Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146

U–Pb age data from the Sunsas region of Eastern Bolivia, evidence
for the allochthonous origin of the Paragua Block
S.D. Boger a,∗ , M. Raetz a , D. Giles a,∗ , E. Etchart b , C.M. Fanning c
a Australian Crustal Research Centre, School of Geosciences, Monash University, Clayton, Vic. 3400, Australia
b BHP Billiton Ltd., 6 Holland Street, Johannesburg 2001, Republic of South Africa
c Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia

Received 27 October 2004; received in revised form 2 May 2005; accepted 9 May 2005

Abstract

Ion microprobe U–Pb dating of detrital zircons from the Chiquitania and San Ignacio groups of Eastern Bolivia show that these
rocks were derived mostly from a 1765 Ma source and were deposited after 1690 Ma. The emplacement of the Lomas Maneches
granitoid suit, dated at 1690–1660 Ma, accompanied the deposition of these metasediments. These rocks, which collectively define
the basement of Eastern Bolivia, were subsequently deformed and metamorphosed during two discrete periods of orogenesis.
The oldest of these events, the San Ignacio Orogeny, deformed the terrane through three successive phases of deformation and
was accompanied by voluminous syn-tectonic granite intrusion and migmatisation of the 1690 Ma sediments and intrusions.
U–Pb age data from igneous and metamorphic zircon constrain the San Ignacio Orogeny to between 1340 and 1320 Ma, while the
orientation of structures suggests deformation was the result of W–NW directed shortening. A 300 million years hiatus, during
which the overlying Sunsas Group was deposited, separated the San Ignacio Orogeny from the Sunsas Orogeny. Shortening
during Sunsas orogenesis resulted in an intense NW trending structural overprint in the southern and western extremes of the
study area. The intensity of deformation decreased toward the northeast such that in the San Ignacio region, Sunsas tectonism
resulted in distinct dome and basin fold interference patterns. Late syn- to post-tectonic granites were emplaced in the region
of highest Sunsas strain. One of these intrusions, the Taperas granite, yielded an age of ca. 1075 Ma. When taken collectively,
these new data highlight a number of important points: (1) The deposition of the Chiquitania and San Ignacio groups, and the
synchronous emplacement of the Lomas Maneches granitoid suite (1690–1660 Ma) have no temporal equivalents in the either
the Rondônia and Mato Grosso regions of Brazil to the north or east, or the Proterozoic pre-Andean inliers to the west; (2) the
trend of the structures attributed to the San Ignacio Orogeny are oriented at a high-angle to the NW trending pre-Sunsas margin
of Amazonia and; (3) the Sunsas Orogeny represents the only geological event with a common age and direction of crustal
shortening recorded in both the Amazon Craton and the rocks of Eastern Bolivia. These data are interpreted to suggest that the
rocks of Eastern Bolivia represent a geologically distinct microcontinent (the Paragua Craton) that was accreted to the southern
margin of Amazon Craton during the Sunsas Orogeny.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bolivia; South America; Amazon Craton; Sunsas Orogeny; San Ignacio Orogeny; Grenville; SHRIMP geochronology; Rodinia

∗ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: sdboger@unimelb.edu.au, stevenboger@hotmail.com (S.D. Boger), david.giles@sci.monash.edu.au (D. Giles).

0301-9268/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2005.05.010
122 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
1. Introduction
The thick Neoproterozoic rift related sediments
found along the eastern and western margins of Lauren-
tia (Bond et al., 1984) have been interpreted as evidence
for the existence of the Mesoproterozoic Rodinia super-
continent (Dalziel, 1991; Hoffman, 1991; Moores,
1991; Brookfield, 1993; Borg and DePaolo, 1994).
Although the exact configuration of Rodinia remains
a point of considerable conjecture, its gross geome-
try centred on the north American cratonhas remained
largely unchanged. East Antarctica and Australia, con-
tiguous prior to the break-up of Gondwana, remains the
preferred choice as the conjugate to Laurentia’s west-
ern margin (Hoffman, 1991; Moores, 1991; Brookfield,
1993; Burrett and Berry, 2000; Berry et al., 2001;
Karlstrom et al., 2001; Wingate et al., 2002). For Lau-
rentia’s southern and eastern margins, reconstructions
have emphasised a long-lived connection between Lau-
rentia and Amazonia (Bond et al., 1984; Dalziel, 1991,
1992; Hoffman, 1991).
Although the Laurentia-Amazonia connection
within Rodinia is generally accepted, conflicting
interpretations have correlated the Amazon Craton
with various parts of the +3000 km long southern and
eastern margin of Laurentia. For example, Tohver et
al. (2002) paired the Amazon Craton with the south-
western Llano segment of Laurentia based on the low
latitude ca. 1200 Ma palaeomagnetic pole obtained for
Amazonia. In contrast, broad geological similarities
lead Hoffman (1991) and Sadowski and Bettencourt
(1996) to correlate Amazonia with the central Grenville
Province of Ontario and New York, while Loewy et
al. (2003) proposed an intermediate fit based on the
Pb isotopic affinities between Amazonian crust and
that which defines the basement to the southern and
central Appalachians (see also Tohver et al., 2004a).
Most of the uncertainty regarding the Laurentia-
Amazonia fit is a function of an imbalance in reliable
data from the two margins. While extensive geologic
data has been collected from the eastern margin of
Laurentia, very little is actually known about the con-
jugate margin of South America. Critical to address-
ing this imbalance is the Sunsas region of Eastern
Bolivia. Located toward the southwest margin of Ama-
zonia (Fig. 1), the Sunsas region defines the youngest
tectonic province in the Amazon Craton and, being
broadly of Grenville age, is critical to understanding
Rodinia palaeogeography. Nevertheless, this region has
seen no significant geological work since the “Proyecto
Precámbrico”, an Anglo-Bolivian technical coopera-
tion program that first mapped the Proterozoic rocks of
Bolivia in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Litherland
and Bloomfield, 1981; Berrrangé and Litherland, 1982;
Litherland et al., 1996, 1989). These studies published
a number of Rb–Sr and K–Ar ages that broadly overlap
with the youngest recognised events in Laurentia. How-
ever, more recent studies from neighbouring regions
of Brazil have shown that these isotopic systems have
consistently post-dated the U–Pb ages from the same
rocks by as much as 200 million years (Bettencourt et
al., 1999). Thus, the significance of the existing age
data from Eastern Bolivia is equivocal. The present
study provides new structural data, coupled with U–Pb
SHRIMP ages obtained from some of the key intru-
sions from the region. With these data we are able to
better define the formation age of the basement rocks
from this region, as well as the timing and kinematics
of both the San Ignacio and Sunsas orogenies. These
results place new constraints on the geologic evolution
of the south-western margin of the Amazon Craton, a
key region for testing the commonly inferred Protero-
zoic connection between Laurentia and Amazonia.
2. Geologic setting
The Amazon Craton is divided into four broad
tectonic provinces that form NW–SE trending
belts that young outwards from an Archaean core
(Teixeira et al., 1989; Tassinari and Macambira,
1999; Santos et al., 2000; Tassinari et al., 2000).
From northeast to southwest these provinces are
defined as the Ventuari-Tapajós (1950–1800 Ma), Rio
Negro-Juruena (1800–1550 Ma), Rondônia-San Igna-
cio (1450–1300 Ma) and Sunsas (1250–1000 Ma)
provinces (Fig. 1). Although many aspects of the defor-
mation and intrusion histories within these provinces
remains unresolved, it is generally believed that each
belt represents a successive continental margin arc built
upon the basement of the preceding terrane (Geraldes
et al., 2001; Tassinari and Macambira, 1999). Of
these provinces, part of the Rondônia-San Ignacio
Province and most of the Sunsas Province are inferred
to define the basement rocks of Eastern Bolivia. How-
ever, the direct continuation of these provinces from
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146 123

Fig. 1. Geology of South America. (a) Distribution of gross tectonic units. Area of interest and the borders of Bolivia are highlighted. AC,
Amazon Craton and AAB, Arequipa-Antofalla Basement. (b) Enlargement of the Amazon Craton illustrating the location and approximate
boundaries of the constituent tectonic provinces (after Teixeira et al., 1989 and Tassinari and Macambira, 1999). As for part (a), the area of
interest is highlighted.

the Rondônia and Mato Grosso regions of Brazil into
Eastern Bolivia has been challenged by a number of
recent studies. For example, Tohver et al. (2004b) have
proposed that the rocks of Eastern Bolivia, defined
as the Paragua Craton (Litherland et al., 1989), rep-
resent an accreted terrain of sub-continental size.
Tohver et al. (2004b) have argued that the deep-water
metasediments of the Nova Brasilândia belt (Fig. 2),
together with an underlying east–west trending mag-
netic anomaly, defined the southern margin of Amazo-
nia prior to the Sunsas aged collision and suturing of
the Paragua Craton.
Croping out in the Andes west of the Ama-
zon Craton are the isolated east–west trending base-
ment inliers that collectively define the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement Province (AAB—Fig. 1). The
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement consists of Palaeopro-
terozoic granulite facies rocks (1900–1800 Ma) that
were reworked and intruded by granites during the
Mesoproterozoic and Ordovician (Shackleton et al.,
1979; Wasteneys et al., 1995; Wörner et al., 2000;
Loewy et al., 2004). The distinct Proterozoic history
of the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement has led a num-
ber of studies to infer an exotic origin for these rocks.
Similar to the Paragua Craton, the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement is considered to have accreted to the mar-
gin of the Amazon Craton during the Sunsas Orogeny
(Loewy et al., 2004).
Although the outward accretionary growth of the
Amazon Craton is generally accepted, the rocks that
define the Paragua Craton remain poorly understood.
These rocks crop out almost entirely within the eastern
third of Bolivia (Fig. 1), a flat to undulating region that
is mostly covered by a Late Tertiary lateritic peneplain
where rock exposures are limited to isolated elevated
outcrops or along the incised margin of the peneplain in
124 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146

Fig. 2. Geologic Map of the south-western portion of the Amazonian Craton. Thick dashed lines mark the border between Bolivia and Brazil
and the province boundaries within Brazil. Solid line outlines the region of geophysical coverage. Rio Negro Front (fine dashed line) marks the
inferred boundary between the Paragua Craton and rocks reworked by the Sunsas Orogeny (Litherland et al., 1989). C: Concepcı́on; SI, San
Ignacio; SJ, San Javier; SM, San Miguel; SR, San Ramon and SRa, San Rafael—major towns in Eastern Bolivia.

