TETRAPODS
❯ Tetrapoda is a super class, the
amphibians, reptiles
(including dinosaurs and birds)
and mammals are the major groups
of the Tetrapoda.
❯ Tetrapods have limbs.
Tetrapod means "four feet". These
limbs are most commonly used for
locomotion like crawling, walking,
running, flying, or swimming
❯ All tetrapod limbs share a common
basic structure. Both the forelimb
and the hindlimb have one long
bone that attaches to the body at
one end and to two long bones at
the other end.
TETRAPOD LIMB STRUCTURE:
❯ The two long bones join a group of
smaller carpal bones (in the
forelimb) or tarsal bones (in the
hindlimb) which form the "hand"
(or manus) and "foot" (or pes)
along with the digits (fingers and
toes). The oldest tetrapods had
seven or eight digits on each limb;
the ancestral pattern for living
tetrapods is five digits on each limb
(such as the five fingers and toes of
humans.
THE EVOLUTION OF TETRAPODS:
❯ It begins with fish like
Eusthenopteron and
Panderichthys, which had lobed
fins. These fins likely provided
support in shallow waters. The
transition continued with Tiktaalik,
RAMOS, PRINCESS ANNE S.
PINTO, ALADIN
RINGOR, ALDWIN
(BS Biology – Major in Medical Biology 1A)
an iconic intermediate form,
showcasing limb-like fins with wrist-
like joints, suggesting adaptation to
moving in and out of water.
❯ Acanthostega and Ichthyostega
mark a crucial stage, displaying
limbs with digits. Although they
retained fish-like characteristics,
they represent an essential step
towards terrestrial life. Their
skeletal structure indicates some
capability for weight-bearing.
❯ The true tetrapods emerged later,
exhibiting further adaptations for
life on land. Developments such as
a stronger backbone, more robust
limbs, and improvements in
respiration and reproduction
allowed tetrapods to thrive in
terrestrial environments.
REPRODUCTION:
Early tetrapods:
❯ External fertilization in water and
laid eggs in water. water which
developed into aquatic larvae. The
larvae metamorphosed into land-
living adults.
❯ Tetrapods reproduce through
sexual reproduction, involving the
union of male and female gametes.
They lay amniotic eggs or give birth
to live young, allowing reproduction
on land.
❯ The amniotic egg allowed tetrapods
to become completely terrestrial.
 ❯ On land, tetrapods primarily
utilize lungs for respiration. Air
is drawn into the lungs through
the nostrils or mouth, where
oxygen is exchanged with
carbon dioxide in specialized
respiratory surfaces. This
process allows efficient oxygen
RESPIRATION: uptake required for metabolic
Evolution: functions.
❯ In aquatic environments,
tetrapods typically respire
through a combination of lungs,
skin, and buccal pumping.
While underwater, they absorb
oxygen through their skin.
❯ The spiracular tract, an opening in
the tube, allows fish to breathe UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF
while eating. The evolution of skull TETRAPODS:
holes, from breathing in water to
air, reveals when tetrapodomorphs ❯ Four Limbs
(earliest tetrapods) transitioned. As ❯ Lungs
tetrapodomorphs evolved, they lost ❯ Ears with Middle Ear Bones
gills and spiracular tracts, adopting ❯ Amniotic Eggs
nostrils for air breathing. ❯ Skin with Keratin
❯ Complex Limb Skeleton

❯ The ancestors of Tiktaalik and

Ichthyostega likely had swim
bladders, initially aiding buoyancy.
In some lobe-finned fish, swim
bladders evolved with increased
blood vessels, improving oxygen
transfer. Over time, this organ
adapted to a new role: breathing. In
these species, swim bladders
resemble lungs, being divided and
rich in blood vessels.

RAMOS, PRINCESS ANNE S.

PINTO, ALADIN
RINGOR, ALDWIN
(BS Biology – Major in Medical Biology 1A)