotoRamothGileadorshallI
forebare?”InthiscaseSaulenquiredonthechancesofwinningthebattleifheweretoconfront
thePhillistinianenemyatRamoth-
Gilead.InanothercaseofanationalinterestSaulapproachedawomannecromancertorequ
estadvicefromthedeadspiritofSamuel.Thepressingissuewasthenegativeturnofeventsin
thepoliticalaffairsofIsrael,suggestingGod’sanger.Fore-telling-
wasaboutpredictingthefuture.Itwasthedutyofprophetstopredictthefuture.Thisgiftcouldc
ometotheprophetbywayofvisions,dreamsorbehaviourofobjectssuchasbones,diceanda
rrows.ThearcheryepisodeofJonathanandDavid(1Sam20:14-
24)assuresDavidthathewouldnotdieorloseGod’sfavourinthenearfuture.Forth-
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tellingwasaboutinterpretingwhatwashappeningatthepresenttime.Thenegativetrendoft
hingsinSaul’skingdomwasanindicationforGod’sdisfavourwithhimasinterpretedbythese
erSamuel.ThecallingupofSamuelinthehouseofthehighpriestEli(1Sam3)wasanindicatio
nofGod’sdisfavourwithEli.Thisinterpretationillustratesthemeaningofforth-
telling,thoughitdoesnotsuggestthatthecallofSamuelwasannouncedbyanyprophet.The
archeryepisodeofJonathanandhisservantin(1Sam20:25-41)illustratestheactofforth-
tellingasJonathaninterpretedthebehaviourofhisarrowstomeanthatDavidhadsucceeded
ingettingtheeverlastingfavourofGodfromthepresentmomentonwards.Rolesofearlyprop
hetsinGeneral
-Theypredictedthefuture,interpretthepresentadvisedindividualsandKings-
Theyledthenationintimesofwar
-
Theyencouragedthespiritofnationalismandcultivatedmoraleinthepeopletofightindefenc
eoftheirnation
-Theycommunicatedthedivinewill
-Theywerecustodiansofthenationalreligion-
Theywerealsocustodiansofjusticee.g.Samueltheseerwasalsoajudge.

7.Israel:fromtheocracytomonarchy
Itisimportantthatweunderstandthesystemsofgovernancefromtheeraoftheformationofth
enationuptothetimeoftheprophets.Israelwasnotbornamonarchical(kingship)state.Item
ergedasastateruledbyGodhimself(theocratic)andonlytransformedintoamonarchyafters
ettlementinCanaan.BeforethemonarchyIsraelwasledbypatriarchs(fathersofthenation)
whoworkedcloselywithpriestsasleadersofreligionandadvisorsonGod’sword.Thehighpri
estEli,towhomSamuelservedasanassistant,isagoodexampleofsuchpriests.Yahwehha
dbeenhesitanttograntIsraelakingforfearthatsuchasystemwouldprobablybeabused:Sa
muelalsohadexpressedthesamefears.ButtheIsraeliteswhohadsufferedthebruntofwara
nddefeatinwarbythePhilistinesvehementlydemandedakingtoleadthem,likeinneighbour
ingstates.Samuelwhohadjustbeencalledtoseership(1Sam3:1-
25)waspressedtomediatebetweenGodandthepeopleinthisdemandforaking.Allexcuses
andfearscouldnotmaterializebutonlyresultedinGodgrantingIsraelamonarchythroughth
eking-
electSaulwhowasanointedbySamueltheseer.SoIsraeltransformedfromatheocracytoa
monarchyduringthetimeofSamuel.Themonarchicalsystemalsocalledforadistinctionofro
lesbetweenpriestsandseers(prophets).Thekingwouldneedtobemonitoredintheinterest
ofGod’swill,henceGodgaveprophetstoIsrael.Maybethegreatphilosopher,Hobbes`fears
werealsoinGod’smindthatpowercorrupts,henceaneedforitsconstantcheck.
ItisthereforeavalidviewtoarguethatprophecyinIsraelemergedwiththemonarchy.
8.Whatwerethefunctionsoflaterprophets?

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 1. TheywerebearersofthewordofGodtothepeoplee.g.Amos“TheLordcalledmefrom
followingtheflock”Amos7:15
2. Theyenthronedanddethronedkingse.g.SamuelenthronedanddethronedKingSa
ul,ElijahanointedkingHazael
3. PronouncedjudgementasapunishmentfromGode.g.Amos,Jeremiah
4. Promisedhopeorsalvationtothepeoplee.g.Hosea,Isaiah,Jeremiah
5. Theyproclaimedsocialandmoraljusticetothepeoplee.g.Elijah,Amos,andIsaiah.
6. Theypreachedaboutrepentanceandsalvationofmene.g.HoseaandIsaiah
7. AdvocatedtheworshippingofoneGod-
monotheism.TheywerecustodiansofGod’sreligion,egElijah,MosesandJeremiah
8. TheywerecustodiansofGod’sLaw-TheyupheldMosaiclaw(monotheism)
a. e.g.MosesandIsaiah
9. AdvisedKingsonnationalissuese.g.NathanandSamuelcheckedthepowerofkings
.Theyreprimandedkingswherevertheywentwronge.ginSamuelandSaul’sconflict
,AmosvsJeroboamII,andAhabvsElijah.
10. Presidedoverreligiousceremoniese.g.Samuel
11. Theyintercededandprayedonbehalfofpeople.TheywereCovenantmediatorse.g.
Moses,HoseaandJeremiah
12. Expertsinintercessoryprayere.g.SamuelandJeremiah
13. TheyactedasjudgesegSamuel
14. TheyperformedmiraclesthroughGod’spoweregMosespartedtheRedSeatoreem
phasizeGod’spresence
15. TheyweresocialreformersegAmos(equality)
16. TheyledinholywarsegSamuel
17. Foretelling,theythenearfuturee.gAmospredictedaboutthefallofSamaria.
18. Theyinterpretedhistoryandpoliticsofthenationse.gIsaiahandJeremiah.Textualre
ferencesfortheabovefunctionswillbeobtainedfromtheBibleintheprocessofStudyi
ngparticularprophets.
9.Howprophetscommunicatedtheirmessages
1)Openproclamationsusingthemessenger-styleofspeech,“ThussaystheLord…”
2)Dramatisationse.gJeremiah’sdramaticactions(seebookofJeremiah)
3)Symbolicactionse.gIsaiahandHosea’ssymbolicnamesofchildren
4)Writtenoraclese.gJeremiahhiredBaruchashissecretary
5)Useofart/symbolicactse.gJeremiahmouldedaclaypottoshowGod’smakingupofIsrael.
6)Reportsofvisionse.gAmosreportedseveralvisionsofGod’sjudgementonIsrael.