modern creek and river systems. The British Geologic
Survey and the Servicio Geológio de Bolivia under-
took the original geological work in Eastern Bolivia
(e.g. Berrrangé and Litherland, 1982; Litherland et
al., 1996). These studies subdivided the exposed
rocks into a metamorphic basement, consisting of
the Lomas Maneches and Chiquitania complexes and
the San Ignacio Group. These rocks pre-date the San
Ignacio Orogeny (>1400 Ma) and are considered to
be Palaeo- or Mesoproterozioc in age (Berrrangé and
Litherland, 1982). Two cover-sequences, the Sunsas
and the Tucavaca groups (Fig. 2), post-date the San
Ignacio Orogeny. The Sunsas Group unconformably
overlies the Lomas Maneches Complex, Chiquitania
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Complex and the San Ignacio Group and was deformed
together with the basement during the subsequent Sun-
sas Orogeny (∼1000 Ma). The Tucavaca Group was
deposited after the Sunsas Orogeny and forms a mostly
undeformed cover sequence of Late Neoproterozoic
or Cambrian age.
2.1. Basement rocks of Eastern Bolivia
The metamorphic basement consists of an inter-
calated package of layer-parallel granitic intrusions
and metasediments that vary in grade from granulite
to lower greenschist. The Lomas Maneches Complex
defines the structurally deepest and consequently
highest-grade rocks. They are exposed in the cores
of regional antiforms (Berrrangé and Litherland,
1982; Litherland and Bloomfield, 1981). The Lomas
Maneches Complex consists predominantly of granitic
sills, often up to 1000 m thick, that are interleaved
with lesser metasedimentary rocks of calc-silicate or
psammitic composition (Berrrangé and Litherland,
1982). The Chiquitania Complex, lying structurally
above the Lomas Maneches Complex, is comprised
of a monotonous sequence of variably migmatitic
semipelitic gneiss interleaved locally with granite
gneisses similar to those seen in the Lomas Maneches
Complex (Berrrangé and Litherland, 1982; Litherland
and Bloomfield, 1981). Metamorphic grade falls
from muscovite-absent upper-amphibolite facies
conditions near the base of the Chiquitania Complex,
to muscovite-present medium-grade conditions near
the contact with the overlying San Ignacio Group.
Litherland and Bloomfield (1981) suggested that the
San Ignacio Group and some of the gneisses of the
Chiquitania Complex might have constituted a cover
sequence to the Lomas Maneches Complex. However,
the correlation of lithostratigraphic units across the
contact led Litherland et al. (1989) to revise this
interpretation and suggest that the two sequences were
continuous. The low- to medium-grade rocks ascribed
to the San Ignacio Group are estimated to have attained
a total thickness of over 10 km and consist of quartzites,
feldspathic psammites, and pelitic schists. The latter
commonly contain most of the typical Barrovian index
minerals (Litherland et al., 1989). The depositional and
emplacement age of these rocks is not well constrained.
A Rb–Sr model age of 1960 Ma was obtained from
samples collected from the Lomas Maneches Complex
125
and has been used to argue that these rocks are probably
of Palaeoproterozoic age (Litherland et al., 1989).
2.2. San Ignacio Orogeny
The majority of deformation and metamorphism
recorded in the basement rocks occurred as a result
of the San Ignacio Orogeny. Rb–Sr and K–Ar ages
obtained from both the basement rocks and from the
syn-tectonic San Ignacio granite suite constrain this
event to between 1400 and 1250 Ma (Litherland et al.,
1989). This event is interpreted to have affected all of
Eastern Bolivia and to have resulted in up to three over-
printing fold generations. Metamorphism accompanied
the earliest stages of deformation and established the
observed metamorphic sequence. Subsequent defor-
mation resulted in the formation of upright NE-trending
(F2 ) followed by upright NW-trending (F3 ) folds. The
latter define the gross structural grain (NW–SE) and
control the differential exposure of the basement rocks
(Litherland et al., 1989).
2.3. Sunsas Orogeny
After the San Ignacio Orogeny, the basement rocks
were uplifted and eroded before being overlain along
a marked unconformity by the sediments of the Sun-
sas Group. These units were deposited between 1300
and 1000 Ma and crop out sporadically over the region.
The Sunsas Group locally attained a thickness of up to
6 km and is generally comprised of a basal conglomer-
ate overlain successively by two psammitic sequences
and an intervening pelitic unit (Berrrangé and Lither-
land, 1982). Cross-beds and ripple marks are ubiqui-
tous in the psammitic units, whilst clay gall breccias
indicative of subaerial desiccation were observed in
the pelites (Berrrangé and Litherland, 1982). Berrrangé
and Litherland (1982) inferred that the Sunsas Group
was deposited in an alluvial to deltaic environment that
Saes et al. (1992) subsequently inferred was the result
of a developing intra-continental rift. In the south–east,
the Sunsas Group was intruded by the Rincón del
Tigre Complex, a 4.5 km thick layered igneous com-
plex (Prendergast, 2000), that was emplaced into the
upper psammitic units (Vibosi Group) of the Sunsas
Group. The Rincón del Tigre Complex has yielded an
Rb–Sr age of ca. 990 Ma, an age that is identical to that
obtained for the late syn- to post-tectonic Sunsas gran-
126 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
ites (Litherland et al., 1996; Litherland et al., 1989).
The rocks of the Aguapeı́ Group, the successions at Ser-
rania Huanchaca and the rocks of the Nova Brasilândia
Group are all thought to temporally correlate with the
Sunsas Group (Litherland et al., 1989; Santos et al.,
2000). Although rocks from both the Aguapeı́ and Nova
Brasilândia belts yield similar aged detrital zircons,
the continental sediments of the Aguapeı́ and Sunsas
groups (Saes et al., 1992) are lithologically distinct
from the deep-water sediments of the Nova Brasilândia
Group (Tohver et al., 2004b).
Sunsas deformation was confined to three orogenic
belts: the WNW trending Sunsas belt, the NNW trend-
ing Aguapeı́ belt and the W trending Nova Brasilândia
belt (Geraldes et al., 1997; Litherland et al., 1989;
Tohver et al., 2004b). Sunsas deformation is most
intensely developed in the southwest of the study
area (Sunsas belt—Fig. 2) where upright NW trending
folds formed contemporaneous with low to medium
grade metamorphism. Late syn- to post-tectonic gran-
ites were also emplaced along this belt (Litherland et
al., 1989). Deformation at this time reset the Rb–Sr
and K–Ar isotope systems south of the Rio Negro Front
(Fig. 2). Further to the northeast, non-penetrative defor-
mation and little or no metamorphism is described.
Along the Aguapeı́ belt, Geraldes et al. (1997) describe
northwest trending (upright to northeast dipping) folds
and southwest directed thrusting of the basement over
the Aguapeı́ Group (Fig. 2). K–Ar ages from this region
yield ages between 960 and 920 Ma (Geraldes et al.,
1997) that are similar to the Rb–Sr and K–Ar ages from
the Sunsas region (Berrrangé and Litherland, 1982;
Litherland et al., 1989).
A similar direction of shortening is implied along the
Nova Brasilândia belt (Luft et al., 2000; Tohver et al.,
2004b), although metamorphic grade is higher—upper-
amphibolite to granulite facies (Tohver et al., 2004b).
Within the Nova Brasilândia belt orogenesis is con-
strained by U–Pb zircon ages of approximately
1110 Ma from syn-tectonic orthogneiss (1113 ± 56)
and leucogranite (1110 ± 8 Ma) and by U–Pb monazite
and titanite ages of 1100–1080 and 1085–1020 Ma
(Rizzotto, 1999; Luft et al., 2000; Tohver et al., 2004b).
Cooling from peak metamorphism is recorded by horn-
blende and biotite 40 Ar/39 Ar ages of ca. 970 and ca.
940 Ma, respectively (Tohver et al., 2004b). The region
in between these belts is referred to as the Pensamiento
Complex, a vast region of San Ignacio-aged granite
(Fig. 2). The region is interpreted to have cratonised
after the San Ignacio Orogeny based on the preservation
of 1400–1200 Ma K–Ar ages and the flat lying nature of
the (Sunsas equivalent?) Huanchaca Group (Berrrangé
and Litherland, 1982; Litherland et al., 1989).
The geologic evolution post-dating the Sunsas
Orogeny is limited to the distal effects of the Braziliano
Orogeny along the southern margin of the Tucavaca
Group, the emplacement of the Huanchaca and Mari-
mai dolerite dyke suites, and the intrusion of the
Velasco Alkaline Complex (Berrrangé and Litherland,
1982). Both the Huanchaca and Marimai dykes and
the Velasco Alkaline Complex cross-cut structures
attributed to both the San Ignacio and Sunsas orogenies
and intrude the Chiquitania Complex and San Ingacio
Group in the middle of the study area (Fig. 3). The
Huanchaca and Marimai dolerites are regarded as sep-
arate intracontinental phases of basic igneous activity.
The Marimai have a distinct east–west trend and can
be clearly identified geophysically. The Velasco Alka-
line Complex forms a linear NE–SW trend and was
emplaced during the Late Jurassic or Earliest Creta-
ceous (∼140 Ma). It is thought to be related to the initial
rifting between Africa and South America (Darbyshire
and Fletcher, 1979).
3. Structural analysis
Geological analysis of the study area was conducted
using structural observations made via road and jungle
traverses together with the interpretation of airborne
magnetic and radiometric data collected by the Boli-
vian Government between 1996 and 1997. Field struc-
tural observations were concentrated in the two regions
south of the Rio Negro Front. One was in the vicinity
of San Javier and Concepción. The second was in the
vicinity of San Ignacio and San Rafael (Fig. 2). The
geophysical images together with the field data have
been used re-map the region (Fig. 3). Our map does not
differ significantly from that presented by the British
Geologic Survey (Litherland, 1984). However, we were
not able to define a boundary between the Chiquitania
Complex and the Lomas Maneches Complex and have
hence grouped these rocks together (Fig. 3). Neverthe-
less, we are better able to define the structural trends
preserved in the basement as well as the distribution
of the different generations of intrusions. We are also
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Fig. 3. Regional geology map with basement trends for the study area. Boundaries of recent alluvium taken from the 1:1,000,000 scale British Geological Survey map of the region
(Litherland, 1984). Numbered stars refer to sample numbers and locations described in the text.

127
128 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146

better able to delineate the extent of the Sunsas Group

southwest of San Rafael and the extent of the Mari-
mai dyke suite between San Miguel and San Ignacio
(Fig. 3).

