MECHANICS OF PLAIN AND RETROFITTED TRADITIONAL

TIMBER CONNECTIONS
By Maria A. Parisi,1 Member, ASCE, and Maurizio Piazza2

ABSTRACT: The rehabilitation of old historic buildings often requires retrofitting traditional timber connections.
Experimental and numerical methods were used in this work to study the elastic and postelastic behavior of the
birdsmouth joint, which is used with great frequency in old timber roof structures, especially in the Mediterranean
and Alpine regions. After a preliminary inspection of several buildings to acquire data on existing assemblages,
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an experimental program of testing full-scale samples under monotonic and cyclic loads was undertaken. Dif-
ferent configurations with parameters related to geometry, loading, and material properties were studied using a
finite-element model of the connection; the results were calibrated with experimental results. The behavior of
various joints was also investigated using a simplified physical model. The leading roles of friction, axial
compression, and joint dimensions in determining the joint capacity and postelastic behavior have been high-
lighted and quantified. Different types of retrofitting methodologies based on the insertion of metal parts were
examined and compared on an experimental basis.

INTRODUCTION eter values. The behavior is interpreted also with a simplified

The lack of practical but realistic models for the connections
in old, traditional timber structures may lead to very conser-
vative designs for retrofits and upgrades needed to satisfy new
safety and serviceability requirements. This general lack of
appropriate design knowledge was the motivation for initiating
a program of research into the behavior of these connections.
Most of the connections are concerned with joining ele-
ments subjected to axial load and are usually modeled as per-
fect hinges; occasionally, for stability reasons, a full moment
transmission is assumed. However, these connections offer
only limited, but significant, rotational stiffness and may be
best classified as semirigid.
The moment versus rotation curve for a joint integrates in-
formation on stiffness, capacity, and ductility; retrofitting, the
mechanical behavior of the joint should be predictable from
geometry, compression level, and properties of the material
estimated by nondestructive tests or simply by inspection. One
objective of this work is to parametrically characterize the me-
chanical behavior of traditional timber connections in terms of
moment versus rotation.
Traditional timber joints rely on direct contact and friction.
Metal connectors, seldom present in the assembly, do not
transmit forces directly. They are intended to maintain the
functionality of the connection in adverse and unpredictable
conditions. Conservative retrofitting acts in a similar perspec-
tive. New metal connectors, often inserted on an empirical
basis, are intended to induce a reliable connection behavior
without drastic modification.
This research addresses both unreinforced and reinforced
connections under monotonic and cyclic loading. Attention has
been principally focused on the birdsmouth joint, because of
its frequent use in practice. The study includes a preliminary
structural survey performed for acquiring data, the experi-
mental testing of full-scale samples, the calibration of a finite-
element model of the connection with experimental results,
and the numerical study of configurations with various param-
1
Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Struct. Engrg., Politecnico di Milano, piazza
L. da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy. E-mail: parisi@stru.polimi.it
2
Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Mech. and Struct. Engrg., Univ. of Trento, via
Mesiano 77, 38050 Trento, Italy.
Note. Associate Editor: William M. Bulleit. Discussion open until May
1, 2001. To extend the closing date one month, a written request must
be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript for this
paper was submitted for review and possible publication on November
23, 1999. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol. 126, No. 12, December, 2000. 䉷ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/00/0012-
1395–1403/$8.00 ⫹ $.50 per page. Paper No. 22157.
physical model. The effects of different types of retrofitting
techniques are discussed.
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS
The number of studies on the mechanical characteristics of
existing traditional timber connections is very small. With
some exceptions (e.g., King et al. 1996; Bulleit et al. 1999;
Seo et al. 1999), the focus of timber research is oriented to-
ward new, engineered configurations. Because of this lack of
background information, an extended territorial survey was
carried out on a significant number of timber structures. The
objective of this operation was to develop a realistic database
on the connections of interest and on relevant timber struc-
tures. The frequency of use of the different connection typol-
ogies, the ranges of their geometric parameters, and an esti-
mate of the service stress levels were among the variables
examined.
Over 30 structures were examined in two geographically
close areas of the Italian alpine region; for historical reasons,
each region has different building traditions.
Data have been collected for the following types of con-
nections: the birdsmouth joint, the mortise and tenon, and the
half-lap. The birdsmouth joint was the most frequent config-
uration in the regions surveyed and very likely in the entire
country.
Birdsmouth Joint
Traditional timber connections transmit forces by direct
contact on facing elements, and the birdsmouth joint with a
‘‘single tooth’’ is the most frequent connection scheme in roof
structures (Fig. 1). The geometric configuration of these joints
varies depending on the types of structural elements that they
connect. For example, the connection angle (skew angle) and
FIG. 1. Typical Timber Roof Structure in Traditional Building,
with Details of Birdsmouth Connections

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000 / 1395

J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.