WhatwerethedevelopmentsandchangesthatoccurredtoprophecyinIsrael?
Theterm“development”inthiscontextreferstothechangesthattookplaceintheearlyproph
eticfraternity.ThereforeonehastotracethechangesinstyleandrolesoftheprophetssinceM
oses.MosesisbelievedtobethefirstprophetofIsraelalthoughbyAndersonandMuillenburg
’sdefinitionsofthewordprophetAbraham,NoahandAdamcouldqualifytobecalledprophet
s(Gen20:7).Moses`typeofprophecywasinspirational.Heplayedaleadershiprole,leading

10
theIsraelitesfromEgypt.HisrolewasmediatoryashereceivedinstructionsfromGodandtoo
kthemtothepeople–
atypeofprophecywithaunitofcommand.Theprophetwasbothapoliticalaswellasareligiou
sleader.Mosesisarepresentativeparexcellenceoftheearlyprophets.FromtheMosaictyp
eofprophecyIsraelsawanewformofprophecyasrepresentedbySamuel.Althoughmosto
ftherolesofMoseswereretained,themajordevelopmentwasthemultiplicityofrolesvestedo
ntheprophet.Samuelbecameafatherofthenation;apriest;ajudge;aseeraswellasaleader
ofthepropheticinstituteofecstatics.
Hisfunctionswereamixtureofsocial,religiousandpropheticroles.Here-
organisedthepropheticinstitutionsofIsrael.
Heledthenationfromatribalconfederacyunderajudgetoamonarchyaftersettlemen
tinCanaan.
Samueldemonstratedhowaprophetcouldchecktheabuseofpowerbykingswhenh
ereprimandedSaulwhohadhijackedthedutiesofapriesttoofferasacrificeinthetemple.
SuchadutyhadnoprecedentintheMosaicera.ElijahlaterdiditwhenhereprimandedAhabf
orgrabbingNaboth`svineyard.Sotheevolutionofthistaskofaprophetisamajordevelop
mentinIsraeliteprophetism.Otherchangesarenotedonthetechnicalsideofprophetism.Lo
okingatElijahhistypeofprophecywasmorerevolutionarythaneverbefore.Prophecyhadbe
comeconfrontational.ElijahfiercelyconfrontedkingAhabforbothmoralandpoliticalinjustic
es.MarryingJezebelwasabetrayalofYahweismandcustom.AllowingBaalismtoco-
existwithYahweismwasamoreseriousoffence.Abusingofficeforself–
enrichmentattheexpenseofcommonpeopleweregrossevilswhichprophetstookto
challenge.ThiswasagreatdevelopmentinIsraeliteprophecy.Evenmethodsofprophesyi
ngchanged.
ThedistinctionbetweentrueandfalseprophetsinIsrael:
ThetreatisebelowattemptstosummarizetheissuesontrueandfalseprophetsinIsrael.“InIs
rael,asinothersocieties,periodsofintensepropheticactivitycoincidedwithtimesofcrisis.T
hus,thedecisionabouthowtorespondtoaprophetwasamatterofsomeurgency,andcriteria
formakingajudgementbecameanecessity”,wroteThomasW.OverholtinhisarticleonJere
miahintheHarperBiblecommentary1988.Thisstatementunderscoresthegreatdifficultyin
distinguishingbetweenatrueandafalseprophet.Anthropologicalstudiesofcontemporary
societiesmayprovidesomeperspectiveontheproblem.Itwouldappearthattherearebasica
llyfourcriteriabywhichaudiencesevaluateprophetlikeintermediaries
 theirbehaviourconformstotraditionalcustomsandbeliefsandisadequatetothespe
cialcircumstancesinwhichitisuttered;
 theyclaimtohavereceivedaspecialcommissionfromadeity:
 andtheyaresuccessful(Whattheypredictcomestopass}
 thespecificproblemisresolved.
Evaluationsofindividualintermediariesdonotnecessarilyinvolveallfourofthesecriteria.InI
srael,theinterpretationofcrises,whethernational,local,orpersonalinscope,tookplacewith
intherangeofpossibilitiesofferedbytheparticularculturewithinwhichtheintermediary(pro
phet)functioned.Thismeansthatinevitablybothworldviewandthemoremundanefactsofhi

11
story,politics,andsocietywerefactorsinthejudgementsmadeaboutthem,forexample,inJ
eremiah`sdays,thecrucialdecisionsseemedtohavebeencloselyrelatedtoassumptionsa
boutthenation’sdestinythatmirroredreligiousconvictionsandhadconcreteimplicationsfor
politicalactions.Thejudgementthataparticularprophetwas“true”wasasalways,depende
ntupontheviewpointandcommitmentoftheperson(s)makingit.Overholtstatesthatthereķ
oisnofullproofmethodfordistinguishingbetweenthem.Theattempttodistinguishbetweent
heformsinwhichtherevelationcametoaprophetisprobablyexilic,andinanycaseisnotconsi
stentlyapplied.Theimplicationisthattheprophets`audiencepossessednosurecriterionby
whichtojudgebetweencompetingclaims.AccordingtotheDeuteronomiclawanattemptis
madetodistinguisha“true”fromafalse”prophet.InDeuteronomy13:1“ifaprophetwasnotco
mmissionedtodeliveroracles,hewasafalseprophet,“Ifaprophetarisesamongyou,andgiv
esyouasignorawonder,andhesaysletusgoforothergods,youshallnotlistentothewordsoft
hatprophet.”BythesameDeutronomiclawamorestrictercriterionisused,thatisifaprophetc
laimstobeatrueprophetandhisprophecyfailstopasshemustdie,“Buttheprophetwhopresu
mestospeakawordinmynamewhichIhavenotcommandedhimtospeak---
thatsameprophetshalldie”(Deuteronomy18).Thismosaiccriterion,althoughclearlyusele
ssforjudgmentsonindividualoracles,isapragmaticcriteriontoevaluateaprophet’soverallp
erformance.IntheOldTestamentisolatedcasesoffalseprophecyarerecordedbutnounifor
mcriterionhasbeenusedholisticallytodealwiththem.InthecaseofJezebel’sprophetsofBa
al,adeathpenaltywaseffectedwhenthentheywereprovenwrongbyElijahatMountCarmel.
ButwhenNathanpresumptuouslyadvisedDavidandGodadvisedotherwise,nodeathpena
ltywaseffected.TheissuewasmorecomplicatedinthecaseofJeremiahandHananiah.Itap
pearsthattheSocietyexpectedaprophettoupholdthestatusquo.Ifhisactivitiesopposedthe
statusquohewasimprisoned.Intheendhecouldnolongerproclaimhiswordspubliclylesthe
bekilled.Hetookhimselfoutofaction:Aprophetwhodoesnotoperatepubliclyisnothreatb
ecauseheisnoprophetsaysThomasOverholt.Inthefinalanalysisitisclearlynotedthattheta
skofdistinguishingatrueprophetfromafalseprophetcouldnotobtainanyholisticcriterion.T
hereforeitwasnoteasytodistinguishthemmerelyfromthewordstheyspoke.
SACRIFICALWORSHIPINISRAEL
Theaspectofsacrificialworshipisamajorthemeinthewritingsofpre-
exilicprophetsAmos,Hosea,IsaiahandJeremiah.Thethemeisconsistentlylinkedwiththet
hemeofthecovenant.Thepre-
exilicprophetsapparentlydenouncedsacrificialworshipwheninfactitwasdemandedbyYa
hweh.
(i)Theoriginsofsacrificialworship.Unanimouslythescholarslistedonthebibliographyabov
eagreethatsacrificialworshipinIsraelwaslinkedwiththeMosaiccovenant.Evidenceforthis
isfoundinExodus6;and24.Accordingtothesetexts,sacrificialworshipwasawildernesstra
dition.Thismeansthatitoriginatedduringwildernessjourney.Thepracticeofsacrificialwors
hipinIsraelwasanauthorizationfordivineworship.Whenthecovenantalrelationshipwases
tablishedbetweenGodandIsrael,itbecamenecessarythatanapparatusbesetupbywhicht
heIsraelitescaninterrelatewiththeirGod.Thiswouldrequirethemanufactureofcertainspec
ialobjects(thearc,thealtaretc)thatwouldmakehuman-
divinecontactpossibleandthedesignationofaspecialgroupofpeople(thepriests)whowoul
dbeabletomanipulatetheseobjects.Aboveall,ashrineorsanctuarywastobeerected(t
hetabernacleortentofmeeting)whereYahwehwouldbepresentamonghispeople.Iti