3.1. San Ignacio region

The basement rocks from the San Ignacio region

preserve evidence of four phases of deformation. The
earliest recognised foliation (S1 ) is defined by a pre-
ferred mineral orientation that is always concordant
with original sedimentary layering (S0 ). In both the
metasediments and the granites of the Lomas Maneches
and Chiquitania complexes, this fabric was defined by a
preferred orientation of biotite or by sub-centimetre to
centimetre scale leucosomes. In the San Ignacio Group,
S1 was invariably defined by muscovite. This fabric was
folded into layer-parallel isoclinal metre to sub-metre
scale F2 folds. Although S0 /S1 was tightly folded dur-
ing D2 , there is little development of an axial planar
fabric in the gneissic rocks of the Lomas Maneches or
Chiquitania complexes. In contrast, the schists of the
San Ignacio Group contain a well-developed muscovite
crenulation cleavage (S2 ). The San Ignacio granite suite
also contains a foliation that is parallel to S0 /S1 . How-
ever, in these granites this fabric is nowhere folded by
F2 , a characteristic that differentiates this granite suite
from the isoclinally folded intrusive rocks within the
Lomas Maneches and Chiquitania complexes. The San
Ignacio granites are consequently considered to post-
date the onset of orogenesis, but to have crystallised
prior to the end of D1–2 .
Subsequent deformation resulted in the formation
of two nearly orthogonal meso- to macroscale upright
fold generations. This can be seen in the distribution of
poles to S0 /S1 and in the orientation of fold axes and
intersection lineation data (Fig. 4). These data show
fold axes trends to the north–north-east, and to the
north–west. Both fold sets doubly plunge at shallow
to moderate angles and have vertically oriented axial
surfaces. These two generations of folds are responsi-
ble for the distinct dome and basin interference patterns
that dominate the outcrop pattern of San Ignacio–San
Rafael region (Fig. 3).
We were unable to determine the relative timing of
these two fold generations via overprinting relation-
ships. However, in the Chiquitania Complex, leuco-
somes were observed to lie parallel with the layering
Fig. 4. Structural data from the San Ignacio region. (a) Plot of poles
to S0 /S1 . (b) Kamber contour plot of (a). Counting circle = 5.9%,
contour interval = 1σ and significance level = 2σ. (c) Fold plunge data
for D3 N–NE trending folds. (d) Fold plunge data for D4 NW trending
folds.
(S0 /S1 ) as well as form along the axial plane of the
north–north-east trending fold set. We imply from this
that both the development of the layer-parallel folia-
tion and the north–north-east trending folds occurred
at similar metamorphic grades and were consequently
also similar in age. In contrast, the north–west trend-
ing folds reorient the strata, but do not appear to be
associated with migmatite formation. They are there-
fore considered to be younger and to have developed
at lower metamorphic grade. Thus, we consider the
north–north-east trending folds (F3 ) to pre-date the
northwest trending folds (F4 ).
3.2. San Javier region
The San Javier region preserves a similar sequence
of deformation events. The earliest fabric observed is
a composite S0 /S1 foliation that defines sub-metre to
metre-scale isoclinal folds (F2 ) in the metasediments.
Similar to the San Ignacio region, a layer-parallel folia-
tion also occurs in the San Ignacio granitoids, but again
this foliation is not folded by the earliest generation of
folds (F2 ) recognised in the adjacent metasediments. In
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146 129

Fig. 5. Structural data from the San Javier region. (a) Plot of poles to S0 /S1 . (b) Kamber contour plot of (a). Counting circle = 16.1%, contour
interval = 1σ and significance level = 2σ. For (a) and (b) note the more linear distribution around a single great circle when compared to the
scattered results from the San Ignacio region (Fig. 4). (c) Measured fold axes for upright NW trending folds (D4 ). The great circle defines the
best-fit fold axis. Note that this calculated fold axis dissects the D4 fold plunge data from the San Ignacio area (Fig. 4d).

contrast to the San Ignacio region, the San Javier region
is dominated by upright northwest trending folds and
a similarly oriented structural grain (Fig. 3). A plot of
poles to S0 /S1 from San Javier defines a single north-
east trend and a shallow northwest or southeast plunge
(Fig. 5). Measured fold axes are sub-vertical and trend
Cathodoluminescent (CL) imaging was conducted to
assess the internal structure of the unknown zircons. A
primary beam of O− ions was used to sputter positive
secondary ions from areas ∼25 ␮m in diameter from
individual sectioned zircons. Zr2 O+ , 206 Pb+ , 207 Pb+ ,
208 Pb+ , 238 U+ , 232 ThO+ , and 238 UO+ , were measured

northwest, parallel to the youngest folds (F4 ) observed
in the San Ignacio region. We observed no direct evi-
dence for the earlier generation of upright folds (F3 )
observed in the San Ignacio region. However, refold-
ing has been reported by previous workers (Berrrangé
and Litherland, 1982) and thus we infer that the San
Javier region was also deformed during D3 . However,
D4 strain in this area was considerably higher than in
the San Ignacio region and resulted in a more pervasive
overprint. This region of more intense D4 strain corre-
sponds with the west to northwest trending Sunsas belt
along which the Sunsas granite suite intrudes (Fig. 3).
These granites mostly post-date the northwest trending
F4 folds.
4. Geochronology
Zircons for U–Pb SHRIMP analysis were sepa-
rated by standard heavy liquid and magnetic separation
procedures, then by hand picking. They were then
mounted in epoxy resin discs along with fragments
of zircon standard AS3. The discs were polished and
Au-coated before being analysed on the SHRIMP RG
ion-microprobe at the Australian National University.
in cycles by magnetic field switching, seven cycles per
data set. The exception to this is sample 221D where
three cycles of magnetic field switching per data set
was applied. Analysis of unknowns was interspersed
with analyses of the standard AS3 in order to monitor
the differential fractionation between U and Pb. Data
were examined, processed and reduced using SQUID
software of Ludwig (2001). Ages presented in the text
are stated with 2σ confidence limits.
4.1. Sunsas suite
The Sunsas suite intrudes as circular or slightly
elliptical plutons that are essentially undeformed (post-
D4 ). We obtained U–Pb data from the Taperas granite
(sample 301), a relatively small nearly circular plu-
ton that crops out to the south of San Javier (Fig. 3).
This granite contains biotite, quartz, plagioclase and
alkali feldspar. Muscovite is also present, but forms
a minor constituent, as does sphene. Centimetre-scale
feldspar phenocrysts are common and typically show
rapakivi textures—plagioclase mantled by K-feldspar.
Zircons obtained from this granite are large, commonly
>200 ␮m and mostly euhedral with aspect ratios in the
order of 3–4:1. The U content of zircon is variable,
130 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Fig. 6. Cathodoluminescence images of zircon morphologies from
the Sunsas and San Ignacio granite suites. (a) Taperas granite (sample
301) and (b) San Rafael Granite (sample 228). Analysis spots and
obtained ages are shown.
from 20 to 700 ppm while Th/U ratios vary between
0.3 and 1.6. The cathodoluminescent (CL) response of
these zircons is also variable. The most common zircon
morphology shows subtle concentric growth zoning
(Fig. 6a). However, in some grains there is a concordant
but very distinct high-CL core. These cores are com-
monly structureless, although in some instances there
is oscillatory zoning parallel with that observed in the
low-CL rims (Fig. 6a). Other grains are dominated by
high-CL zircon and show no evidence for a low-CL
rim.
Eighteen analyses from various positions within dif-
ferent zircon grains were obtained from this sample
(Table 1). Both the low- and high-CL response regions
give similar ages. Most analyses sit on or near concor-
dia (Fig. 7) and using all but two the two most discor-
dant data (7.1 and 8.1) we obtain a 207 Pb/206 Pb age
of 1076 ± 18 Ma (MSWD = 1.4). Given the relatively
Fig. 7. U–Pb concordia diagram for the Taperas granite (Sunsas
suite). 206 Pb/207 Pb ages are stated to 2σ (95%) confidence limits
while the illustrated error ellipses reflect 1σ confidence limits (68%).
simple concentrically zoned structure of the zircons,
together with the single age population obtained, we
interpret the age of 1076 ± 18 Ma to date the emplace-
ment of the Taperas granite (Fig. 7). Given the late-syn-
to post-tectonic timing implied for the Taperas granite
(Fig. 3), we interpret all of the observed stages of duc-
tile deformation (D1–4 ) to have occurred prior to this
time.
4.2. San Ignacio suite
The San Ignacio suite is a group of porphyritic
granites that intrude at, or structurally above, the con-
tact between the San Ignacio Group and the underlying
Chiquitania Gneiss Complex. Centimetrescale phe-
nocrysts of K-feldspar and the absence of both leuco-
somes and isoclinal folds differentiate these rocks from
the granitoids that intrude the Lomas Maneches and
Chiquitania complexes. These characteristics suggest
that the San Ignacio suite is younger than the granitoids
in the Lomas Maneches and Chiquitania complexes,
and were not melted subsequent to its emplacement.
We consider the San Ignacio suite to have been
emplaced synchronous with the early stages of the
San Ignacio Orogeny (prior to both periods of upright
folding).
We obtained U–Pb data from the San Rafael Gran-
ite (sample 228) that crops out south of the main road
between San Rafael and San Miguel (Fig. 3). This
Table 1
U–Th–Pb compositions of zircon from the Sunas and San Ignacio suites
204
Grain U (ppm) Th (ppm) Th/U Pb* (ppm) Pb/206 Pb f206 (%) Radiogenic ratios Age (Ma) % Disc
spot 206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/235 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ± 206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ±
Sample 301—Taperas granite (Sunsas suite)
1.1 292 164 0.56 47 0.00010 0.17 0.189 0.003 1.977 0.042 0.076 0.001 1116 15 1091 32 −2
2.1 683 326 0.48 106 0.00017 0.28 0.180 0.002 1.870 0.033 0.075 0.001 1069 11 1073 27 0
3.1 19 25 1.34 3 0.00165 2.81 0.167 0.009 1.697 0.306 0.074 0.013 994 50 1037 347 4
4.1 205 134 0.65 31 0.00111 1.90 0.172 0.005 1.723 0.113 0.073 0.004 1023 27 1004 119 −2
5.1 27 38 1.39 4 – <0.01 0.184 0.004 2.013 0.069 0.079 0.002 1089 21 1180 53 8
6.1 192 117 0.61 29 0.00018 0.31 0.176 0.004 1.789 0.061 0.074 0.002 1046 23 1032 51 −1
7.1 27 38 1.40 4 – <0.01 0.195 0.006 2.430 0.193 0.090 0.007 1149 31 1432 140 25