 the geometric proportions are quite different when connecting
rafter and chord or rafter and king post in a roof truss.
The bearing capacity of the joint is a function of the skew
angle, the notch depth, and the length of the toe that offers
shear resistance to horizontal thrust when in a chord element.
Old traditional connections generally do not rely on the con-
tribution of metal parts that, when present, have only a sec-
ondary static role. New metal elements are often added during
retrofit, especially for seismic upgrades. Bolts, stirrups, and
binding strips, the basic elements used for reinforcing, have
been considered here in both the experimental and numerical
study of upgraded connections.
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
The experimental research was carried out at the Structural
Testing Laboratory of the University of Trento, and consisted
of monotonic and cyclic tests of full-size joints (Parisi and
Piazza 1998). Tests on unreinforced joints were performed in
order to acquire information on the primary behavioral char-
acteristics of the connection as well as its sensitivity to a few
parameters. A refined quantification of the effects of other pa-
rameters was done using a numerical analysis.
A fruitful interaction between experimentation and numer-
ical analysis permitted investigators to adequately prepare the
former on the basis of first numerical results, and to simplify
the latter by eliminating the modeling of nonsignificant as-
pects.
Monotonic loading tests were performed first on a set of
unreinforced assemblies. Subsequently, two sets of joints that
were reinforced with basic devices were tested with monotonic
and cyclic loads. The purpose of these tests was to uncover
any advantages and deficiencies in the behavior of the joint
and of the device itself, as well as to determine a need for
different types of reinforcement.
Material Parameters
Extensive testing of the materials preceded structural testing
in order to characterize the mechanical properties. A set of old,
fairly homogeneous, structural timber elements was salvaged
from the demolition of 17th century buildings, and was used
to fabricate the connection specimens. The coniferous species
(Picea Abies Karst) matched an intermediate strength class
between C18 and C22 in the European classification system
(EN 338). Typical values found for strength and the elastic
modulus parallel to the grain were fc,0,mean = 22.6 MPa, fv,mean
= 2.9 MPa, fc,90,mean = 5.7 MPa, and Y0,mean = 9.2 GPa. These
values were used in the numerical analyses. The values of all
other mechanical parameters were taken from the aforemen-
tioned standard. In particular, the elastic modulus in the trans-
verse direction and the shear modulus were Y90,mean = 0.31 GPa
and Gmean = 0.58 GPa, respectively.
Test Setup and Instrumentation
A steel test-stand that could accommodate samples with
skew angles ranging between 20⬚ and 60⬚ was built within a
larger steel loading frame of the laboratory (Fig. 2). The ar-
rangement allows separate control of two hydraulic jacks. One
jack, aligned with the rafter, produced constant compression
throughout the test; the other, a double-acting element posi-
tioned at a height of 1.80 m above the theoretical center of
the joint, applied a transverse force with a programmed load
cycle and generated a moment at the joint. Force (F) versus
displacement (d ) curves were measured directly. The two jacks
have a maximum loading capacity of 200 and 1,000 kN and
a maximum extension of 160 mm and ⫾250 mm, respectively.
Types and locations of measuring instruments, including load
1396 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000
J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.
FIG. 2. Test on Birdsmouth Joint (Unreinforced Sample, ␤ ⴝ
60ⴗ): Testing Apparatus, Instrumentation Layout, Positive and
Negative Force Direction
cells, linear voltage differential transducers (LVDT), and strain
gauges, are shown in the figure.
Geometry and Loading
Tests were performed under displacement control for two
values of the skew angle, 30⬚ and 60⬚; these are typical con-
figurations for the birdsmouth joint. For all the specimens, the
geometric dimensions were these: length of the elements l =
1.90 m, rafter cross section 190 ⫻ 200 or 200 ⫻ 225 mm,
notch depth tv = 55 mm and notch length lv = 350 mm for a
skew angle ␤ = 30⬚, and tv = 35 mm and lv = 200 mm for
␤ = 60⬚.
The first step of the loading procedure in both the mono-
tonic and cyclic tests was the application of an axial com-
pression force on the rafter. This force, modeling the effect of
self-weight and dead load always present in the structure, was
kept constant during the subsequent phases. It should be noted
that the force was imposed in the test rig by using two steel
bars at the theoretical position of the joint. Thus, the first load-
ing phase occurred with the joint free of rotational constraint;
for this reason, in the force versus displacement diagrams
shown in the following paragraphs, the displacement axis is
shifted back by this initial value.
In the second and subsequent loading phases, a transverse
force, F, acted perpendicular to the axis of the rafter. These
loading phases were monotonic, in the positive field (decreas-
ing skew angle) or in the negative one. Monotonic tests to
determine the elastic behavior (in particular, the apparent elas-
tic limit displacements d ⫹ ⫺
e and d e ) were followed by a series
of cycles (three load/unloads for each cycle) in the positive
range up to values of displacement d equal to 1.0 d ⫹ e , 1.5
d⫹ ⫹
e , 2.0 d e , . . . and similarly in the negative direction.
For cyclic testing, a quasi-static history of loading and un-
loading was applied after the initial phases. These tests in-
volved increasing the amount of rotation and a low number of
cycles. In particular, the test program included one cycle in
the range [0.25 d ⫹ ⫺
e ; 0.25 d e ]; one cycle in the range [0.5
d e ; 0.5 d e ]; three cycles in the range [0.75 d ⫹
⫹ ⫺ ⫺
e ; 0.75 d e ];
three cycles in the range [(1.0 ⫹ n)d ⫹ ; (1.0 ⫹ n)d ⫺
] with n
e e
= 0, 1, 2, . . . until failure.
Experimental Observations
Unreinforced connections were tested mainly with mono-
tonic loading, with the aim at characterizing the behavior and
obtaining data for calibrating numerical models. The labora-
tory experiments uncovered some local deformation mecha-
nisms that could not be detected by numerical analysis. Con-
 sequently, the experimentally derived ductility and the energy
dissipation capacity of these connections were somewhat
higher than the numerically derived values, showing that the
analytical results are conservative.
Joints tested to their ultimate capacity demonstrated multi-
ple collapse modes. Joints with a skew angle of 30⬚ in positive
rotation collapsed in shear parallel to the longitudinal fiber at