12
sstressedthattheseobjectsweretobeerectedexactlyaccordingtowhatMoseshads
eenonMountSinai(Exodus25:9,26:30).InthismountainMoseshadavisionofaheavenly
sanctuaryofwhichtheearthlytabernaclewastobeareplica.Yahwehhimselfauthorizedthe
preparationofeachitemandgivesitsspecificationinExodus25-31.
Thecarryingoutofhisinstructionswasanactualinaugurationofthesystemofdivineservice.
Thefirstpracticeofsacrificialworshipoccursduringtheratificationofthecovenantceremony
recordedinExodus24:1-
11.ThewholeassemblyofIsraeltookpartinthisceremonyatthefootofthemountain.Thecen
traleventatthisoccasionwasacovenantalmeal.Moseswassummonedtothemountainalo
ngwithAaron,twosons,andseventyelders.TheyateanddranklookingupontheGodofIsrae
l.Inanotheraccountinthesamechapter,thecentraleventwasaritualinvolving“thebloodofth
ecovenant”.Mosesreadthelawandthenperformedabloodritualwiththeconsentofthepeop
le.Inthiscasethecovenantismadeeffectivebyasacrifice.Animalsweresacrificed,andhalft
hebloodwasdashedagainstthealtarasasymbolofYahweh’sparticipationintheritual.Theo
therhalfofthebloodwasputinbasinsandMosesactingascovenantmediator,readtothepeo
plethebookofthecovenant.Whenthepeopleconsentedhedashedtheblooduponthepeopl
esaying,“ThebloodofthecovenantwhichYahwehhasmadewithyouinaccordancewithallt
hesewords”.Inthiseventisconfirmedtheancientbeliefthatsacrificialbloodhasthesacrame
ntalpowertobringtogethertwopartiesincovenant.Thebeliefintheefficacyofbloodfigurespr
ominentlyinthetheologyofsacrificeintheOldTestament.
(ii)ThePurposeandApplicationofSacrificialworship.
Thepurposewas2fold:
(1)ascommunionforpeaceoffering)
(2)asexpiation(forsinandforreparation)
ThelargeblockofPriestlymaterialsinLeviticuschapters1to7indicatesthatsacrificewasnot
understoodasameansofappeasingdivinewrathorofcajolingGodtoshowfavours.Rather,t
hesacrificeswereameansofatonement,thatis,ofhealingthebreachofthecovenantrelation
shipandreunitingthepeopleincommunionwithGod.Itwasbelievedthatsacrificewaseffica
ciousinrestoringabrokenrelationship,notbecausetherewassomethingmagicalinthepow
erofbloodwhichcontainsthepotencyoflife,butbecauseGodhadprovidedthemeansofgrac
ebywhichguiltwaspardonedandthepeoplecouldliveinthepresenceoftheholyGod.Sacrifi
cewasnotanendinitself.Nosacrificialriteiseffectiveinthecaseofdeliberatesinwithintentio
n-
whichrepresentsadownrightrevoltagainstGodandtherevealedlaw.Sacrificemustbeacc
ompaniedbyconfessionandrepentance.
(iii)Whattheprophetshadtosayaboutitandwhy.
Whattheprophetsandthepriestshadincommonwas,aboveall,asenseofIsrael’sfail
ureasacovenantpeople.Intheperiodbeforethefallofthenationin587B.C.E,theprophets,s
peakingwithvariousaccents,interpretedIsrael’ssufferingundertheworldpowersastheco
nsequenceofcovenantfailure.AgoodexampleisthecaseofManassehwhooverturnedther
eformsthathisfatherHezekiahhadcreated.Manassehre-
openedthelocalpaganshrinesincommunitiesoutsideJerusalem.Hesponsoredaprogram

13
metoamalgamatetheworshipofYahwehwithBaal’snaturereligion.Yahwehwasworshipp
edataltarsofBaal..Sacredprostitutionwaspracticed(2Kings23:7).Thusthepaganizati
onofIsrael’sworship,whichhadbeenathreateversincethetimeofjudges,wasgivenfreevei
nunderroyalsanctionandpatronagehencetheprophetshadthistosay:“CometoBetheland
transgress,toGilgalandmultiplytransgression,bringyoursacrificeseverymorning,yourtit
heseverythreedays,offerasacrificeofthanksgivingofthatwhichisleavenedandproclaimfr
eewillofferings,publishthem,forsoyoulovetodo,OpeopleofIsrael”.(Amos4:4-
5).CommentTheoracleissarcastic.ItismockeryencouragementwhichmeansIsrael
shouldgorightonsinningwithhersacrifices,whichshelovestoflaunt,sothattheyma
ybeseenbyall.
Amos5:21-
23“Ihate,Idespiseyourfeasts,andItakenodelightinyoursolemnassemblies.Eventhoughy
ouofferme,yourburntofferingsandcerealofferings,Iwillnotacceptthem,andthepeaceoffe
ringsofyourfattedbeastsIwillnotworkupon.Takeawayfrommethenoiseofyoursongs,toth
emelodyofyourharpsIwillnotlisten”.(RSVBible).
CommentYahwehproclaimshis“hatred”oftheirsacrifices,thesacrificestheylovetoproclai
m.ThusYahwehhateswhatIsraellovesandloveswhatIsraelhates.
Jeremiah7:21-
23reads:“ThussaystheLordofhosts,theGodofIsrael:”Addyourburntofferingstoyoursacrif
icesandeattheflesh.ForinthedaythatIbroughtthemoutofthelandofEgypt,Ididnotspeakto
yourfathersorcommandthemconcerningburntofferingstoyoursacrifices”(RSVBible).Re
adtogetherwith7:31:“AndtheyhavebuiltthehighplaceofTopheth,whichisinthevalleyofHin
nomandburntthesonsandtheirdaughtersinfirewhichIdidnotcommand,nordiditcomeinto
mymind”.(RSV)

CommentTheaccusationsfocusonreligiouspractices,especiallytheworshipofgodsothe
rthanYahwehandtheofferingofsacrifices.BecauseofthesepervertedactsYahwehhasrej
ectedandforsakenthechosenpeoplesaysThomasW.Overholt.
ConclusionThegeneralpointinthischapter(sacrificialworshipinIsrael)isthat,ofcourseG
odhadallowedsacrificialworshipasdivineservicewhileIsraelwasinthewilderness.B
utoncomingintothepromisedland,Moseshadprohibitedsacrificialworship(seeDeutr
18:1-
22)knowingverywellthedangersofsyncretism.ThekingsofIsraellateroninsistedonsacrifi
cialworshipbutthendoingittheforeignway.Godthereforesenthisprophetstogoandden
ouncetheentirepracticeofsacrificialworship.Infinertermsitwasnotamatterofaparticu
larprophet’sattitude,butGod’sinstruction.