S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146

8.1 413 186 0.45 45 0.00171 2.93 0.123 0.002 1.195 0.077 0.071 0.004 745 9 949 129 27
11.1 92 121 1.32 14 0.00039 0.67 0.178 0.003 1.692 0.085 0.069 0.003 1053 16 903 99 −14
12.1 47 71 1.51 7 0.00068 1.17 0.172 0.004 1.677 0.102 0.071 0.004 1024 21 947 115 −8
13.1 348 223 0.64 50 0.00014 0.23 0.167 0.003 1.701 0.039 0.074 0.001 994 16 1040 31 5
14.1 515 139 0.27 65 0.00089 1.52 0.144 0.002 1.397 0.083 0.070 0.004 866 13 942 118 9
15.1 60 95 1.59 9 0.00076 1.28 0.180 0.003 1.872 0.094 0.075 0.004 1069 16 1076 96 1
16.1 29 23 0.80 4 0.00067 1.16 0.176 0.005 1.802 0.068 0.074 0.002 1046 31 1048 51 0
17.1 257 176 0.68 39 0.00015 0.25 0.178 0.002 1.865 0.036 0.076 0.001 1058 11 1091 31 3
18.1 565 282 0.50 87 0.00004 0.07 0.178 0.002 1.837 0.023 0.075 0.000 1058 10 1060 13 0
19.1 422 638 1.51 67 0.00005 0.08 0.184 0.002 1.916 0.029 0.075 0.001 1090 13 1080 16 −1
20.1 213 344 1.62 32 – <0.01 0.176 0.002 1.865 0.031 0.077 0.001 1044 14 1118 18 7
Sample 228—San Rafael Granite (San Ignacio suite)
1.1 1793 1871 1.04 326 0.00067 1.11 0.210 0.003 2.485 0.060 0.086 0.002 1226 17 1338 36 9
2.1 578 471 0.82 88 0.00287 4.55 0.169 0.002 2.370 0.173 0.102 0.007 1006 12 1657 133 65
3.1 1446 68 0.05 290 0.00002 0.03 0.234 0.002 2.762 0.030 0.086 0.000 1353 13 1333 6 −1
4.1 5890 755 0.13 681 0.00141 2.35 0.131 0.001 1.443 0.070 0.080 0.004 796 8 1189 94 49
4.2 155 59 0.38 43 0.00099 1.56 0.316 0.004 4.431 0.133 0.102 0.003 1769 20 1657 50 −6
5.1 1692 2555 1.51 333 0.00006 0.09 0.229 0.003 2.706 0.035 0.086 0.000 1327 15 1335 7 1
6.1 1711 906 0.53 334 0.00001 0.01 0.227 0.002 2.709 0.030 0.086 0.000 1320 13 1348 6 2
7.1 5363 2841 0.53 1186 0.00002 0.04 0.257 0.003 3.073 0.034 0.087 0.000 1477 14 1351 7 −8
8.1 1938 242 0.12 403 0.00016 0.27 0.241 0.004 2.872 0.051 0.086 0.000 1393 21 1346 11 −3
9.1 336 359 1.07 71 0.00049 0.77 0.244 0.003 3.489 0.064 0.104 0.001 1409 14 1689 26 20
10.1 2779 753 0.27 541 0.00007 0.11 0.226 0.003 2.679 0.037 0.086 0.000 1315 15 1336 9 2
11.1 4058 1297 0.32 485 0.00065 1.08 0.138 0.001 1.509 0.032 0.079 0.001 831 8 1184 37 42
12.1 5527 2000 0.36 950 0.00013 0.21 0.200 0.002 2.277 0.024 0.083 0.000 1174 11 1262 7 7
13.1 338 227 0.67 89 0.00002 0.03 0.307 0.004 4.380 0.059 0.103 0.000 1726 19 1687 9 −2
14.1 230 111 0.48 47 0.00091 1.43 0.236 0.003 3.365 0.081 0.104 0.002 1363 14 1690 39 24
15.1 4467 1299 0.29 676 0.00078 1.29 0.174 0.002 2.012 0.042 0.084 0.002 1033 10 1292 36 25
16.1 1295 82 0.06 262 0.00004 0.06 0.235 0.002 2.789 0.031 0.086 0.000 1363 13 1336 7 −2
17.1 4001 155 0.04 621 0.00122 2.03 0.177 0.002 2.019 0.067 0.083 0.003 1050 10 1264 61 20
18.1 3511 1641 0.47 653 0.00028 0.46 0.216 0.002 2.507 0.032 0.084 0.001 1258 12 1301 13 3
19.1 3815 520 0.14 338 0.00059 1.01 0.102 0.001 1.038 0.021 0.074 0.001 626 6 1035 35 65
Uncertainties given at the 1σ level. f206 (%) denotes the percentage of 206 Pb that is common Pb. % Disc denotes the degree of concordance (0% denotes a concordant analysis).

131
132 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
granite is pale grey in colour and contains phenocrysts
of K-feldspar that occur in a matrix of finer-grained
K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and muscovite.
Zircons from this sample are large (>200 ␮m) and
commonly show well-formed euhedral terminations.
Cathodoluminescent images of these zircons show
that they contain distinct highly luminescent cores
surrounded by large mantles of new low-CL zircon
(Fig. 6b). The cores commonly show oscillatory zon-
ing that terminates abruptly against broken or partly
resorbed boundaries of the zircon core (Fig. 6b). The
zircon cores are characterised by U concentrations
of <600 ppm, and contrast with the surrounding low-
CL mantles where U concentrations are commonly
between 1500 and 6000 ppm. The low-CL rims show
subtle concentric zoning, although this tends not to be
as well developed as in the cores. We interpret the cores
of the zircons to have been inherited, whilst the euhe-
dral low-CL rims we infer to have grown at the time of
granite emplacement and crystallisation.
Twenty analyses of 19 zircon grains were col-
lected from this sample. Five were from the zir-
con cores; the remaining 15 were of the zircon rims
(Table 1). Analyses from both core and rim loca-
tions show a distribution of concordant and discor-
dant data (Fig. 8). The upper intercept from the rim
analyses yielded a 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 1334 ± 12 Ma
Fig. 8. U–Pb concordia diagram for the San Rafael Granite (San
Ignacio suite). 206 Pb/207 Pb ages are stated to 2σ (95%) confidence
limits while the illustrated error ellipses reflect 1σ confidence limits
(68%). Light grey error ellipses are from core analyses, dark grey
are from rim analyses.
with an MSWD of 2.8. Excluding one of the datum
points (1.1), the MSWD can be reduced to 0.99.
The resultant upper intercept is unchanged with a
mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 1337 ± 7 Ma. From the five
core analyses, an upper intercept 207 Pb/206 Pb age
of 1686 ± 16 Ma (MSWD = 0.14) was obtained. The
lower intercepts for the rim and core analyses are
317 ± 52 and −9 ± 290 Ma, respectively. Neither age
is considered to have geological significance. We inter-
pret the upper intercept age obtained from the rim
analyses to constrain the age of emplacement of the
San Rafael Granite (1334 ± 12 Ma) and infer from the
core ages (1686 ± 16 Ma) that this granite melted from
a Palaeoproterozoic protolith.
4.3. Lomas Maneches suite
We define the Lomas Maneches suite as consist-
ing of the granitic sills that form the dominant rock
type in the Lomas Maneches Complex as defined by
Berrrangé and Litherland (1982). Granites of this suite
also intrude the Chiquitania Complex, although are
unknown in the San Ignacio Group. In contrast to
the granitoids of the San Ignacio suite, these intru-
sions invariably contain all of the structures preserved
in their host rocks and commonly show evidence for
partial melting subsequent to their intrusion. They are
consequently interpreted to pre-date the San Ignacio
Orogeny.
Sample 240 was collected from the Lomas
Maneches region east of San Rafael (Fig. 3). The
rock, an orthopyroxene bearing granitoid, is bluish
grey in colour and mostly medium grained without
obvious feldspar phenocrysts. Its mineral assemblage
consists of orthopyroxene, minor biotite and/or horn-
blende, K-feldspar, quartz and magnetite. The rock
contains a well-developed gneissic foliation (S1 ) that
is locally cross-cut by coarse-grained leucosomes that
commonly contain more abundant and coarser-grained
orthopyroxene.
Zircons obtained from this granite are between
100 and 300 ␮m long and have aspect ratios close to
3:1. The U content of zircon is variable, from 40 to
1100 ppm, while Th/U ratios vary between 0.3 and
1.8. Cathodoluminescent images of these zircons show
that most grains have distinct concentric growth zoning
(Fig. 9a) which is often truncated by the margins of the
zircon grains. In some instances, concentric zoned zir-
Table 2
U-Th-Pb compositions of zircon from the Lomas Maneches granite suite
204
Grain U (ppm) Th (ppm) Th/U Pb* (ppm) Pb/206 Pb f206 (%) Radiogenic ratios Age (Ma) % Disc
spot 206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/235 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ± 206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ±
Sample 240—opx bearing gneissic granite (Lomas Maneches suite)
1.1 213 192 0.90 39 0.00018 0.30 0.213 0.003 2.478 0.048 0.084 0.001 1245 14 1302 28 5
1.2 277 306 1.11 69 0.00016 0.25 0.291 0.003 4.021 0.057 0.100 0.001 1646 17 1629 16 −1
2.1 182 267 1.47 36 0.00008 0.12 0.228 0.003 2.671 0.061 0.085 0.002 1323 15 1317 38 0
2.2 281 185 0.66 70 0.00004 0.06 0.289 0.003 4.055 0.056 0.102 0.001 1634 17 1660 14 2
2.3 144 195 1.35 28 0.00008 0.13 0.222 0.003 2.587 0.044 0.084 0.001 1293 15 1303 22 1
3.1 58 57 0.97 15 0.00034 0.53 0.299 0.006 4.162 0.131 0.101 0.003 1688 28 1640 47 −3
−1

S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146

4.1 174 236 1.36 44 0.00003 0.05 0.295 0.004 4.145 0.064 0.102 0.001 1667 18 1658 17
5.1 48 43 0.91 12 0.00003 0.05 0.283 0.015 4.193 0.278 0.107 0.004 1608 77 1755 70 9
6.1 69 123 1.79 14 0.00008 0.12 0.229 0.003 2.720 0.082 0.086 0.002 1330 17 1340 51 1
6.2 272 299 1.10 61 0.00002 0.03 0.260 0.008 3.628 0.128 0.101 0.001 1489 43 1648 25 11
7.1 70 56 0.81 19 0.00011 0.18 0.316 0.004 4.463 0.094 0.102 0.002 1769 22 1670 29 −6
8.1 101 108 1.06 26 0.00010 0.16 0.300 0.004 4.280 0.072 0.103 0.001 1692 19 1686 20 0
9.1 145 144 0.99 32 0.00011 0.18 0.256 0.003 3.272 0.056 0.093 0.001 1470 17 1480 22 1
10.1 1101 320 0.29 218 0.00002 0.04 0.230 0.003 2.690 0.034 0.085 0.000 1336 14 1309 9 −2
10.2 242 201 0.83 61 0.00004 0.06 0.296 0.003 4.217 0.057 0.103 0.001 1670 17 1686 13 1
11.1 260 224 0.86 66 0.00009 0.15 0.294 0.003 4.130 0.054 0.102 0.001 1663 17 1657 12 0
11.2 193 154 0.80 52 0.00010 0.16 0.311 0.004 4.509 0.070 0.105 0.001 1748 18 1714 18 −2
12.1 395 415 1.05 102 0.00013 0.20 0.300 0.004 4.268 0.060 0.103 0.001 1690 18 1683 13 0
13.1 132 172 1.31 34 0.00015 0.23 0.304 0.004 4.329 0.080 0.103 0.001 1711 19 1684 25 −2
14.1 173 195 1.12 43 0.00009 0.15 0.285 0.003 3.946 0.060 0.100 0.001 1618 17 1630 17 1
15.1 1029 311 0.30 201 0.00005 0.07 0.227 0.003 2.686 0.038 0.086 0.000 1320 16 1332 8 1
Sample 261—hb bearing gneissic granite (Lomas Maneches suite)
1.1 313 204 0.65 85 0.00004 0.07 0.317 0.004 4.528 0.061 0.104 0.001 1776 18 1688 12 −5
2.1 372 229 0.62 89 0.00005 0.08 0.279 0.005 3.990 0.079 0.104 0.001 1588 27 1689 11 6
3.1 94 60 0.64 25 0.00017 0.27 0.311 0.004 4.435 0.097 0.103 0.002 1747 22 1685 30 −4
4.1 594 534 0.90 154 0.00003 0.05 0.302 0.003 4.317 0.054 0.104 0.001 1702 17 1690 11 −1
5.1 1053 879 0.84 245 0.00005 0.08 0.270 0.003 4.039 0.119 0.108 0.003 1542 15 1773 50 15
5.2 238 133 0.56 65 0.00003 0.05 0.317 0.010 4.516 0.159 0.103 0.002 1776 47 1683 32 −5
6.1 95 58 0.61 25 0.00008 0.13 0.311 0.004 4.384 0.085 0.102 0.001 1743 22 1668 24 −4
7.1 499 320 0.64 124 – <0.01 0.289 0.004 4.143 0.055 0.104 0.000 1637 18 1696 8 4
8.1 433 210 0.48 107 0.00003 0.05 0.287 0.003 4.115 0.051 0.104 0.001 1625 16 1699 10 5
9.1 355 224 0.63 88 0.00005 0.08 0.287 0.004 4.090 0.063 0.103 0.001 1629 20 1682 11 3
10.1 457 290 0.63 118 0.00003 0.04 0.302 0.003 4.321 0.051 0.104 0.000 1700 16 1694 9 0
11.1 635 354 0.56 156 0.00002 0.03 0.286 0.003 4.056 0.047 0.103 0.000 1624 15 1673 8 3
12.1 655 327 0.50 168 0.00002 0.04 0.299 0.003 4.273 0.049 0.104 0.000 1688 16 1688 7 0
13.1 523 276 0.53 131 0.00006 0.09 0.292 0.003 4.212 0.049 0.105 0.000 1651 16 1709 9 3
14.1 113 52 0.46 28 0.00004 0.07 0.286 0.004 4.036 0.064 0.102 0.001 1620 18 1669 17 3
15.1 122 73 0.60 30 0.00005 0.09 0.291 0.005 4.123 0.074 0.103 0.001 1645 23 1676 15 2
Uncertainties given at the 1σ level. f206 (%) denotes the percentage of 206 Pb that is common Pb. % Disc denotes the degree of concordance (0% denotes a concordant analysis).