the toe of the chord. For 60⬚ angles, collapse occurred when
the elements separated; the large rotation combined with the
limited depth of the notch caused the rafter to separate from
its seat. When collapse occurred after cycling, the effect of
residual compressive deformation from previous cycles further
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reduced the depth of the seat. Knowledge of the behavior at
collapse was crucial when considering reinforcement strate-
gies.
In order to adequately test and compare the behavior of
joints with different reinforcing, these specimens were sub-
jected to cyclic loading. This comparison was performed ex-
perimentally, because local effects that could be observed di-
rectly would be easily overlooked or misinterpreted with a
numerical model. As a general result, degradation of the con-
nections occurred only near collapse and only after a number
of cycles where stable behavior was observed.
NUMERICAL MODELING AND RESULTS
The geometry and loading of the connection permits the
assumption of a state of plane stress for the model. After a
sensitivity study, it was determined that the finite-element
mesh required about 900 plane 8-node elements to adequately
model the joint. This helped simulate the local effects from
boundaries and permitted proper development of stress gra-
dients. Modeling had to be split into the two components in-
terconnected at the joint. The rafter was modeled for a length
comparable to its width. For the chord, distance from con-
straints guided the sizing. For another set of models used to
simulate the experimental tests, the mesh was extended to the
full length of the components.
Details of the model concerning the material model, the ge-
ometric constraints, the load path, and the measure of rotation
are reported in the following sections.
Material Model
Timber is anisotropic, but may be satisfactorily represented
as orthotropic (e.g., Bodig and Jayne 1982) in the system of
so-called anatomic cylindrical coordinates corresponding to
the longitudinal, L, radial, R, and transversal, T, directions of
the tree trunk. When the material is extracted from the outer
region, curvature may be neglected and the coordinate system
may be approximately considered orthogonal. A complete
knowledge of orthotropic behavior in a material requires val-
ues of three Young’s moduli, Y, three shear moduli, G, and six
Poisson’s ratios, ␯. If symmetry is considered, only nine in-
dependent parameters need be defined. For softwood, the fol-
lowing approximate values are acceptable:
YL : YR : YT ⬇ 20 : 1.6 : 1
GLR : GLT : GRT ⬇ 10 : 9.4 : 1
YL : GLT ⬇ 14 : 1
A simpler, axisymmetric model with YR = YT and GLR = GLT
may be reasonably adopted and has been used here. The cor-
responding elastic moduli are Y0 in the direction along the
fiber, and Y90 orthogonal to it, plus a shear modulus, G, and a
Poisson’s ratio, ␯.
Compression in the direction normal to the fiber easily
brings the material beyond the elastic limit (Kollmann and
Côté 1968); for this reason, a Hill-type plasticity rule has been
J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.
adopted, considering the limit strengths in the fiber direction,
fc,0, and in the normal direction, fc,90, and a shear strength, fv .
Geometric Constraints
The chord of the joint assembly is constrained by eliminat-
ing the vertical displacements at the base and the horizontal
displacements at the vertical right-side border. When the chord
is in a roof truss, it is supported only at its ends by the un-
derlying walls; a limited extension of these supports would
not, however, significantly affect the study of relative rotation.
The rafter is in contact with the chord at the notch and has
not been otherwise restrained. The contact surfaces where fric-
tion develops have been modeled according to a small sliding
formulation (Oden and Pires 1983)—as implemented in
ABAQUS (1998)—which allows small relative tangential dis-
placements of facing surfaces and unlimited normal displace-
ments, within a second-order approximation. A classic Cou-
lomb formulation of friction has been used. Comparative
results show that the adopted model is not so conditioning,
because the role of friction is very elementary in the joint.
Loading and Measure of Rotation
Two load application modalities were used. The first repro-
duced exactly the experimental case and was used on the cor-
responding numerical model: a first loading step, consisting of
an axial compression at the free end of the rafter engaged the
contact surfaces at the joint. Subsequently, a transverse force
was applied incrementally at the appropriate height on the
rafter. The second type of loading history was applied to all
other cases and models examined. After a first step as above,
a couple was applied incrementally at the free end of the rafter,
by means of a linear pressure distribution on the cross section.
This load permits one to directly evaluate the relationship of
moment versus rotation without shear effects.
The relative rotation of the members attached at the joint
was measured from the change in angle between lines drawn
along the axis of the rafter and the chord; the elastic compo-
nent of rotation was found to be comparatively insignificant.
The moment and rotation causing the skew angle to close have
been assigned a positive sign.
Numerical versus Experimental Results
A first set of numerical analyses was performed on finite-
element models of the specimens used in physical testing. Re-
sults were expressed in terms of force versus displacement,
evaluated at the same locations as in the experiments.
Fig. 3 compares behavior curves obtained for a skew angle
of 60⬚, axial compression stress ␴c,0 = 1.5 MPa, and positive
rotation. The numerical results were obtained with a transverse
force increasing monotonically until additional results were no
(1)
(2)
(3)
FIG. 3. Comparison between Experimental and Numerical Be-
havior (␤ ⴝ 60ⴗ, ␴c,0 ⴝ 1.5 MPa, Positive Rotation)
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000 / 1397
 longer feasible. The study included results for two values of
the friction coefficient. In order to protect the instrumentation,
the specimen was unloaded at a satisfactorily high level of
displacement, but terminated before collapse.
As expected, the results from the numerical model show a
higher stiffness than the experimental results, both because of
the intrinsic characteristics of the FEM formulation and be-
cause of the regularity in the representation of the facing sur-
faces, which contrasts the reality of hand-sawn indentations.
This may explain the stronger agreement of results for higher
initial compression values (e.g., ␴c,0 = 1.5 MPa) that partially
eliminate local irregularities before rotation is induced, and the
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very good agreement for negative rotation, where the mecha-