MOSES
WhoWasMoses?
MosesisintroducedasaninfanthiddenbyhismotherinthereedsoftheNiletoprotecthimfrom
Pharaoh’sdecree.Pharaoh’sowndaughterfoundhim,takespityonhim,andadoptshim.Wit

14
hthehelpofhissister,whowassecretlywatchingoverhim,theEgyptianprincessarrangesfor
theinfanttobebreastfedbyaHebrewwetnurse,whoisnoneotherthanthebaby’smother.Th
usthechild
Moseswasrescuedfromdeath,nursedbyhisownmother,andraisedintheEgyptianpalace.
Theinfantwhoescapedperilgrewuptobecamealeaderofhispeople.HisCallMoseswaslea
dinghisfather-in-
law’ssheeptoMtHoreb,wherehewasastonishedtoseeabushthatwasburningbutnotcons
umed.HedidnotrealisethatwhathehadencounteredwasamessengeroranangelofYahwe
hintheformofaflameuntilapproachingthebush,heheardadivinevoicespeakinginthefire.K
nowingthatitisfatalforahumanbeingtoseeGod,hecoveredhisfaceandlistened.
(Exodus33:20)ThemessageMosesreceivedincludedanannouncementandacommissio
nYahwehhadtakennoticeoftheafflictionoftheIsraelitesinEgyptandhesentMosestobringt
hemoutoftheland.BrieflythisistheleadingstorythatbroughtMosestothetopofthechartofH
ebrewhistory.WasMosesaprophet?
ThequestionwhetherMoseswasaprophetornotdependsonthedefinitiononegivesforapro
phet.BernardAndersondefinedaprophetasonewhocommunicatesthedivinewill.JanTho
mpsondefinesaprophetassimplyamessengerofGod.Fromthesedefinitionsthisdiscussio
nwillviewMosesasaprophetwithawidevarietyofduties.Hisresponsibilitiescoveredissues
fromthesocial,theeconomic,thepoliticalandthereligiousrealms.Thereforetobemoreprec
iseMoseswasaleaderaswellasaprophet.Focusingonthenatureofhisinitialassignment,o
nenotesadivinemandatebeingassignedtoMosses–
togoandconfrontPharaohanddemandtheliberationoftheHebrewsfromEgypt.Theorderc
amefromadeity,henceitwasdivine.Thetaskisapoliticalone.Theapproachitselfispolitical.
Lookingattheroleheplayedduringthewildernessjourney,Mosesplaystheroleofaleaderas
wellasaprophet.HeisresponsibleforthewelfareoftheHebrewcommunity.Heshouldersalll
ogisticalduties.,butheisguidedbythedivinespirit.Thereforehewasmoreofaninspiredlead
er,henceaprophet.TheSinaiticcovenantwhichMosesmediated(Exodus19)presentshim
asanagent,andrepresentativeofGodtohispeopleandviceversa.Heisgiventhelawandthe
authoritytomakefurtherordinances.MosessealstheSinaideclarationonbehalfofthepeopl
e.InthiscaseMosesposesasamediatorbetweenGodandhispeople,henceamediator–
prophet.Thepowersthatwerevestedonhimtomakelawsqualifyhimasalegislator.Thecust
odianshipoftheTorahthatwasgivenonhimconfirmshimas“arealmanofGod.”Mosescould
beseenasalegendaryfigure,consideringhisescapefromPharaoh’sinfernoandhowhewa
sbredintheking’spalace.Consideringhisdeathwhichremainsamystery,heisamanwithout
agrave.ItisthereforenodoubtthatMoseswasaprophet.Perhapsspecialattentioncanonlyb
egiventothetypeofprophecythathepracticed.Hisdutieswereallround.Hewasthefounderf
atheroftheYahwisticcult,whichwassealedattheSinaideclaration.Deuteronomy34:10has
describedhimas“thegreatestprophetIsraeleverhad”.Inthefinalanalysisitisreiteratedthat
MoseswasthefirstrealprophetofIsraelalthoughhiscontributionstoitsdevelopmentmaybe
minimalcomparedtohissuccessors.MosesProphecydevelopedfromwhatMoseslaiddow
n.AlsotobeconsideredisthefactthatthepassageswhichmakeMosesaProphetwerewritte
naftertheexilewhichmakesthemareadbackinhistorye.gNumbers11,theredactorswante
dvindicateecstasy,otherwisethehistoricalauthenticityofthiseventcannotbeascertained
withcertainty.GodactuallyraisedMosesandwouldraiseanotherprophetlikehimfromIsrael
.
(Deutr18:18).TherehadneverbeenanyotherprophetlikeMosesbeforehim.SoMoseswas

15
amodelofIsraeliteprophets.ArguablyMoseswasaseertrainedunderhisfather–in–
LawJethro,ajudge,aLawgiveraswellasaleader.Fromthesecredentialshewasamodelfor
Samuel,Joshuaetc.1.AccordingtoJohannesLindblomGodrevealedhimselftoaprophetth
roughvisionsandinspiration(theearliestformsofprophecy).Mosesreceivedavisionattheb
urningbush.HewasinspiredwiththespiritofGodintheWilderness.Sohewasamodelforfutu
reprophets.(cf.Num.11:24–
29)2.ProphetsofIsraelharkedbacktoMosesthefounderofYahweism.Elijahwasasecond
Moses.AlllaterprophetsdwelledontheMosaiccovenant.SoMoseswasamodelforlaterpro
phets.

SAMUEL
Samuels’sministryisdatedtothe11thcenturyBCEaftersettlementinCanaan.Heappeared
duringaperiodofwarswiththePhilistinesandhehelpedpeopletochooseaking(Saul).TheP
hilistinesdestroyedtheholyshrineofShilohandcapturedthearcofGod.ThepeopleofIsraelf
elttheyneededanarmycommanderinsteadoftheoldcharismaticJudgeslikeGideontodeal
withthemenace.SaulwaschosentobethekingandcommanderoftheIsraelitesbutSamuel
wasprotesting,arguingthatitwasarejectionofGod’sruleinfavourofahumanruler.Religious
CredentialsofSamuel
1)SamuelservedasaseerinIsrael.1Samuel19:20and1Samuel10:2-8.
SamuelwaspaidasmallfeeforhisservicessaysR.A.BEwbank.Butotherscholars,includin
gAndersonarguesthathewasnotchargingfeesassuch,butacceptedtokensofappre
ciation.ThiscontroversyarisesfromtheconversationbetweenSaulandhisservantin1Sa
m9:8“Whathavewe?”TheservantansweredSaulagain,“Herelhavewithmethefourthparto
fashekelofsilver,andIwillgiveittothemanofGodtotellusourway”.
2)SamuelwasafatheroftheecstaticsatRamah.Heledtheenthusiasticprophetsinacampai
gntowithstandforeigngods(1Sam19:10).
3)Hereceivedacallwhenhewasachild.Thecallcameinadream.
4)Samuelwasapriestaswellasaprophet
5)SamuelwasalsoaJudge.AfterthedestructionofthenationalshrineofShiloh,theIsraelite
shadnocentralshrineandSamuel,wholivedatRamah,wentoncircuitinthecentralhighland
s,tryingandsettlingdisputes.Theterm“circuit”isusedinjudicialsystemstorefertoseasonal
visitsbyaHighcourtJudgetoremotedistrictstotryseriouscriminalcasesthatwerecommitte
dinthosedistricts.
6)SamuelpresidedoverreligionsceremoniesatthealtarsofBethel,GilgalandMizpah.This
suggeststhathewasapriestasevidencedby1Sam7:15-17.
7)Samueladvocatedmonotheismandcampaignedagainstidolatry.Monotheismrefersto
worshippingonlyoneGod.
8)OnoneoccasionheledthepeopletovictoryoverthePhilistines(1Sam7:3-
10)andsokeptalivethespiritofresistanceanddevotiontoYahwehduringthePhilistineoccu
pation.