133
134 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Fig. 9. Cathodoluminescence images of zircon morphologies from
granites from the Lomas Maneches suite: (a) sample 240 and (b)
sample 261. Analysis spots and obtained ages are given.
cons form cores surrounded by a two-part overgrowth
of structureless zircon. These overgrowths consist of
an inner layer of low-CL zircon, which is mantled
by an outer layer that shows a similar CL intensity
as the zircon core. The U–Th concentrations for the
cores and the rims are indistinguishable (Table 2). The
cores are interpreted to represent zircon grown at the
time of emplacement, whilst the rims are thought to
reflect a subsequent phase of melting, the existence of
which is inferred from the presence of the observed
leucosomes.
Twenty-one analyses of 15 zircon grains were
obtained from this sample (Table 2). Of these, fourteen
analyses were of zircon cores and the remainder were
of zircon rims. Twelve of the core analyses lie on or
near concordia and yield a weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb
age of 1663 ± 13 Ma (MSWD = 1.6) (Fig. 10a). A sub-
set of these, ignoring the two youngest analyses, yields
a statistically identical age of 1670 ± 11 Ma with an
MSWD of less than one (0.78). The remaining core
analyses (5.1 and 11.2) yield older ages of 1755 ± 70
and 1714 ± 18 Ma, both of which are interpreted to be
of inherited origin. The six analyses of zircon rims yield
a weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 1320 ± 11 Ma
(MSWD = 1.0). This age is within error of the age
obtained from sample 228 described above. An addi-
tional grain (9.1) yielded an age of 1480 ± 22 Ma.
This result is interpreted to represent a mixing age
between the zircon core and the rim (poorly positioned
analysis spot) and is not considered to have any geo-
logical meaning. Based on these results, we infer that
the granite from which sample 240 was collected was
emplaced at 1663 ± 13 Ma, then partly re-melted at
1320 ± 11 Ma.
Sample 261 was collected from a prominent
outcrop beside the main road south from San Rafael
(Fig. 3). The rock is a medium-grained, pale-grey or
pinkish granitoid that contains hornblende, biotite,
K-feldspar, quartz and magnetite. It was emplaced
close to the contact between the Chiquitania Complex
and the overlying San Ignacio Group (Fig. 3). The
rock contains a strong gneissic foliation that is folded
by sub-metre to metrescale F2 and F3 folds. Similar
to sample 240, this rock contains quartzo-feldspathic
leucosomes that form both layer-parallel and axial
planar segregations of coarser-grained quartz and
K-feldspar.
Zircons from sample 261 are generally less than
200 ␮m long and have aspect ratios between 2:1 and
3:1. The grains are mostly euhedral in shape but consis-
tently show rounded terminations. In CL, zircons from
this sample generally show a simple concentric zon-
ing pattern (Fig. 9b). Distinct cores can be observed in
transmitted light in some grains, although these are rel-
atively uncommon and difficult to distinguish from the
rims in CL. Based on this straightforward morphol-
ogy, we interpret the zircons to represent magmatic
grains that grew at the time of granite emplacement.
Sixteen analyses of 15 zircon grains were obtained
from this sample (Table 2). Fifteen of these analyses
yield a concordant 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 1689 ± 5 Ma
with an MSWD of 1.06 (Fig. 10b). The remaining
datum was obtained from the core of a zircon and yields
an age of 1773 ± 50 Ma. This age is similar to the older
core ages obtained from sample 240 (1755 ± 70 and
1714 ± 18 Ma) and is taken to be inherited from the
source of the granite.
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146 135

Fig. 10. U–Pb concordia diagrams for the Lomas Maneches suite: (a) Sample 240 and (b) sample 261. 206 Pb/207 Pb ages are stated to 2σ (95%)
confidence limits while the illustrated error ellipses reflect 1σ confidence limits (68%). Light grey error ellipses are from core analyses, dark
grey are from rim analyses. White error ellipses are discordant or suspect analyses ignored in the age determination given.

4.4. Chiquitania Complex
Two samples (235A and 235A-1) were obtained
from an outcrop of biotite-bearing felsic gneiss from
the Chiquitania Complex approximately 20 km east of
San Rafael (Fig. 3). This rock is comprised of pla-
gioclase, alkali feldspar, quartz, minor biotite (<5%)
and magnetite. The rock did not contain feldspar phe-
nocrysts common to the intrusive rocks of both the
Lomas Maneches and San Ignacio suites. The rock
was therefore interpreted to be of sedimentary or vol-
canic origin. Partial melting of the rock is inferred from
the extensive development of leucosomes. These leuco-
somes are more coarse-grained than the rest of the rock
and consist predominantly of K-feldspar and quartz.
They form bands parallel with the dominant foliation
as well as segregations that cross-cut this foliation at
high angles, commonly forming along the axial plane
of mesoscale northeast trending D3 folds.
Sample 235A was obtained from a relatively leu-
cosome poor portion of the outcrop. Zircons from this
sample are of variable size with partly rounded or bro-
ken terminations (Fig. 11a). The zircons are mostly
luminescent and show variably developed oscillatory
zoning. The U content of the grains is mostly less
than 200 ppm. On many of the grains, there is a nar-
row and poorly developed high-U (>1000 ppm) and
low-CL rim (Fig. 11a). Sample 235A-1 was collected
entirely from the leucocratic portion of the rock. In
this sample, zircons are characterised by rounded cores
with concentrically zoned high-CL morphology, simi-
lar to most grains in sample 235A. However, the high-U
rims in sample 235A-1 are well developed and consti-
tute at least a third of most zircon grains (Fig. 11b).
In both samples, we infer the rims to be of metamor-
phic origin—having grown during the melting of these
rocks (Williams, 2001). The extent to which the rims
have developed is interpreted to reflect the location of
the sample, wider and better-developed rims formed
in the leucosome (235A-1), and narrower and more
poorly developed rims in the country rock (235A). In
both samples, the zircon cores are taken has having
been inherited from the protolith of the paragneiss.
For sample 235A-1, 19 analyses from 15 zircon
grains were obtained (Table 3). Fourteen of these were
of zircon rims, which produce a scattered distribution
on or near the concordia at ∼1350 Ma. The ten least
discordant of these analyses yield a mean 207 Pb/206 Pb
age of 1333 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 2.6; Fig. 12a). We inter-
pret this age to reflect the time of partial melting (peak
metamorphism) in the Chiquitania Complex. This age
is identical to the emplacement age obtained from the
San Rafael Granite (1337 ± 7 Ma) and the rim age
(1320 ± 11 Ma) obtained from sample 240 from the
Lomas Maneches suite. The remaining 5 analyses were
of zircon cores. Four of these analyses lie on concordia
 136
Table 3
U–Th–Pb compositions of zircon from paragneisses
204
Grain U (ppm) Th (ppm) Th/U Pb* (ppm) Pb/206 Pb f206 (%) Radiogenic ratios Age (Ma) % Disc
spot
206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/235 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ± 206
Pb/238 U ± 207
Pb/206 Pb ±
Sample 235A—Chiquitania Paragneiss (country rock)
1.1 194 199 1.02 30 0.00068 1.07 0.176 0.002 2.553 0.062 0.105 0.002 1047 11 1713 39 64
2.1 107 90 0.84 30 0.00010 0.15 0.321 0.004 4.766 0.071 0.108 0.001 1797 19 1758 15 −2
3.1 118 116 0.98 27 0.00013 0.20 0.262 0.004 3.875 0.064 0.107 0.001 1501 19 1753 17 17
4.1 1089 45 0.04 222 0.00001 0.02 0.237 0.003 2.882 0.034 0.088 0.000 1371 14 1387 9 1
5.1 80 83 1.04 22 0.00004 0.06 0.315 0.005 4.762 0.093 0.110 0.001 1767 26 1792 19 1
6.1 486 46 0.09 102 0.00004 0.06 0.244 0.003 3.174 0.041 0.094 0.000 1410 15 1511 10 7
7.1 106 142 1.33 30 0.00000 0.00 0.323 0.004 4.848 0.070 0.109 0.001 1804 19 1781 13 −1

S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146

8.1 1120 105 0.09 244 0.00004 0.06 0.253 0.003 3.268 0.040 0.094 0.001 1456 13 1499 12 3
9.1 194 158 0.82 52 0.00005 0.08 0.313 0.004 4.657 0.060 0.108 0.001 1754 18 1766 11 1
10.1 150 144 0.96 42 0.00004 0.07 0.323 0.004 4.802 0.064 0.108 0.001 1807 18 1760 11 −3

Sample 235A-1—Chiquitania Paragneiss (leucosomes)