nism of reaction is soon concentrated in a highly compressed
zone, as described below.
Skew angles of 30⬚ yielded similar results with loads up to
the elastic limit. Beyond that, the low skew angle permitted
the rafter to undergo a series of sudden slides and rotations,
resulting in a sawtooth appearance in the experimental curve.
This behavior could not be duplicated numerically using only
static analysis, because the latter cannot easily recover equi-
librium after the first loss of stability. In general, however, the
numerical analysis seems to supply satisfactory information in
terms of stiffness, strength, and with the above exception, of
displacements.

Parametric Analysis
The parametric analysis was carried out in two steps. Ini- FIG. 5. Effect of Rafter Width (␤ ⴝ 60ⴗ, ␴c,0 ⴝ 1.0 MPa): (a) Pos-
itive Rotation; (b) Negative Rotation
tially, a sensitivity study has allowed reduction of the number
of parameters to be considered further.
The influence of the Poisson ratio, ␯, tested in the range
0.2–0.4, is immaterial. The value assumed henceforth is ␯ =
0.4.
The class of resistance of timber has shown moderate effect
on the inquired behavior. Models with timber class C22, C30,
and C40, applicable to conifers, show differences of only a
few percent in ultimate moments; the differences in the joint
stiffness are low and equivalent to those in the material. A
class C30 was assumed in subsequent analyses.
The most influential parameters were found to be the fric-
tion coefficient, the geometric dimensions, the skew angle, and
the level of compression in the rafter: the selection is, indeed,
indicative of the frictional mechanism of the connection.
Many factors influence the coefficient of friction, ␮, be-
tween timber surfaces: the degree of roughness due to polish- FIG. 6. Effect of Skew Angle (␴c,0 ⴝ 0.75 MPa), Positive Rota-
ing or lack of it, the fiber direction, age, temperature, and tion
moisture content (McKenzie and Karpovic 1968; USGPO
1989). Its value may then differ with time. For old timber
birdsmouth joints, given the fiber direction at contact surfaces, reasonable when a partial penetration of compressed fibers oc-
a reference value of ␮ = 0.30 may be assumed and has been curs. Intermediate values have also been tested, resulting in
used in all other analyses. An upper limit of 0.60 may be the curves in Fig. 4 for positive rotation, the opposite direction
being less sensitive to this parameter.
The dimensions of the rafter section are a primary factor in
the joint strength and deformability, particularly the latter for
positive rotation. The effect of the rafter width is shown in
Fig. 5. The compression stress is constant for the various
curves and, thus, at contact surfaces; the total axial force, how-
ever, increases with the rafter cross section.
The influence of the skew angle is very strong in the posi-
tive rotation and is not significant otherwise. The skew angles
found in birdsmouth joints are related to the use of the con-
nection in the structure. Two values that are meaningful in this
context were considered. Results are shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 7 shows the effect of the axial compression level. While
stiffness is not affected, the increase of strength is approxi-
mately proportionate to that of the compression stress and,
FIG. 4. Effect of Friction (␤ ⴝ 60ⴗ, ␴c,0 ⴝ 0.75 MPa, Positive Ro- thus, of the axial force, both in the positive and negative di-
tation) rection. Table 1 summarizes results for unreinforced joints.
1398 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000

J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.

 TABLE 1. Mechanical Characteristics of Connection (200 ⴛ 200 mm Cross Section, Class C30)

(kNm/rad) ⫻ 103 (kNm) (10⫺2 rad)

Rafter compression
␤ (MPa) k⫹0 k⫺0 M⫹u M⫺u ␾⫹i ␴⫺u

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

30⬚ 0.5 1.97 2.02 2.92 2.08 0.8 3.50
1.0 1.94 2.08 5.44 3.98 1.0 5.50
1.5 1.90 2.13 8.01 5.74 1.2 7.20
60⬚ 0.5 1.36 1.54 1.79 1.98 1.5 13.0
1.0 1.35 1.58 3.30 3.78 1.7 14.8
1.5 1.32 1.62 4.76 5.40 1.9 20.5
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FIG. 8. Geometry of Birdsmouth Joint