16
9)Samuelopposedtheideaofakingandpreferredtheoldsystemsofaconfederacyoftribesl
edbycharismaticjudgesofwhomhewasone.
10)SamuelanointedthefirstkingofIsrael,Saulwhomhedidnotsupport.
11)SamuelwasanintercessoronbehalfofthepeopleofIsrael,“FarbeitfrommethatIshoulds
inagainsttheLordbyceasingtoprayforyouandinstructyouinthegoodandrightway”.
(1Sam12:23).
12.SamuelquarrelledwithSaulwhenhetookSamuel’sprerogativebyofferingasacrificeint
heshrinewhenSamuelhaddelayedtoarrive.Offeringofsacrificeswastheresponsibilityofp
riests.(1Sam13:8-15).
13.Samuel’slastactionwastoanointDavidaskingofIsraelinplaceofSaul.
Itisalsoworthnotingthatthephenomenonof“seers”asmenofGodchanged,“Hewhowasfor
merlycalledaseerisnowcalledaprophet.”Suchachangeisbestunderstoodintermsoftechn
icalityratherthanfunctions.AfterSamuel,thegiftofsecondsightbecameveryrare.
ConclusionSamuelhadthecharacteristicsofatrueprophetbecausehewasempoweredt
ospeaktruewordsofGodandhadalsothegiftofsecondsight.LikeMosesheinfluencedthe
courseofpubliceventsandactedastheconscienceoftheKing,andintercededbothforthe
Kingandpeople.HewasapatronoftheecstaticswhowereenthusiastsforthereligionofYah
weh.
NATHANANDGAD-COURTPROPHETS
2Samuel7:1-29,2Samuel11:2-12:25and2Samuel24:1-210-17
a.David’sencounterwithNathan
DavidSin(BathshebaandUriah)
David,ashepherdwasthesuccessorofSaulandisdescribedasacharismaticleaderandahe
rowhomanagedtouniteIsraelintoapowerfulalliance.HewasafriendtoJonathanthesonofS
aulandiswell-
knownforhisunexpecteddefeatofthePhilistinegiantGoliathandhecametoserveinKingSa
ul’scourt.HewasadmiredbyeveryoneandmarriedSaul’sDaughterMichal.Saulbecameje
alousofDavidandhencetriedtokillhimbuthefailed.Davidranawayandhidinthesouthandw
hilethereheestablishedgoodrelationshipswiththePhilistinesenteredintomarriageallianc
eswiththepeopleoftheSouth.UponSaul’sshamefuldeathDavidbecamekingandhispopul
arityespeciallywiththepeopleofthesouthstrengthened.ThetribesofJudahthathadbeenis
olatedfromthetribesofthenorthandprobablyhadnotbeenfullypartofSaul’sKingdomfoundi
teasytoacceptDavidastheirnewleader.ThetribesofJudahlovedDavidbecausehewasasu
ccessfulleader.AlthoughthePhillistinestriedtokeepthenorthandsouthdividedDavidman
agedtokeepaunitedkingdomofIsrael.Hewasagreatleader,amilitarystrategistwhooverca
meIsrael’senemiesandapoliticianwhobroughtunitytothepeopleofthewholeofPalestineu
nderaruleroftheirownrace.EgyptandAssyria’srelativeweaknessmadeDavid’sachievem
entsalsoeasier.

17
HoweverdueDavid’svulnerabilityhisreignismarredbyatragedythatbefallshim.Hefailedto
meettherequirementsoftheSinaicovenant.HecommittedadulterywithBathshebaandmu
rderedherhusbandUriahThusbreakingthecommandments:
 Youshallnotcommitadultery
 Youshallnotenvyyourneighbour’shusbandorwife
 Youshallnotkill
Althoughthiswasnotunusualfororientalkingstobehavelikethis,NathanappearsasYahwe
h’sspokesmanandisboldenoughtodenounceDavid’sbehaviourthroughaparableleading
toDavidcondemnhimself(Theparableofthepoorman’sewelambthatwasstolentoprovide
meatforarichman’stable).Davidisremorsefulandconfesseshissin.Psalm51isascribedto
Davidandisdescribedas“apsalmofDavidwhenNathantheProphetcametohimafterhehad
gonetoBathsheba”B.WAnderson
LateronDavidstillconsultedNathanfordivineapprovalfortheconstructionofahouseforthe
LordbuttheLordrefused.Thetemplewouldshowasignofsocialstratificationandpoliticalce
ntralisation.TherefusaloftheconstructionofatempleisaYahwistresistanceofamonarchy.
HoweveratalaterstageTheDeuteronomisticviewwasthattrueworshipofYahwehmustbec
entralisedinthetempleofJerusalemnotinoutlyinghighplaceshencefocusedontheconstru
ctionofthetemplebySolomonandwereconvincedthattheDavidicdynastywasthelegitimat
eone.NathanindicatedthattheDavidicdynastywouldlastforeverandwouldhaveaspecialr
elationshipofSonofGod.
TheweaknessofDavidshowedthatthekingsofthehouseofDavidwereafterallhumanandth
ekingsafterhimwerelikekingsofothernationswhoweremoreconcernedforthemselvestha
nfortheircovenantrelationship(JDraneTheOldTestamentp88).Theprophetscontinuedto
beinvolvedinthesocial,politicalaffairsofIsrael.
b.Gad2Sam241-29(TheCensus)
Daviddecidedtocarryoutacensusinordertofindoutthenumberofpeoplefitformilitaryservic
e.His“seer”GadgotamessagethatDavidhadcommittedanoffencebycountingthenumber
ofpeoplehenceDavidhadtochooseapunishmentandhechoseapestilence.Daviddidnotdi
sregardthewordofGodbroughtbytheprophet.ThepestilencecameandtheLordregretteda
ndDavidrepentedandtheprophetGadbroughtamessagetoDavidandinstructedhimtobuil
danaltaroftheLord.DavidwenttoAraunahandboughtfromhimthethreshingfloor,oxenandt
hreshingsledgesandofferedasacrificetoendthepestilence
ELIJAH
ThecontributionsofElijah(1Kings)
-ElijahwasarevolutionaryYahwist
-HewasoneofthefirstprophetstoconfrontandchallengekingsofIsraele.gAhab.
(buttherewasalsoSamuelwhoconfrontedSaul).
-Hisprophecyfocusedonreligion,politicsandsocialvalues.
-Hewasamiracleworker.HeprovidedfoodtothewidowofZarephat.