1.1 2570 273 0.11 530 0.00000 0.01 0.240 0.003 2.827 0.032 0.085 0.973 1387 14 1324 5 −5
2.1 115 84 0.73 32 0.00007 0.11 0.324 0.005 4.942 0.104 0.111 0.699 1807 23 1812 27 0
2.2 1888 131 0.07 375 0.00003 0.06 0.231 0.003 2.817 0.036 0.088 0.959 1341 15 1390 7 4
3.1 674 51 0.08 127 0.00059 0.96 0.217 0.002 2.664 0.052 0.089 0.549 1265 12 1408 31 11
4.1 2194 211 0.10 456 0.00002 0.03 0.242 0.003 2.872 0.031 0.086 0.965 1396 13 1342 5 −4
5.1 2506 260 0.10 512 0.00000 0.00 0.238 0.002 2.804 0.030 0.085 0.970 1376 13 1326 5 −4
6.1 2791 297 0.11 542 0.00001 0.01 0.226 0.002 2.682 0.030 0.086 0.975 1314 13 1338 5 2
7.1 153 199 1.30 41 0.00007 0.11 0.312 0.004 4.710 0.075 0.109 0.823 1753 20 1788 16 2
8.1 260 174 0.67 36 0.00012 0.18 0.161 0.002 2.382 0.038 0.108 0.776 960 11 1760 18 83
9.1 2409 254 0.11 474 0.00001 0.01 0.229 0.002 2.689 0.029 0.085 0.966 1329 12 1319 5 −1
10.1 1919 170 0.09 372 0.00001 0.02 0.225 0.002 2.670 0.030 0.086 0.942 1310 13 1337 7 2
11.1 210 209 1.00 54 0.00005 0.08 0.302 0.004 4.473 0.066 0.107 0.843 1701 18 1757 14 3
11.2 2133 80 0.04 426 0.00001 0.02 0.232 0.002 2.757 0.031 0.086 0.968 1347 13 1340 5 −1
12.1 2099 182 0.09 412 0.00002 0.03 0.228 0.002 2.694 0.029 0.086 0.963 1325 12 1330 6 0
13.1 2224 635 0.29 585 0.00001 0.01 0.306 0.003 4.374 0.047 0.104 0.959 1721 16 1690 6 −2
13.2 4917 45 0.01 951 0.00001 0.01 0.225 0.002 2.676 0.028 0.086 0.981 1309 12 1342 4 3
14.1 2208 218 0.10 402 0.00072 1.19 0.209 0.002 2.511 0.050 0.087 0.520 1225 12 1361 33 11
14.2 481 212 0.44 94 0.00100 1.61 0.224 0.003 2.939 0.089 0.095 0.377 1302 13 1533 53 18
15.1 2795 310 0.11 528 0.00002 0.02 0.220 0.002 2.593 0.030 0.086 0.970 1281 13 1329 6 4
Sample 221D—San Ignacio Group psammite
1.1 226 73 0.32 58 0.000062 0.10 0.301 0.005 4.536 0.080 0.109 0.001 1698 23 1786 14 5
2.1 361 76 0.21 87 0.000032 0.05 0.280 0.003 4.152 0.056 0.107 0.001 1593 17 1756 12 10
3.1 252 56 0.22 68 – <0.01 0.316 0.004 4.687 0.075 0.108 0.001 1770 19 1759 19 −1
4.1 294 56 0.19 79 0.000041 0.06 0.312 0.004 4.651 0.062 0.108 0.001 1749 18 1770 11 1
5.1 119 52 0.43 32 0.000065 0.10 0.313 0.006 4.651 0.099 0.108 0.001 1755 27 1763 22 0
6.1 98 78 0.80 26 0.000129 0.20 0.309 0.005 4.488 0.087 0.105 0.001 1735 23 1721 23 −1
7.1 159 120 0.76 43 – <0.01 0.317 0.004 4.762 0.088 0.109 0.001 1776 21 1781 23 0
8.1 416 194 0.47 108 0.000024 0.04 0.301 0.004 4.285 0.062 0.103 0.001 1698 18 1681 13 −1
9.1 295 45 0.15 76 0.000041 0.06 0.299 0.004 4.444 0.069 0.108 0.001 1689 19 1759 17 4
10.1 535 297 0.55 129 0.000169 0.26 0.281 0.003 4.157 0.066 0.107 0.001 1595 17 1755 19 10
11.1 430 148 0.34 118 – <0.01 0.321 0.004 4.800 0.065 0.109 0.001 1794 18 1774 12 −1
12.1 86 46 0.54 22 – <0.01 0.300 0.005 4.290 0.095 0.104 0.001 1692 25 1690 26 0
13.1 73 43 0.59 20 0.000141 0.22 0.315 0.005 4.598 0.132 0.106 0.002 1764 26 1731 43 −2
14.1 652 243 0.37 119 0.000341 0.53 0.212 0.002 3.114 0.050 0.107 0.001 1239 13 1742 20 41
15.1 128 70 0.55 28 – <0.01 0.254 0.004 3.975 0.097 0.114 0.002 1459 20 1857 34 27
16.1 260 133 0.51 66 0.000048 0.08 0.297 0.004 4.243 0.077 0.104 0.001 1676 19 1690 24 1
17.1 473 12 0.03 132 0.000006 0.01 0.325 0.004 4.870 0.064 0.109 0.001 1816 19 1775 11 −2
18.1 125 77 0.61 31 0.000076 0.12 0.290 0.004 4.188 0.086 0.105 0.002 1639 21 1713 27 4
19.1 256 151 0.59 53 0.000071 0.11 0.241 0.003 3.510 0.062 0.106 0.001 1393 17 1724 21 24
20.1 114 79 0.70 31 0.000218 0.34 0.312 0.005 4.595 0.110 0.107 0.002 1753 23 1743 35 −1
21.1 202 38 0.19 58 0.000110 0.17 0.331 0.004 4.914 0.098 0.108 0.002 1845 22 1758 27 −5
22.1 372 58 0.16 89 0.000087 0.14 0.278 0.003 3.963 0.059 0.103 0.001 1581 17 1686 16 7
23.1 144 137 0.95 40 – <0.01 0.324 0.005 4.936 0.096 0.111 0.001 1808 22 1809 24 0
24.1 119 84 0.71 32 – <0.01 0.315 0.005 4.752 0.095 0.109 0.002 1765 22 1790 25 1

S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146

25.1 73 41 0.56 19 – <0.01 0.306 0.005 4.728 0.122 0.112 0.002 1719 25 1836 36 7
26.1 674 320 0.48 141 0.000166 0.26 0.243 0.003 3.503 0.051 0.104 0.001 1404 15 1704 16 21
27.1 235 162 0.69 59 0.000013 0.02 0.292 0.004 4.140 0.066 0.103 0.001 1651 19 1677 18 2
28.1 776 104 0.13 141 0.000534 0.84 0.210 0.003 3.025 0.056 0.105 0.001 1228 13 1707 26 39
30.1 635 470 0.74 129 – <0.01 0.236 0.003 3.346 0.047 0.103 0.001 1364 14 1678 14 23
31.1 415 211 0.51 100 0.000007 0.01 0.281 0.003 4.153 0.057 0.107 0.001 1596 17 1753 13 10
32.1 313 177 0.57 84 0.000032 0.05 0.313 0.004 4.810 0.075 0.111 0.001 1756 19 1822 17 4
33.1 227 142 0.62 58 0.000082 0.13 0.299 0.004 4.431 0.083 0.108 0.001 1685 21 1759 23 4
34.1 224 116 0.52 55 – <0.01 0.287 0.004 4.244 0.074 0.107 0.001 1627 21 1753 17 8
35.1 363 231 0.64 88 0.000477 0.73 0.281 0.003 4.524 0.087 0.117 0.002 1596 18 1908 26 20
36.1 499 157 0.32 96 0.000133 0.21 0.223 0.003 3.295 0.049 0.107 0.001 1296 14 1754 15 35
37.1 294 185 0.63 76 0.000111 0.18 0.302 0.004 4.276 0.063 0.103 0.001 1702 19 1672 15 −2
38.1 196 109 0.55 51 0.000051 0.08 0.302 0.004 4.501 0.085 0.108 0.001 1702 20 1766 25 4
39.1 257 127 0.49 71 0.000108 0.17 0.324 0.004 4.831 0.073 0.108 0.001 1807 21 1770 15 −2
40.1 200 106 0.53 52 – <0.01 0.304 0.004 4.405 0.077 0.105 0.001 1711 20 1717 21 0
41.1 269 137 0.51 73 0.000001 <0.01 0.317 0.004 4.730 0.071 0.108 0.001 1776 19 1769 15 0
42.1 330 154 0.47 86 0.000051 0.08 0.304 0.004 4.554 0.065 0.109 0.001 1713 18 1775 13 4
43.1 217 78 0.36 59 – <0.01 0.317 0.004 4.780 0.073 0.109 0.001 1777 20 1787 15 1
44.1 172 89 0.51 46 – <0.01 0.308 0.004 4.506 0.082 0.106 0.001 1733 21 1731 22 0
45.1 247 126 0.51 66 – <0.01 0.310 0.012 4.476 0.177 0.105 0.001 1741 58 1709 20 −2
46.1 295 59 0.20 82 – <0.01 0.323 0.004 4.812 0.073 0.108 0.001 1806 19 1765 16 −2
47.1 149 63 0.42 41 – <0.01 0.323 0.005 4.817 0.089 0.108 0.001 1803 22 1770 22 −2
48.1 192 58 0.30 53 0.000149 0.23 0.317 0.004 4.737 0.098 0.108 0.002 1776 21 1771 29 0
49.1 360 250 0.70 91 – <0.01 0.294 0.004 4.235 0.061 0.105 0.001 1661 19 1706 13 3
50.1 116 63 0.54 31 – <0.01 0.311 0.005 4.565 0.100 0.106 0.002 1748 23 1737 30 −1
Uncertainties given at the 1σ level. f206 (%) denotes the percentage of 206 Pb that is common Pb. % Disc denotes the degree of concordance (0% denotes a concordant analysis).

137
138 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Fig. 11. Cathodoluminescence images of zircon morphologies from
paragneisses from the Chiquitania and San Ignacio groups. (a) Chiq-
uitania Paragneiss (country rock—sample 235A), (b) Chiquitania
Paragneiss (leucosome—sample 235A-1) and (c) San Ignacio Parag-
neiss (sample 221D). Analysis spots and obtained ages are given.
between 1690 and 1830 Ma. Two of these yield ages of
1788 ± 16 and 1757 ± 14 Ma and are similar to the age
of the zircon cores from sample 235A (Fig. 12b). The
other two analyses (1812 ± 27 and1690 ± 6 Ma) point
to a more varied source of detritus. The remaining
datum is discordant and falls on a line between
1760 Ma and the origin suggesting some recent Pb
loss.
For sample 235A, seven of the ten analyses were
of zircon cores. Five of these plots on concordia
with yield a mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 1764 ± 12 Ma
(MSWD = 0.76). The remaining two core analyses are
discordant and when combined with the other core data
produce a line whose lower intercept lies near the origin
(Fig. 12b). The remaining three analyses were of zir-
con rims. These yield ages between 1380 and 1510 Ma,
the youngest of which (1387 ± 9) probably has some
geological significance given the similarity to rim ages
obtained from sample 235A-1. The other two are inter-
preted to represent partial mixing between the core
(∼1760 Ma) and the rim (∼1330 Ma) portions of the
analysed zircon grains.
Combined, these data suggest that the paragneiss
protolith was derived from a predominantly Palaeopro-
terozoic source that formed at about 1765 Ma. How-
ever, the presence of detrital zircons as young as ca.
1690 Ma suggest that the paragneiss was not deposited
prior to this time. The variably developed mantles on
the zircons suggest that the sample was extensively
melted at 1333 ± 6 Ma.
4.5. San Ignacio Paragneiss
Sample (221D) was collected from within the San
Ignacio Group between San Rafael and San Ignacio
(Fig. 3). The sample was collected from a more psam-
mitic layer within a sequence that is otherwise dom-
inated by pelitic schists. The rock consists of quartz,
muscovite and minor disseminated staurolite. It con-
tains less muscovite and more quartz relative to its
more pelitic host rocks and lacks garnet and biotite,
both of which are common in the metapelites. Zir-
cons from sample 221D preserve reasonably euhedral
grain-shapes and are uniformly clear in transmitted
light. In CL, the zircons are mostly luminescent and
show distinct oscillatory zoning. However, they lack
evidence for the high-U (low-luminosity) phase of
new zircon growth seen in samples 235A and 235A-1.
Fifty grains from this sample were analysed (Table 3).
The largest population (29 grains) yield a concordant
207 Pb/206 Pb age of 1764 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 0.94), iden-
tical to the core ages obtained from samples 235A
and 235A-1. Three grains yield older ages between
1840 and 1910 Ma. A younger population with an
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146 139