FIG. 7. Effect of Axial Compression in Rafter (Cross Section

200 ⴛ 200 mm, ␤ ⴝ 60ⴗ): (a) Positive Rotation; (b) Negative Ro-
tation

FIG. 9. Connection at Ultimate State for Negative Rotation

PHYSICAL MODELS FOR INTERPRETATION
AND PREDICTION
The use of detailed numerical models has some practical
limitations; they require adequate modeling capabilities and
are computationally intense. If the aim is the prediction of an
ultimate moment rather than a complete behavior, a less de-
tailed approximation, such as that supplied by a simple phys-
ical model, may be satisfactory. In addition, the effectiveness
of a simplified model is directly related to the correctness of
the assumptions made concerning the mode of behavior of the
connection. As a result, it gives valuable insight into the con-
nection behavior, highlighting its governing features and prin-
cipal parameters.
The behavior of the joint is asymmetric with respect to ro-
tation; therefore, two interpretative models are described in the
following. Both models are based on limit equilibrium consid-
erations, with reference to the initial configuration. The ge-
ometry of the connection is shown in Fig. 8.
Capacity for Negative Rotation
When a negative rotation opens the skew angle, the beveled
surfaces at the inner side of the joint separate, while com-
pression in the rafter still keeps a decreasing portion of the
head zone surfaces in contact. (Fig. 9). A reaction parallel to
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000 / 1399
the axial force in the rafter, N, may be developed, because
friction allows a force component parallel to the slant. This
component points downward, as required for equilibrium. A
corresponding downward displacement occurs during testing
once friction is overcome.
Further rotation progressively separates the surfaces in the
head zone and the connection rapidly moves toward its ulti-
mate behavior mode. Ultimately, only a small contact area
remains at the upper extreme of the slant. In this process, the
reaction that equilibrates the axial force in the rafter moves
upward, increasing the lever arm. The upper limit is obtained
if this reaction, which must be colinear with the axial force,
is assumed at the upper extreme (Fig. 9), with a lever arm of
half the width of the rafter.
With reference to Fig. 10, the ultimate negative moment
may be simply evaluated as Mu = N ⫻ h/2, where N = ␴c ⫻
A is the axial force, ␴c is the level of compression, and A = h
⫻ b is the cross-sectional area. The direction of the resultant
which must be the same as that of N is not, in general, or-
thogonal to the slanted surface; the necessary transverse com-
ponent with regard to the slant is allowed by friction (and other
local effects).
The agreement of this model with finite-element results is
satisfactory, the error being always less than 10%. The mech-

J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.