18
-HewasasecondMoses
–arepresentativeofallprophetsheisoneoftheecstaticprophets.
HebeilvedinaGodwhowaspresentwithhispeople.Elijahisseenasaforerunnerofgreatpro
phetstlikeAmos,JeremiahandIsaiah
HisReligiousContributions
TheconflictbetweenBaalworshipandtheancestralfaithofIsraelismadeclearinthethreesto
riesfromthelifeofElijah
Thesearenotedinthefollowingbiblicalaccounts
1.ThecontestatMtCarmel(1Kings18:20)
2.TheescapetoHoreb(1Kings19)
3.TheconfrontationwithAhab.
(1Kings21:17)Thecontestbetweenthegods(YahwehandBaal)followsameetingofthetwo
humanantagonists–
ElijahandAhab.AhabgreetsElijahas“thetroublerofIsrael”anexpressionsuggestingtherit
ualpollutionofacommunityand,therefore,theinducementofcommunalhardshipsbythevio
lationofanoathorsacredvalue.Ahab’spointisthatElijahisresponsibleforthedrought,butEli
jahrepliesthatitisAhabwhohas“troubledIsrael”byviolatingJehovah’scommandments.Ah
ab’spaganwivesJezebelbroughtmorethan800prophetsofbaalintoIsraelandsohavepollu
tedthelandofIsraelwithforeigngods.Elijah’sjourneythroughthewildernesstoMountHoreb
isthemostimportantofaseriesofepisodesthatpresenthimasthenewMoses.Thealtarhebui
ltonMountCarmelusingtwelvestones(accordingtothenumberoftribesofthesonsofJacob”
isreminiscentofMoses`alterandtwelvestandingstonessetuponMtSinai.Nowhemakesaj
ourneyof40daysand40nightstoHorebandenterthecavewhichmightbethesamecle
ftofrockfromwhichMosessawYahweh’sback.LikeMosesElijahwatchesasYahwehpa
ssesby.AboutthejourneytoHoreb,manyscholarsthinkthatpiousYahweistsmadepilgrima
gestoSinaiduringthetimeoftheIsraelitesandJudeanmonarchies.Elijahisoftenseenasa
pilgriminthisstory.ButthereasonhegivesisthathewasseekingrefugefromJezebel’sthre
at.Thepilgrimageitselfisamiraculousjourneyoffortydaysandnightswithoutfoodorwater,f
orwhichheispreparedbyanangelwhorequireshimtoconsumeadoubleportionofbothbefor
ethetrekbegins.“Thestillsmallvoice”–
ManyscholarsinterpretthisaccountasadeliberaterejectionofthestormtheophanyinYahwi
smbecauseofitsspecialassociationswiththeCanaaniteraingodBaal.Therejectioncomes
atthetimewhenIsraelwasdividedbetweentheworshipofBaalandYahweh,andthedanger
ofsyncretismwasgreat.Itisclear,however,thatthisincidentrepresentsatransitionfromthe
spectaculartheophanieswitnessedbyearlyIsraeltothequiettransmissionofthedivinewor
dtotheprophets.
Elijahusedmoreofmiraclestoconveyhismessages
e.gthecontestatMountCarmel–itwasamiraculousevent,
-
theprovisionoffoodtothewidowofZarephathetc.Sucheventswerefurtherdevelopmentso
nthetechnicalitiesofprophetism.
19
1. HowjustifiedistheviewthatSamuelwasatruemodelofprophets?

2. ExaminetheviewthattheOldTestamentprophetssawkingsasanecessaryevil.

3. Moseswasjustagoodleaderbutlatereditorsmadehimintoaprophet.’Assessthisstate
ment.

4.

TheirinvolvementofYahwehinhistoricaleventsinthelifeofIsraelwasattheCentreofthe
messageofIsraeliteprophets.Towhatextentisthisassertionvalid?

5. “EcstasywasaphenomenonalsofoundoutsideIsrael”(G.Holscher)Showhowthisstate
menthasoftenbeenusedtodisputethatprophecywasquiteuniqueinIsrael.

Gobbets
Gobbetsgenerallyhighlightthematicissues.InsectionA,forexample,thegobbetswillbede
alingwiththephenomenonofearlyprophecyinIsrael;Itsemergenceanditsearliestforms.T
hereforecandidatesareexpectedtohaveawiderviewofthephenomenonofprophecyinIsra
elanditsstrategicfeatures.Thosegobbetsthatarebasedonpre–
exilicprophetsalsohaveaninclinationtowardsmajorthemesinthepropheticbooks.Theref
oretheexplanationsshouldtouchontheverythemethatthegobbetwillberelatingtoe.g.“Fall
en,nomoretoriseisthevirginIsrael…………………”Amos5:2Thiswillcertainlyrequirefocu
sonAmos`conceptionofdestruction,deathordoom.
Suchtermsas:i)Fallenii)No-moretoriseand
iii)Virgin:arespecialfeatureswhichrequirespecialattentionthustheyarepointsofinterest.T
hereforethegeneralobservationongobbetsisthattheyarealwaysbasedontheme.
PresentationofgobbetanswersAsalreadymentionedearlier,gobbetanswersmustbes
hort–
now5marksatmost.Butanswersmustdisplayacertainpattern.Itiscorrecttosaythatinmost
casesthesegobbetsareinquotedspeech.Thisgenerallysuggeststhattheywillbewordsofs
omeone,obviouslytosomeoneelseandaboutaparticularsubjectmatter.Thereforeanswer
sareexpected,asmuchaspossible,todisplaythefollowingaspects:
i)Theauthorofthestatement/speaker
ii)Theaudienceorrecipientofthemessage
iii)Thecontextinwhichthestatementismade,butbriefly.
iv)Themeaningofthestatement,asatotalofmeaningsofpointsofinterestinthestatement.
GeneralreflectionsonanyotherrelatedissuesintheBiblecanbemade,butwithoutmakingy
ouranswertoolong.FirstandforemostGobbetsmustdemonstrateknowledgeofthetextbot
hthegeneralandimmediatecontextoftheGobbetmustbeidentified.Commentsofferedmu

20
stbemeaningful,accurate,organizedandpresentedclearlyandlogically,usingtechnicaljar
goninthearea.Itisalsoimportanttoidentifypossiblesourcesthatarelinkedtothegobbetse.g
DDeutronomic,E-ElolisticorEphramiticsource,J-YahweisticandP-Priestlysource.
(tobediscussedatalaterstage)Alsoknowledgeofformcritismandreductioncritismshouldb
edemonstratedwherethisisobviousornecessary.Theanswersarenotessayanswers.The
yareproseanswersthatareincontinuouswriting.Noparagraphsareexpected,althoughont
reatingpointsofinterestonemaybreakfromthecontinuouswriting.

THEPROPHETAMOS
Introduction
ThebookofAmosisapropheticbookofonlyninechapters.Itscentralfocusistheproclamatio
nofYahweh`sjudgementagainstIsraelbecausesomeIsraeliteshadoppressedthepoor.Y
ahweh`sburningangerisdirectedagainstIsraelbecauseittreatspeopleviolentlyandunjustl
y.Yahweh`sangeris,indeedsohotthatthedownfallofIsraelisunavoidable.Onlyattheendof
thebookcanonefindclearlyexpressedamessageofhope,butthatexpectationseemstoapp
lyprimarilytoJudahratherthantoIsrael.MostscholarsthinkthatthisarticleofhopeforJudahi
stheproductoflatereditorsofthebookofAmos.ItdidnotcomefromAmoshimself.WhowasA
mos?
ThelittlethatisknownaboutAmosmustbederivedfromthebookitself.AmoscamefromTeko
ainJudah(theSouthernstate).HeunderstoodhimselftohavebeencommissionedbyYahw
ehtoprophesytoIsraelduringtheruleofJeroboam11(786-
746B.c).Hedoesnotseemtohavebeenalifelongprophetbutratherashepherdanddresser
ofsycamoretrees(7:14)
TheTextofAmos.ThebookofAmosconsistsofthreemajorsectionsasfollows:
1.AnintroductorysuperscriptionandtheMotto
2.Themainbodyofthebookchaptersonetochapter9.3.
Aconcludingpostscript(9:8-15)
ThefirstandthirdsectionspresupposeJerusalemtobethefocusofdivineactivities“theLordr
oarsfromZion”(Jerusalem)hisdwellingplace.Thesuperscriptionisastatementoftheautho
rofthemessage“ThewordsofAmos”andhisvocation-“whowasamongtheshepherdsofTe
koa”.Themottocontainslanguagetypicaloftheophanies“TheLordroarsfromZion”.Sucha
mottosuggeststhewrathofYahweh,whichislikenedtoaroaringlion.Themottoisnotedasth
efirstindicationofAmos`conceptionsofdestruction.
ThesecondpartofthebookrevolvesaroundthethemeofGod’spresence.Aseriesofjudgem
entspeecheslaysafoundationforanexhortationthatthepeopleshouldprepareforYahweht
oappearintheirmidst.ThecomingofYahwehmarksthedeathofIsrael.TheOraclesagainstt