Fig. 12. U–Pb concordia diagrams for the Chiquitqnia Paragneiss. 206 Pb/207 Pb ages are stated to 2σ (95%) confidence limits while the illustrated
error ellipses reflect 1σ confidence limits (68%). Light grey error ellipses are from core analyses, dark grey are from rim analyses. White error
ellipses are discordant or suspect analyses ignored in the age determination given.

age of ∼1690 Ma was also obtained (14 grains). The
remaining data yield a spread of ages between 1690
and 1760 Ma. These results suggest that, similar to
the Chiquitania Paragneiss described above, the pro-
tolith of the San Ignacio Paragneiss was derived from
a Palaeoproterozoic source. These data further suggest
that the San Ignacio Group was not deposited prior to
1690 Ma, the youngest age obtained from the popula-
tion of detrital zircons.
5. Synopsis of new data
Zircon grains recovered from widely spaced out-
crops of the Chiquitania Complex (middle of the
sequence) and the San Ignacio Group (top) both con-
tain a dominant population of detrital zircons with an
age of ca. 1765 Ma (1765 ± 12—Chiquitania Complex,
1764 ± 6 Ma—San Ignacio Group). Zircons from both
sedimentary packages also yield detrital zircon ages no
older than ca. 1910 Ma, or younger than ca. 1690 Ma.
The latter age is taken to provide a maximum age
of deposition for both sedimentary sequences. Col-
lectively, these data suggest that both the Chiquitania
Complex and the San Ignacio Group were shed from
the same Palaeoproterozoic source region during what
was probably a single continuous period of sedimen-
tation. The intrusion of the Lomas Maneches suite is
constrained by two samples dated at 1663 ± 13 and
1689 ± 5 Ma. These ages overlap with the youngest
detrital zircons obtained from the Chiquitania Com-
plex and the San Ignacio Group, a result that implies
that the Lomas Maneches suite was probably emplaced
just after the deposition of the Chiquitania Complex,
into which the granites intrude, but before the depo-
sition of the San Ignacio Group, where these granites
are unknown. The relatively rare inherited zircons from
the Lomas Maneches suite gave ages between 1715 and
1775 Ma, an interval that overlaps with the main age of
detrital zircons obtained from their host sediments.
Following the deposition of the protoliths of the
Chiquitania Complex and San Ignacio Group and the
synchronous emplacement of the Lomas Manaches
suite, there was a ca. 300 million years period of
geologic quiescence until the San Ignacio Orogeny.
This event was recorded regionally in the study area
and resulted in the partial melting of the Chiquitania
and Lomas Maneches complexes and, at higher struc-
tural levels, the widespread emplacement of layer-
parallel San Ignacio granitoids near the base of the
San Ignacio Group. This is inferred from the con-
temporaneous emplacement of the San Rafael Granite
(1337 ± 12 Ma) and growth of metamorphic zircon in
the Chiquitania Complex (1333 ± 6 Ma) and the Lomas
Maneches suite (1320 ± 11). Structures attributable to
D1 –D2 deformation developed during this interval,
140 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
while the similarity in metamorphic grade between D2
and D3 (both were associated with leucosome forma-
tion), suggest D3 upright folds also occurred at about
this time. We imply that these structures, which we col-
lectively attribute to the San Ignacio Orogeny, were the
result W–NW directed shortening based on the N–NE
trend of the D3 folds.
In contrast to previous studies (e.g. Berrrangé and
Litherland, 1982; Litherland et al., 1989) we attribute
the subsequent development of NW to W trending folds
(F4 ) entirely to the Sunsas Orogeny. This is consistent
with the observation that a single generation of NW
trending folds are found within the Sunsas Group and,
within both the Sunsas Group and the basement these
folds developed at relatively low metamorphic grade.
Sunsas deformation was most intense along the south-
ern and western margins of the study area (Sunsas belt)
where it resulted in the almost complete overprinting
of the San Ignacio structures (e.g. San Javier region).
This region also defines the locus of Sunsas plutonism
(Fig. 3). To the north and east of this region, there is
a marked decrease in the thermal and structural over-
print related to the Sunsas Orogeny. In the San Ignacio
region, we attribute the distinct type-2 fold interfer-
ence patterns to a NW-trending Sunsas overprint of the
N–NE trending San Ignacio structures. Slightly to the
north of here, the Rio-Negro front delineates the tran-
sition from K–Ar ages of ca. 1000 Ma to those of ca.
1300 Ma (Litherland et al., 1989) suggesting the ther-
mal effects of Sunsas orogenesis wane away from the
main zone of Sunsas deformation in the southwest of
the study area.
The age of Sunsas deformation is constrained to pre-
date 1076 ± 18 Ma, the age obtained from the late-syn
to post-orogenic Taperas granite. This age is strikingly
similar the ages obtained from the Nova Brasilândia
region the immediate north (Fig. 2) where Rizzotto
(1999) and Luft et al. (2000) present ages from syn-
tectonic intrusions dated at ca. 1110 Ma and Tohver
et al. (2004b) obtained ages between 1095–1080 and
1085–1020 Ma from metamorphic monazite and titan-
ite. Together with the emplacement age of the Taperas
granite (1076 ± 18 Ma), these data suggest the Sun-
sas Orogeny occurred over an approximate 40 million
years interval between 1110 and 1070 Ma and was
widely manifested in both Eastern Bolivia and West-
ern Brazil. Post-Sunsas K–Ar ages of 960–920 Ma are
recorded from the Aguapéi belt (Geraldes et al., 1997)
located to the east of the study area. It is unclear if these
reflect the time of deformation in this region or reflect
cooling from the Sunsas Orogeny. The latter inference
is supported by the observation that the Sunsas, Nova
Brasilândia and Aguapéi regions all record similarly
directed NE–SW tectonics, while Rb–Sr, K–Ar, and
hornblende and biotite 40 Ar/39 Ar ages from both the
Sunsas and Nova Brasilândia regions (Litherland et
al., 1989; Tohver et al., 2004b) overlap in age with
the K–Ar ages reported from the Aguapéi belt. In both
of these regions the Rb–Sr and K–Ar systems close
approximately 100 million years after orogenesis as
constrained by U–Pb data from a variety of minerals.
6. The Paragua Block—an allochthonous
microcontinent?
The U–Pb zircon age data presented above suggests
that the Proterozoic rocks of Eastern Bolivia evolved
in four distinct geologic stages. These are: (1) the
Palaeoproterozoic deposition of the protoloiths to the
Chiquitania Complex and San Ignacio Group, and the
emplacement of Lomas Maneches suite (≤1690 Ma)
that collectively define the basement rocks of Eastern
Bolivia; (2) the deformation and mid- to high-grade
metamorphism of these rocks during the San Ignacio
Orogeny (1340–1320 Ma); (3) the deposition of the
Sunsas group unconformably above the basement rocks
and; (4) the relatively low-grade folding of the entire
sequence during the Sunsas Orogeny (1110–1070 Ma).
This four-stage evolution differentiates this area from
the adjacent regions of Rondônia and Mato Grosso
located to the north and east (Fig. 13).
To the north of the study area, the Rondônia region
(Fig. 2) preserves a complicated polycyclic history
(Fig. 13). The oldest rocks crop out in the Rio Negro-
Juruena Province a belt of Palaeoproterozoic rocks
dated between 1750 and 1700 Ma (Tassinari et al.,
1996; Payolla et al., 2002). The subsequent evolution
of this area consists of multiple phases of orogene-
sis and synchronous intrusion of granitoids into both
deforming and cratonised crust. Major events occurred
between 1600 and 1530 Ma, 1440 and1420 Ma and
again between 1330 and 1300 Ma (Tassinari and
Macambira, 1999; Payolla et al., 2002; Tohver et al.,
2005a). An almost continuous emplacement of gran-
itoids between 1420 and 1310 Ma is also described
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Fig. 13. Time–space diagram of the Proterozoic intrusive, sedimentary and orogenic events from the south-western margin of South America.
Data is from this study and references cited in the text.
(Bettencourt et al., 1999; Payolla et al., 2002). The
youngest ductile period of deformation recognised in
Rondônia resulted in a 200 km wide NNW trending
network of sinistral shear zones collectively called the
Ji-Paraná shear zone (Scandolâra et al., 1999; Tohver et
al., 2005a). This event, dated at 1200–1150 Ma, over-
prints ca. 1350 Ma crust (Tohver et al., 2005a, 2005b).
When one compares the history from Rondônia to
that from Eastern Bolivia, it is clear that the base-
ment rocks from Rondônia (1750–1700 Ma) predate
and evolved in a different tectonic setting (mag-
matic arc) when compared to the sedimentary environ-
ment in which the basement rocks of Eastern Bolivia
were deposited/emplaced between 1690 and 1660 Ma.
Although the 1340–1320 Ma San Ignacio potentially
correlates with equivalent aged deformation and meta-
morphism in Rondônia, the polycyclic intrusion of
granitoids and high-grade events that span the Late
Palaeoproterozoic and Early to Middle Mesoprotero-
zoic in Rondônia (1600–1150 Ma), is not replicated
in Eastern Bolivia. Similarly the Ji-Paraná shear zone
(1200–1150 Ma) is absent in Eastern Bolivia. These
structures are not reported from outcrop geology,
nor were such distinct NNW trending linear features
observed geophysically. The east–west trending Nova
Brasilândia belt separates the rocks that record the
above-described evolution of Rondônia, from those of
141
Eastern Bolivia. This belt cross-cuts the structural trend
of pre-Sunsas structures in Rondônia (Tohver et al.,
2004b) and marks the boundary between the Amazon
(exposed in Rondônia) and Paragua (exposed in Eastern
Bolivia) cratons. The Nova Brasilândia belt is inter-
preted to define a Sunsas aged suture by Tohver et al.
(2004b).
An equally significant mismatch in geologic his-
tories is observed between the Mato Grosso region
of Brazil and the rocks described here from East-
ern Bolivia. Lying to the immediate east of the
study area (Fig. 2), the rocks in the Mato Grosso
region records evidence of 1790–1740, 1570–1520 and
1480–1420 Ma arc magmatism (Tassinari et al., 2000;
Geraldes et al., 2001; Pinho et al., 2003). These events
young westward and, respectively, define the Alto Juaru
terrane and the Cachoeirinha and St Helena Orogenies
(Fig. 13). Similar to Rondônia, these events have no
equivalents in Eastern Bolivia. Thus, similar to the
Nova Brasilândia belt, the Aguapéi Thrust belt and
the Guaporé River valley (Fig. 2) define an abrupt
chronologic boundary between the outward younging
arc terranes of Mato Grosso and an older package of
metasedimentary and igneous rocks that crop out in
Eastern Bolivia.
With this in mind, we conclude that the rocks
of Eastern Bolivia (the Paragua Craton) were
142 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
allochthonous with respect to both the Rondônia and
Mato Grosso regions of western Brazil. If this infer-
ence is correct, the important question then becomes
how and when did the Paragua Craton accrete to
the southwest margin of Amazonia? The two possi-
bilities are during the San Ignacio (1340–1320 Ma)
or Sunsas (1100–1070 Ma) orogenies. Within a
Sunsas model, two configurations can be envisaged
depending on the significance attributed to the
Aguapéi Thrust belt. These possibilities are discussed
below.
6.1. San Ignacio accretion of the Paragua Craton
If one considers the San Ignacio option first
(Fig. 14a), the age of this event (1340–1320 Ma) is
consistent with the progressive westward younging of
events observed in the Amazon Craton, while the accre-
tion of an exotic terrane at this time would explain the
termination of slightly older (ca. 1420 Ma) arc magma-
tism along the margin of Amazonia. Although no defor-
mation of definitive San Ignacio age is described in
Mato Grosso, a possible continuation of the San Ignacio
belt is observed in Rondônia where 1330–1300 Ma oro-
genesis has been reported (Payolla et al., 2002; Tohver
et al., 2005a). Arguably, the 1400–1300 Ma anorogenic
plutons recognised in Rondônia (Bettencourt et al.,
1999) could also represent the inboard manifestation of
San Ignacio collision of the Paragua Craton. This sce-
nario would imply a within-plate origin for the Sunsas,
Nova Brazilandia and Aguapeı́ groups. The Sunsas and
Aguapeı́ groups consist mostly of terrestrial or shallow
marine deposits and are implied by Saes et al. (1992)
to have been deposited in an intra-plate rift. In this set-
ting the turbiditic sediments of the Nova Brasilândia
(Rizzotto, 1999; Luft et al., 2000) are perhaps more
difficult to explain, although could simply reflect depo-
sition of these rocks in the rift depocenter. Assuming
the suturing of the Paragua and Amazon cratons was
achieved during the San Ignacio Orogeny, Sunsas oro-
genesis in the Aguapeı́ and the Nova Brasilândia belts
would then reflect zones of intense within-plate short-
ening localised along the axis of an intraplate Aguapeı́-
Nova Brasilândia rift (Fig. 14a). Deformation at this
time would presumably have been driven by the colli-
sion and accretion of the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
(AAB) to the western margin of the Paragua Craton
(Loewy et al., 2004).
6.2. Sunsas accretion of the Paragua Craton (1)
In a recent paper Tohver et al. (2004b) argued that
the Nova Brasilândia belt represents the Sunsas aged
suture between the Paragua and Amazon cratons.
Tohver et al. (2004b) correlated the Sunsas aged
Nova Brasilândia belt with a continuous magnetic
anomaly that divides the Amazon Craton into northern
and southern halves, in effect implying that both the
Paragua Craton and the Mato Grosso region were
separate from the Rondônia region prior to Sunsas oro-
genesis (Fig. 14b). If correct, these two regions, with
their distinct geologic histories, need to have formed a
single microcontinent prior to Sunsas collision. Similar
to the scenario presented above, this could arguably
have been achieved via San Ignacio aged collision
between the Paragua Craton and the Mato Grosso
region. The Sunsas and Aguapeı́ groups would then
represent a within-plate rift (Saes et al., 1992) formed
along the axis of the San Ignacio aged suture and be
unrelated to the similar aged but lithologically distinct
deposits of the Nova Brasilândia Group (Tohver et
al., 2004b). In this scenario, Sunsas aged orogene-
sis recognised along Nova Brasilândia and Sunsas
belts would represent the suture between combined
Paragua-Mato Grosso craton and the Amazon Craton
on the one hand, and the suture between Paragua-Mato
Grosso craton and the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
(Loewy et al., 2004) on the other. The Aguapeı́ belt
would then represent a zone of within plate reactivation
associated with Sunsas accretion along the northern
and southwestern margins of the Paragua Craton
(Fig. 14b).
6.3. Sunsas accretion of the Paragua Craton (2)
The alternate scenario involving Sunsas aged accre-
tion of the Paragua Craton involves Sunsas aged col-
lision along a continuous Nova Brasilândia-Aguapeı́
belt. This alternative implies that the Rondônia and
Mato Grosso Provinces were continuous within the
Amazon Craton (Fig. 14c), an inference that is sup-
ported by the good correlation in the geologic histories
preserved in both of these areas (Fig. 13). A model
implying that the Aguapeı́ and Nova Brasilândia belts
define part of a continuous suture would imply a com-
mon link between the sediments that define these belts.
Although, Tohver et al. (2004b) argued against this cor-
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146 143