 FIG. 10. Ultimate Equilibrium for Negative Rotation. (Two Ele-
ments Are in Contact Only at Upper End of Indentation, Where
Ultimate Reaction Develops; Maximum Theoretical Value of Le-
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ver Arm Is h/2)
anism indicates that the ultimate negative moment is highly
dependent on the level of axial compression and on the width
of the rafter. The friction value is not critical, as long as a
suitable transverse component of reaction is available. This
also may be evident from Fig. 4, where the behavior curves
for different levels of friction and a same connection are com-
pared. This also justifies assigning a low level of influence to
other parameters.
Capacity for Positive Rotation
An equilibrium-based model was also adopted for the case
of positive rotation. This model depends on a mechanism that
was observed both experimentally and numerically. Fig. 11,
traced from numerical results, shows the position of the two
contact surfaces at the ultimate state—just prior to loss of
equilibrium. Two small contact zones where the reaction de-
velops are noticeable. One is at the lower edge of the slant
and the other is at the right end of the beveled side of the
chord.
Assuming that a reaction arises in both locations, the resul-
tant must counterbalance the axial force N. The resultant will
act with the same intensity and opposite in direction to N, but
will act at some distance from the line of action of the axial
force. With reference to Fig. 12, and considering a state of
limit equilibrium before final sliding takes place, the line of
action of the reaction R1 at the base of the slant will be rotated
with respect to the normal to the slant to an angle less than or
equal to the friction angle, ␣. The reaction R2 at the right side
of the other beveled surface will act again at an angle ␣ to
the normal to that surface. The resultant will be parallel to N
and will act on a line passing from the point of intersection
of the former two reaction lines. The distance from this inter-
section to the line of action of N is the lever arm of the couple
that offsets the resultant and the axial force, bl . In an ultimate
equilibrium state, this couple represents the ultimate moment
that the connection may bear. With reference to Fig. 12, M ⫹ u connection angle, plays a leading role, particularly in the case
= N ⫻ bl , where bl is the lever arm. The derivation of an
expression for bl is in Appendix I. For a given value of the
connection angle ␤, the distance bl depends on the inclination
of the reaction lines and, consequently, is a function of the
geometric parameters of the connection—i.e., the rafter angle
and width, the angle of the indentation, and the friction angle.
Equilibrium calculations are always made with reference to
the initial configuration, even though rotation has taken place
at this stage. The actual lever arm following this rotation is
smaller than bl . In the case of positive rotation, an additional
reduction of lever arm is related to the postelastic deformation
of transversally compressed fibers at the reaction area located
at the right extreme of the beveled surface. Indeed, this effect
is less significant at other reaction areas where, in negative or
positive rotation, fibers are compressed approximately along
the less deformable and stronger longitudinal direction. The
error involved increases with the skew angle and the axial
1400 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000
J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.
FIG. 11. Relative Positive Rotation of Elements at Ultimate
State
FIG. 12. Ultimate Equilibrium for Positive Rotation
force. Yet, it exceeds 10% only for ␤ = 60⬚ and N ⱖ 40 kN,
reaching 18% for N = 60 kN.
Interpreting Behavior
The two simple behavior models have exposed the major
factors in the joint behavior. The level of axial compression,
as would be expected in a friction joint, and the width of the
rafter, which contributes as principal terms to the lever arm,
are the primary parameters. The moment is linearly dependent
on them. Figs. 7 and 5 from the finite-element model also
show a proportional increase with these parameters. These
same models justify the secondary role of other parameters
pointed out by the finite-element analysis (e.g., timber class,
etc.).
The friction angle has significant influence on the ultimate
positive moment. In the negative case, this parameter is not
specified directly in the model. Yet, equilibrium based on
aligning the reaction to the compression resultant totally de-
pends on the existence of friction. Comparisons with the ex-
perimental observations have also shown that even at the low-
est level of compression, the available friction is sufficient to
satisfy this requirement. Moreover, this model offers indica-
tions on the effects of parameters other than those investigated
by the finite-element approach, namely the depth of indenta-
tion. This parameter, as with other geometric ones like the
of positive rotation.
RETROFITTING STRATEGIES
Metal connectors have been applied occasionally to timber
joints since very ancient times. However, this practice became
common only in the 19th century, when the development of
industrial production methods made bolts, rivets, and other
metal parts easily available. Metal devices were intended to
counteract out-of-plane actions, which could not be resisted by
the assemblage alone. Today, reinforcing also concerns the be-
havior of the friction-based connection in its own plane, and
is intended to avoid the negative consequences of a temporary
decrease in compression forces. In seismic areas in particular,
reinforcement can prevent loss of capacity and possible sep-
aration of friction surfaces due to decreased compression
forces, and, under cyclic action, can maintain a stable, or
 slowly degrading, behavior. In the frequent situation where
these connections belong to the timber roof structure of ma-
sonry buildings, an especially critical point in the seismic be-
havior is at the interface with the supporting wall. Yet, in order
to reduce vulnerability, also the internal joints of the timber
structure must be put in condition to supply a reliable re-
sponse.
A comparative study of reinforcing devices has been carried
out experimentally in order to evaluate their effectiveness and
to point out possible side-effects on the behavior of the con-
nection. The reinforcing devices considered are basic examples
of traditionally used typologies. They are intended mainly as
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prototypes, to which elementary types of behavior may be as-
sociated.
Types of Reinforcement
The basic configuration of birdsmouth joints has shown a
semirigid behavior characterized by adequate levels of load
capacity and rotation capability, as well as a satisfactory level
of ductility. Reinforcing devices should then be selected to
improve the joint response, respecting, wherever possible, the
original conceptual design. For this reason, the extensive use
of bolted metal plates that would stiffen the joint completely,
inducing a different stress distribution in the structure and pre-
venting even relative movements of the connected elements,
was not considered. Their use is reserved for specific situations
where serious degradation of the joint may make it advisable.
Glued metal dowels would also be problematic when ap-
plied to existing structures, especially with respect to glue in-
jection. An outflow of glue from the dowel hole and onto the
contact surfaces would completely alter the nature of the joint,
producing a brittle glued joint lacking any capacity for energy
dissipation.
Three basic types of intervention considered in this study
are modern implementations of traditional strengthening tech-
niques: the internal bolt, the stirrup, and the binding strip
shown in Fig. 13.
In this study, a snug-fitting steel rod 20 mm in diameter was
used. The rod was threaded at both ends and secured using a
nut and washer (60 mm in diameter and 6 mm thick) at each
end. A suitable seat area was formed within the timber element
for the washer, allowing perfect contact between surfaces. The
location of the rod was midjoint; its orientation generally de-
pends on the skew angle: data collected in the initial survey
indicated that the rod is usually orthogonal to the contact
plane. Tests were performed under different conditions—rod
normal to the axis of the rafter, rod normal to the chord axis,
and rod normal to the contact plane.
The use of metal stirrups placed in pairs at opposite sides
of the joint was very popular in the past, is still considered
adequate, and is frequently adopted. The effect of the large
increase of in-plane stiffness in the connection seemed a par-
ticularly interesting point to be investigated. In this study, each
stirrup was composed of two steel plates welded in a V-shape.
Each prong was 50 mm wide and 5 mm thick, parallel to the
rafter or to the chord, and bolted to it with five bolts 16 mm
in diameter.
FIG. 13. Different Types of Traditional Strengthening Tech-
niques for Birdsmouth Joint
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000 / 1401
J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.
Metal binding strips, considered obsolete today, were very
frequently adopted in 19th-century roof structures, particularly
to strengthen the lower rafter and chord connections in con-
figurations having skew angles typically of 30⬚. An updated
version of this layout was considered here: the joint was bound
with a U-shaped steel ribbon, 40 mm wide and 4 mm thick,
located at midjoint, normal to the rafter. At the bottom surface
of the chord, a notch was used for proper seating. Two
threaded bars welded to the upper extremes of the ribbon allow
connection to a plate resting on the rafter surface that com-
pletes the device. The upper plate assures a more uniform
stress distribution; the bolts provide for controlled tightening.
Monotonic and Hysteretic Behavior
Observations on the behavior of reinforced connections are
based on tests performed at various levels of axial compression
and different skew angles. A first comparison of the three ap-
proaches may be based on their monotonic response for both
directions. Fig. 14 compares results for specific but typical
cases, in the positive direction.
Bolted connections share the elastic branch of the curve
with the corresponding unreinforced joints. Sliding between
contact surfaces permits the unreinforced joint to ‘‘yield’’ sud-
denly; in the reinforced joint this undesirable behavior is sup-
pressed by the presence of the bolt and leads to a secondary
pseudo-hardening branch in the behavior curve. The bolt also
eliminates the sawtoothing of the curve that typically occurs
during positive rotation of low skew angle connections. The
sawtoothing is due to temporary interlocking and local sliding
of fibers, particularly at high compression values. Wood is
compressed along the fibers by the bolt and across them by
the washer, eventually giving rise to permanent plastic em-
bedding. Yet, the basic joint behavior is maintained in the
service phase, improving its postelastic performance. The duc-
tility and energy dissipation capability of the joint are dem-
onstrated in Fig. 15, which shows results from cyclic testing.
A few fairly stable cycles may be obtained from this assembly,
comparing favorably with similar modern joints. Subsequently,
plastic embedding induces progressively larger slippages, re-
sulting in stronger pinching of the cycles and reduced energy
dissipation. Yet, the connection holds—at the cost of large
displacements. Ultimately, collapse occurs because of local
fracture of the wood, generally in the region of a knot.
With stirrups, no significant change of stiffness appears in
the behavior curve. Indeed, this device reduces sliding of the
contact surfaces and does not deform significantly under load.
Consequently, it has a reduced capability for energy dissipa-
tion, particularly for low skew angles. During alternate load
cycles, a progressive separation of facing surfaces occurred in
the tests. The gap could not be reduced because the stirrup did
not readily deform, and the load transmission would then rely
FIG. 14. Experimental F-d Relationship for Unreinforced and
Reinforced Connections (␤ ⴝ 30ⴗ, ␴c,0 ⴝ 1.5 MPa, Positive Rota-
tion)
 portant aspects of the behavior, particularly at the ultimate
states, and (3) guidance in determining appropriate retrofitting
solutions.
Retrofitting of the connection, usually performed by inser-
tion of metal parts, is indispensable in ensuring reliable con-
nection behavior in adverse and unpredictable conditions. Yet,
overreinforcement, e.g., as obtained by insertion of multiple
bolts along the connection axis, may induce brittle ultimate
behavior. The same reason seems to discourage the albeit fre-
quent use of metal stirrups positioned at the two sides of the
joint, while bolts across the joint axis and metal strips binding
the connection have given more favorable results.
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APPENDIX I. EVALUATION OF LEVER ARM FOR