21
heNationsTheoraclesarearepetitionalcompositioncontainingaseriesofstereotypedorac
lesagainstvariousforeignpeoples,concludingwithoraclesagainstJudahandIsrael.Theya
reintroducedbyabriefaccusationandannouncementofpunishment,“forthreetransgressi
onsof…
andforfourIwillnotrevokethepunishment”Therationaleforusingthisformulaisunclear.The
numbersthreeandfourhavenoclearrelevancetotheseriesofcrimescommitted.Thenature
ofthecrimesisclearlyspecified.Theyareallviolentabusesofhumanbeings.Yahweh’spuni
shmentforthesecrimesoccurintheformofanger,whichoncesentforth,willnotbecalledbac
k.“Fire”astereotypicalexpressionforYahweh’sangeranddestructioniskindledtoeatthestr
ongholdsofthesenations’defeat,deathbytheswordandexile.Yahweh’sangerwhichisdire
ctedagainsthisownpeoplenamely,Judahandespecially,Israel,providestheclimaxinthisr
epetitionalcomposition.WhileJudah’smisdeedsarestatedgenerallyasdisobediencetoth
elawandwalkingaccordingtolies,thecrimesofIsraelinvolveoppressionofthepoor.“Theys
elltherighteousforsilverandtheneedyforapairofshoes(2:6).Suchsocialabusesareseriou
sviolationsagainstYahweh,fortheyprofanehisholynameandaltarsanddesecratehissacr
edhouse.FurthermorealthoughYahwehhasgraciouslydeliveredIsrael,theIsraeliteshave
disobeyedhim,“Iraisedupsomeofyoursonsasprophets….asNazarites,”youmadetheNa
zaritesdrinkwineandsay:“youmustnotprophesy”.
(Amos2:12.)BecauseIsraelhasoppressedthepoor,profanedYahweh’sname,abusedhis
Nazarites,andsilencedhisprophets,Yahwehwillpunishthenationbymilitarydefeat.Thisd
efeatisexpressedfirstbytheimageofanoverloadedwagonthat:“pressesdownwhatisunde
rneath”.Thentheimageryshiftstotheportrayalofthefateofwarriorsindefeat
ClarificationonthethemesofdoomandhopeinAmosOftenthereiscontroversybasedo
nwhetherthereisamessageofhopeornotinAmos’Prophesy.Butsuchacontroversyisnotth
ereamongbiblicalscholarsespeciallyifonereadscarefullymostoftheviewsonAmos.Infact
themostrespectedofthesescholarsonAmosactuallywarnedthatitisfutiletoattempttoforge
anyhopeinAmos’prophecies.Theapparentcontroversyisbasedonsuchtextsasin3:12-
13;whereashepherdretrievedtwolegsandapeaceofanearofasheepfromthemouthofalio
n.Whatisimportanttonotehereisthatthisoracleisnotanisolatedonefromtherestofthemess
age.InviewofthisfactyououghttotakenotethatAmosusesimageriesofalife–
threateningnature,thustheremainsofasheepinthiscaseareonlyexhibitstoshowthatthean
imalhasbeenkilled.J.P.Hyatt,aspecialistonAmos,commentinginPeake’sBibleComment
ary,arguedthattheremainsaretooinsignificanttorepresentlife.Heactuallywarnsreadersa
gainstahopefulnotion.TheresentmentwhichGodmadeafterAmos’intercessioninthevisio
nsoflocustsandfiredoesnotsuggestanalterationofGod’splantodestroyIsrael.Atmostther
esentmentcouldonlybeatemporaryonethatwassoonsupersededbythethreateningvision
softheplumbline,thebasketofthesummerfruitandthevisionoftheLordatthealtar.Thetotali
mpressionthatiscreatediscatastrophicandirreversible.Thatistheviewwhichthestudentm
ustappreciate.
Summaryofthethemeonsocialjustice
ThelawthatgodgavetothepeoplehastodowithjusticebetweenmanDeut15:7-11,15:12-
18.Ifaman…youshall...lendhimsufficientforhisneed;
….IfaHebrewmanissoldtoyou,intheseventhyearyoushalllethimgofree”
YoushallnotoppressahiredservantDeut24:14,15.

22
EveryhumanbeingisachildofGodcreatedinhisownimage.TheIsraeliteshadtolearnthatea
chindividualpersonisequallyimportantandforthatreasonnopersonmustbedespisedorop
pressedbyhisneighbours.Godsconcerningforthepoorandstarving,forwidowsandfatherl
esschildrenWasthepatternwhichheintendedtheIsraelitestofollow.AmossawthattheIsra
eliteshadforgottenthisvitalpartofthecovenant
StrictlyspeakingthemainthemeinAmosisthethemeofGod’spresence.Thismajort
hemesplitsintotwoparts.
Thefirstpartbeingaseriesofjudgmentspeechesislayingafoundationforanexhortation,tha
tthepeopleshouldprepareforYahwehtoappearintheirmidst.Thesecondpartofthethemeis
buildinguponthatexhortationportrayingYahweh’spresenceasaneventresultinginIsrael’s
death.InsuccincttermsthebookofAmosbasicallydealswiththetwothemesofsocialJustice
,andthedestructionofthenation.
ThefirstpartofthebookofAmosopensupwithaseriesofjudgmentaloraclesagainstvario
usnationsincludingIsraelandJudah.Yahwehhassenthisangeragainstvariousforeign
peoples.Specificallythecrimeofallthesenationsishumanabuse.(Amos1:3-4:3).
Thenationshaveviolentlyabusedhumanbeingsasfollows:
1)DamascusthreshedGileadwiththreshingsledgesofiron.
2)TyrefailedtorememberthecovenantofbrotherhoodanddeliveredawholeofpeopletoEd
om.
3)Edompursuedhisbrotherwiththeswordandcastoffallpity.
4)AmmonrippedthetummiesofpregnantwomeninGilead.
5)MoabburnedtoashesthecorpseoftheKingofEdom.
6)Israel’soffenseisexpoundedextensivelyasoppressionofthepoorandtheirensla
vement.Theyselltherighteousforsilverandtheneedyforapairofshoes.Suchsocialabuse
sareviolationsagainstYahwehfortheyprofanehisholynameandhisaltarsanddesecrate
hissacredhouse.
Furthermore,althoughYahwehhasgraciouslydeliveredIsraelfromEgypt,theIsraelitesha
vedisobeyedhimbecausetheyhaveoppressedthepoor,profanedYahweh’sname,abuse
dhisNaziritesandsilencedhisprophets.SoYahwehwillpunishthenationbymilitarydefe
at.TheaccusationsofoppressionareextendedtothewomenofSamaria(Amos4).Specifica
llythisreferstothewivesoftherulersandthetopclass.Thewomenurgetheirhusbandst
oexploitthepooratthemarketplacesandtochargebribesandbringtheproceedsho
me.Fromeatingsuchproceedsthesewomenhavegrownfatandstouttofittheimage
ofthefatbeaststhatwererearedinthefertiledistrictofBashan:“Hearthisword,youcow
sofBashanwhooppressthepoor,whocrushtheneedywhosaytotheirhusbands“bringthat
wemaydrink”.
Corruptionisrampantinthenationalcourts.Judgesacceptbribesandprejudicethepoor
inthecourts.Therulershaveturnedjusticeintowormwoodandcastdownallrighteousness
(5:7).