Fig. 14. Cartoon of the three possible scenarios for the accretion of the Paragua Block and the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement to the western
margin of the Amazon Craton.

relation on the basis of differing depositional settings,
the youngest detrital zircons from both the Aguapeı́
and Nova Brasilândia sequences yield within error
ages of ca. 1220 Ma (Santos et al., 2000) suggesting
both sequences were deposited at much the same time
and eroded from potentially the same source. Con-
sistent with a model implying Sunsas suturing along
a continuous Nova Brasilândia-Aguapeı́ belt is the
observation that the San Ignacio structures observed
within the Paragua Craton show a markedly differ-
ent trend to that in the basement rocks of Rondônia
or Mato Grosso (Fig. 14c). This suggests that the
144 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Paragua Block was accreted with an established San
Igancio structural grain. This argues against the first
two scenarios described above which imply San Igna-
cio orogenesis should form a continuous belt with the
similarly aged events recognised in Rondônia, or repre-
sent a westward continuation of orogenesis recognised
in the Mato Grossso. The absence of the Ji-Paraná
shear zone (Scandolâra et al., 1999; Tohver et al.,
2005b) within the Paragua Craton further questions the
continuity of structures across the Nova Brasilândia
belt. The absence of San Ignacio aged deformation in
the Mato Grosso region (Geraldes et al., 2001) simi-
larly questions the continuity of structures across the
Aguapeı́ belt. Both the Nova Brasilândia and Aguapeı́
belts define zones of Sunsas high-strain and form dis-
tinct isotopic/structural boundaries that in this sce-
nario define the northern and eastern margins of the
Paragua Craton. Similar to the previous two models,
the Sunsas belt would again represent the Sunsas-aged
suture between the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement and
the Paragua Craton.
Nevertheless, this third model does not provide
a panacea for interpreting the Mesoproterozoic evo-
lution of the sothwestern margin of Amazonia as it
does not account for the linear magnetic anomaly that
underlies the Nova Brasilândia belt and which appears
to divide the Mato Grosso and Paragua regions from
the remainder of the Amazon Craton (Tohver et al.,
2004b). Arguably this feature could be unrelated to
Sunsas orogenesis (i.e. Neoproterozoic or younger).
However, without definitive age data from this feature,
this inference is no more or less valid that that proposed
by Tohver et al. (2004b). Thus, we suggest that without
being able to demonstrate a definitive separation or
connection between the Paragua Craton and the
Mato Grosso and/or Rondônia regions in the interval
between the San Ignacio and Sunsas orogenies, all
of the models described above remain plausible.
Nevertheless, we prefer the interpretation that the
Paragua Block was accreted to the margin of a coherent
Amazon Craton during the Sunsas Orogeny (Fig. 14c)
as this scenario seems most consistent with the existing
data.
We thus envisage the evolution of the western mar-
gin of the Amazon Craton to have evolved by the con-
tinuous or semi-continuous addition of new continental
crust via successive periods of arc magmatism from
ca. 2000 to 1300 Ma (Teixeira et al., 1989; Tassinari
and Macambira, 1999; Tassinari et al., 2000; Santos
et al., 2000). An approximate 100 million years hiatus
then appears to have separated the youngest of these
events from the development of the Ji-Paraná network
of shear zones (Tohver et al., 2005a, 2005b). The onset
of the Sunsas Orogeny at ca. 1110 Ma marked a new,
but relatively short-lived period of accretion along the
western margin of Amazonia. In contrast to the preced-
ing periods of orogenesis, the Sunsas Orogeny resulted
in the growth of the Amazon Craton by the accre-
tion of two allochthonous lithospheric blocks—the
Paragua Craton and the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
(Litherland et al., 1989; Loewy et al., 2004; Tohver et
al., 2004b). Both of these regions preserve an alternate
geologic history than the margin onto which they
accreted (Fig. 13) and show structural trends that are
at an angle to the NW trending palaeo-continental
margin of Amazonia (Fig. 14c). We suggest that the
majority of Sunsas deformation, metamorphism, and
plutonism was localised along the Paragua-Amazonia
and Paragua-AAB sutures located along the northern
and eastern, and southern and western, margins
of the Paragua Craton. Only mild structural and
isotopic reworking was recorded between these
belts.
Post-Sunsas intrusive activity occurred between
1000 and 970 Ma and is recorded in the Negro-
Juruena and the Novas Brasilândia regions of Rondônia
(Bettencourt et al., 1999; Luft et al., 2000) and in the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement (Wasteneys et al., 1995;
Wörner et al., 2000; Loewy et al., 2004). In Rondônia,
the Younger Granites of Rondônia (Bettencourt et
al., 1999) cross-cut elements of the Sunsas Orogeny
and form a north–north-east trending belt of intru-
sions that lie at a high-angle to the northwest trending
palaeo-margin of Amazonia (Bettencourt et al., 1999;
Luft et al., 2000). Although interpreted to represent
the distal magmatic effects of the Sunsas collision
(Bettencourt et al., 1999), the Younger Granites of
Rondônia (<1000 Ma) appreciably post-date the end
of the Sunsas Orogen (ca. 1075 Ma) as defined by this
study. This period of plutonism does coincide with the
closure of the Rb–Sr and K–Ar systems in the Sunsas,
Aguapeı́ and Nova Brasilândia regions, although intru-
sions of this age appear to be absent from the Paragua
Craton. We consider the emplacement of these rocks to
be unrelated to the accretionary growth of the Amazon
Craton.
 S.D. Boger et al. / Precambrian Research 139 (2005) 121–146
Acknowledgements
The fieldwork for this project was completed with
the assistance of BHP Billiton, who provided financial
support and access to proprietary geophysical datasets.
BHP Billiton staff also gave invaluable assistance from
both the Santiago (Chile) and Santa Cruz (Bolivia)
offices. To these people the authors would like to
extend their sincere thanks. Data collection and anal-
ysis, and the development of the concepts presented
here, occurred between 2002 and 2003 during which
time Boger and Raetz were supported by an Australian
Research Council (ARC) Linkage grant awarded to
Martin Krabbendam. Boger is currently supported by
an Australian Postdoctoral Fellowship awarded as part
of an ARC Discovery Grant (DG0343406) to Dr’s
Christopher Wilson and Ian Fitzsimons. Finally, the
authors would like to thank Dr’s Eric Tohver and
Staci Loewy who provided thoughtful and construc-
tive reviews. These comments were of considerable
assistance in shaping the published version of this
manuscript.
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