FIG. 15. Experimental Cyclic F-d Relationship for Connection
with Bolt (␤ ⴝ 30ⴗ, ␴c,0 ⴝ 1.5 MPa)
exclusively on the metal element. The same gap could also be
found in the first loading phase, depending on the precision
of joint manufacturing, as shown in Fig. 14. The result was a
conceptually different and statically questionable method of
carrying the load, with the possibility of brittle failure in the
region of the weld.
The binding strip seems an intermediate solution between
bolt and stirrup. At low compression no significant change in
stiffness appears with respect to the unreinforced joint. For
higher axial forces the behavior extends clearly into a post-
elastic field and is very similar to that of the bolted connection.
Also in this case, the difference is evident only for high values
ULTIMATE POSITIVE ROTATION
The lever arm of the ultimate positive moment in the pro-
posed model corresponds to the distance of the line of action
of the axial force in the rafter, N, from the intersection of the
lines of action of the reactions at the two points of contact
between rafter and chord.
With reference to Fig. 16, these points are A and B; the
corresponding lines a and b intersect at P, and the distance
from P to action line c is P⬘-P. With the coordinate system in
the figure, the origin is at B; point A has coordinates (lv ⫺ tv
tan ␤/2; tv ). The slopes of lines a, b, and c are tan(␤/2 ⫺ ␣),
tan⫺1(␣ ⫺ ␦), and tan ␤, respectively, with
tv

冉冊
␦ = tan⫺1 (4)
of the transverse force. Indeed, in this assembly plastic em- ␤
bedding is very low and limited to the contact area at the lower lv ⫺ tv tan
2
surface of the chord. Contrary to the previous case, no sepa-
ration of the joint surfaces takes place. Since the strip must Thus, the corresponding straight line equations are

冉 冊 冋 冉 冊册
always be tensioned, this assembly requires maintenance, by
tightening of the upper bolts. ␤ ␤
y = tan ⫺␣ ⫻ x⫺ lv ⫺ tv tan ⫹ tv (5)
In order to complete the analysis of bolted connections that 2 2
had shown some interesting features, further tests have been
y = tan⫺1(␣ ⫺ ␦)x (6)
performed using two bolts rather than one. Such an arrange-
ment would protect the connection from possible fracture of
the single bolt. A first test, performed with two parallel bolts
positioned along the axis, resulted in high load capacity but
y = tan ␤ 冉 x⫺
h
2 sin ␤ 冊 (7)

low ductility. The desired results were obtained with two par- If
allel bolts of smaller diameter located across the width at mid-
joint; this method did not significantly enhance the stiffness ␤
c0 = lv ⫺ tv tan (8)
of the original design. Thus, the results indicate that smaller- 2
diameter rods manufactured from low-grade steel are the more
desirable design choice. In the tests, the high stress levels at
the connected extremes of the timber elements, and at the toe
c1 = tan 冉 冊
␤
2
⫺␣ (9)

of the chord that is subject to high shear, especially for low c2 = tan⫺1(␣ ⫺ ␦) (10)
skew angles, have suggested a need for local reinforcing of
the toe area. The application of screws in predrilled holes reg- by intersecting a and b, the coordinates of point P are found
ularly distributed in the area of concern prevented the local to be
failures that had been previously observed in unreinforced
joints when in the postelastic range.