23
Falsescalesareusedatthemarketplacestocheatthepoor.Thesuperprofitsobtainedfromt
hisrobberyisusedtosponsoraluxuriouslifeattheexpenseofthepoor,“……..Youtrampleup
onthepoorandtakefromhimexactionsofwheat,youhavebuilthousesofhewnstone……..y
ouwhoafflicttherighteous,whotakeabribe”.(5:11-
12).Inallsectorsoflife(political,economicandsocial)thereisgrossinjusticeinIsrael.
Examinationtypequestions
.Question:1.WhathasAmostosayaboutGodandthenations?
Amos’judgmentaloraclesinChapters1-3
Focusonvariousforeignpeoplewhocommittedcrimesagainsthumanity.
Thejudgementsareannouncedinastereotypeformula.
Themeaningoftheformulaisnotclear.

Itsemphasisisonrepeatedoffences.

OraclestoothernationsareapreambletoAmos’targetednationofIsrael.

Thejudgmentalexhortationsusetheimageryof“fire”tomarkthedevastativenatureofGod’
spunishment.
Israelisarebelliousnationthatmustsufferamilitarydefeatandfacesubsequentexile.

Israel’suncheckedinjusticesprofanethenameofYahweh.

Theappropriate-penaltyisadestructionofthenationbyforeignmilitaryarsenal.

TheoraclestothenationsusherthecrucialsentimentsofdoominthebookofAmos.’

2.WhatwerethemattersaboutwhichAmosandhiscontemporariesdisagree?
Amos’contemporariesweretheIsraelitesofthenorthernstate.Amosannouncedfurtherju
dgementagainsttheminmoresevereterms,accompaniedbymockeryoftheirprivilegesan
dluxuries,eventheirreligiousceremoniesaresarcasticallydenounced.Israelischargedof
misdeedsandthreatenedwithjudgement.Israeliscalledtohearthewordofherowndestructi
on,“Hearthisword;youonlyhaveIknown…ThereforeIwillpunishyou…”(Amos3:2).
AmosaversthatelectionisnoguaranteeofGod’sfavour;itinvolves,rather,ademandingres
ponsibilityandservesasthebasisfordivinejudgementandpunishment.ThisviewofAmosw
ouldruncontrarytoIsraeliteconception.
Amos’proclamationonthethreattohumanlifeinIsrael,whichheportrayedbytheimageryofa
trumpet,“Ifatrumpetisblowninacitydoesnotthepeopletremble”?
Thisinvolvestheaudiencepersonallyandthreatenstheirsurvival.Suchaproclamationwoul
dbemetbyanemotionalreactionbecausethepeopleleastexpectedanyreprisalsfromtheir
God.

TheimageriesinAmos3:12furtherdepicteventscontrarytoIsraeliteconception.Amose
mploystwoimageries:

24
i)-Theshepherdwhorescuesnothingbuttornanimalpartsfromthelionandii)-
therecoveryofnothingbutfurniturefragmentsfromtheenemy.Notonlywillthestrongholdso
fthecapitalbebroughtlow,nothingbutthefragmentsofthefurnishingswillbeleft.
ii)Stilltheotherimageofalionhavingdevoureditsprey(3:12)connectsanimalviolencetomili
tarydefeatofIsrael.Moreover,theroaringofthelionissaidtobeGod’svoice,sothelion’sattac
k;theblowingofthetrumpetinthecity,theactivityofwitnessesinYahweh`strialagainstSama
ria,andtheenemy’sdestructionofthemightystrongholdsofSamariaandthedecimationofth
efurnishingsareallimagesthatworktogethertodepictthetotalannihilationofthecity.InAmo
s3:13-
15heextendstheportrayalofdevastation.Witnessesaresummonedtowitnessthatthesanc
tuaryatBethelandthealtarwillbepunishedandthatYahwehwilldestroythehouses.Thewor
shippersaresarcasticallysummonedtoBetheltocomeandmultiplytransgression,“Comet
oBethelAndtransgress,toGilgalandmultiplytransgression”.
(Amos4:4)Suchsacarsmwouldbeaninsultoftheholyreligion.TheIsraeliteswouldleastexp
ectsuchmessagesfromatrueprophet.TheproclamationofthedeathofKingJeroboam11m
arkedtheclimax.HewasinstantlychasedawayorderbythehighpriestAmaziah.Amos`cont
emporarieswouldnotexpecttoheardisfavouroranybadmessagesthatsuggestedGodtaki
ngpunitivemeasuresagainstthem.
ProclamationofdeathChapter5:1-17
AmosproclaimsatotaldeathofIsraelusingafuneraldirge,“Fallen;nomoretorise,istheVirgi
nIsrael.”Theprophetemploystheimageofadeadvirginandtheimpressionofafunerallame
nttoportrayatotalendofIsrael.Itisaregrettablelossforawomantodieavirgin(Judges11:29-
40).SotooIsraeldiesprematurelyandunfulfilled,likeawomanwhohadbornnochild.
Thevisionsofjudgementinchapter7alsodepicttheendofIsrael.Thefirsttworeportsnarr
atevisionsofdevastatingjudgementsagainstIsrael,inwhichtheprophetsucceedsthroughi
ntercessoryprayer,inpersuadingYahwehtowithdrawthepunishment.Inthethirdandfourt
hvisionsYahwehannouncesanirrevocablejudgementagainstIsrael..“Iwillnotagainpassh
imby”,thisfifthvisionelaboratesthejudgement.Thevisionreportsdevelopthethemeofdeat
hpresentinthemainthemeofAmos.Likeawalltestedbyaplumblineandfoundtobeunfit,soIs
raelfailsthetestandthereforemust,likethewallbetorndown.
The“Summerfruit”introducesadescriptionofIsrael’send.Thisfinalvisionfillsupthepictur
eofdeath–
nonewillescapethesword.Nomatterhowfartheyflee,theycannotescapeYahweh`seyes.
Athiscommandtheywilldie.

HowjustifiableisitthatAmoswasaprophetofdoom?
AnadmissionstatementofthefactthatAmosindeedproclaimeddoom.
Themottoinchapter1andthethreatsofdevastationofthenationsbyfireandthesubsequent
destructionoftheirstrongholds.
Theimageryofalionmaulingalambin3:12andthewagonsthatwaspressingdownheavily.

25
Thefunerallamentinchapter5:2andthemockeryofholyplacesatBethelandGilgal.

Thevisionsofjudgementanalysedonebyoneandtheiremphasisondevastation.
ThepersistencewithwhichAmosattacksthenationofIsrael.
Thepostscript:Amos9:8-
15ThebookofAmosendswithareinterpretationofthemessageofjudgment.Bydisputingth
eclaimthatdeliverancefromEgyptexemptsIsraelfromjudgment,theauthorclaimsthatYah
wehwilldestroy“thesinfulkingdom”.ThiskingdomistheIsraelitemonarchy,whichwilldisap
pear,but“thehouseofJacob”willnotbecompletelydestroyed.Onlysinnerswilldiea
ndaremnantwillsurvive.
Thelastfourverses(11-
15)wereundoubtedlycomposedduringtheBabylonexile.Theyunderstandthesurvivi
ngremnantaslinkedtotherenaissanceofthefallingDaviddynasty.Mostscholarsattributet
heselastversestoalatereditorwhointendedtoputthebookofAmosonacoolending.
TheeditorcouldhaveintendedtoregainthesoulsofthehearersofAmos
1.AmosbelievedthatIsrael’sdestructionwasunavoidable.Discuss.
2.DiscusstheviewthatAmos9:8-15wasnotwrittenbyAmos.
3.TowhatextentcanitbearguedthatforAmostheauthorityofYahwehwentbeyondIsrael?
4.WhathadAmostosayaboutGodandtheNationsandspecificallytoJudahandIsrael?
5.ShowhowAmos’svocationinfluencedhispropheticcareer.

26