CONCLUSIONS
The elastic and postelastic behavior of the birdsmouth joint
has been investigated experimentally and numerically under
monotonic and cyclic loading conditions.
The connection has nonnegligible moment-transmitting ca-
pabilities. Its rotational capacity is primarily a function of (1)
the compression level in the rafter, (2) the width of the rafter,
(3) the friction angle, and (4) the skew angle in the connection.
Capacity is positively related to the first three parameters.
While the numerical approach has allowed study of the de-
pendency on the various parameters, the experimental analysis
has been important for (1) understanding the behavior under FIG. 16. Reference System Adopted for Ultimate Equilibrium
conditions within the service range, (2) singling out some im- Evaluation with Positive Rotation

1402 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000

J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.

 P 冉
tv ⫺ c0 c1
c2 ⫺ c1
; c2
c2 ⫺ c1 冊
tv ⫺ c0 c1
(11)
(1999). ‘‘Behavior and modeling of wood-pegged timber frames.’’ J.
Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 125(1), 3–9.
King, W. S., Yen, R. J. Y., and Yen, A. Y. N. (1996). ‘‘Joint characteristics
of traditional Chinese wooden frames.’’ Engrg. Struct., 18(8), 635–644.
The line d orthogonal to c and passing from P is Kollmann, F. P., and Côté, W. A. (1984). Principles of wood science and

冉 冊
technology, Springer, Berlin, I, 336–341.
tv ⫺ c0 c1 tv ⫺ c0 c1 McKenzie, W. M., and Karpovic, H. (1968). ‘‘The frictional behaviour
y = tan(␤ ⫺ ␲/2) x⫺ ⫹ c2 (12)
c2 ⫺ c1 c2 ⫺ c1 of wood.’’ Wood Sci. and Technol., 2, 139–152.
Oden, J. T., and Pires, E. B. (1983). ‘‘Nonlocal and nonlinear friction
yielding P⬘, a point of intersection with c, laws and variational principles for contact problems in elasticity.’’ J.

冉 冊
Appl. Mech., 50, 67–73.
c3c6 ⫺ c4c5 ⫹ c2c4 ⫺c6 ⫹ c4 ⫹ c2c3c4 Parisi, M. A., and Piazza, M. (1998). ‘‘Seismic behavior and modeling
P⬘ ; (13) of traditional timber roof structures.’’ Proc., CD-ROM, XI Euro. Conf.
c3 ⫺ c5 c3 ⫺ c5 of Earthquake Engrg., Paris, France, T3, 1–8.
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Seo, J.-M., Choi, I.-K., and Lee, J.-R. (1999). ‘‘Static and cyclic behavior
where of wooden frames with tenon joints under lateral load.’’ J. Struct.
Engrg., ASCE, 125(3), 344–349.
c3 = tan ␤ (14) Structural timber—strength classes. (1985). EN 338: CEN/TC 124, Brus-
sels, Belgium.
tv ⫺ c0 c1 U.S. Government Printing Office (USGPO). (1989). The encyclopedia of
c4 = (15)
c2 ⫺ c1 wood, Sterling Publishing, New York, 3–27.

c5 = tan(␤ ⫹ ␲/2) (16) APPENDIX III. NOTATION

c6 = lv /2 (17) The following symbols are used in this paper:
A =
section area;
Finally, the distance bl is
F =
force;
[(c3c6 ⫹ c2c4 ⫺ c3c4)2 ⫹ (c4 ⫹ c2c4c5 ⫺ c6)2]1/2 M =
moment;
bl = (18) N =
axial force;
兩 c3 ⫺ c5 兩 b =
section width;
bl =
lever arm;
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS d =
displacement;
fc =
material strength in compression;
The writers would like to acknowledge the precious help of their for-
mer students Ing. Marina Maestri, Ing. Roberto Modena, and Ing. Fabio
h =
section depth;
Binelli. lv =
notch length;
tv =
notch depth;
␣ =
friction angle;
APPENDIX II. REFERENCES ␤ =
skew angle of connection;
ABAQUS theory manual—version 5.7. (1998). Hibbitt, Karlsson & So- ␦ =
angle of inclination of lower beveled surface of rafter to
renensen, Pawtucket, R.I. horizontal direction;
Bodig, J., and Jayne, B. A. (1982). Mechanics of wood and wood com- ␮ = friction coefficient;
posites, Van Nostrand, New York, 110–118. ␾ = rotation; and
Bulleit, W. M., Sandberg, B. L., Drewek, M. W., and O’Bryant, T. L. ␴c = compression stress.

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 2000 / 1403

J. Struct. Eng. 2000.126:1395-1403.