This project is funded

by the European Union

Support the Technical and Financial

Sustainability of the Renewable Energy and
Energy Efficiency Sectors
EuropeAid/138795/DH/SER/EG
{Course 3}

{29 – 31 August 2021}

Cairo & Alexandria, Egypt

This project is implemented by a Consortium led by DAI/ Human Dynamics

Calculation and Verification of Energy
Consumption of Significant Energy
Using (SEU) Equipment

2
 About the Trainer

Ahmed Aboulmagd, PhD

Assistant Professor of Energy and Thermofluids Engineering
Mechanical Power Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University
a.aboulmagd@eng.cu.edu.eg
Phone: +2 0111 329 8385 (WhatsApp)

Education
▪ Ph.D. Mechanical Engineering, Padova University – Cairo University (2015).
▪ M.Sc. Mechanical Engineering, Cairo Univ., Egypt (2009).
▪ B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering, Cairo Univ., Egypt (2003).

Expertise
▪ Energy Efficiency, Renewable Energy (Solar, Wind, Bioenergy,…),
Environmental Engineering, Thermofluids Engineering (Fluid Mechanics, Heat
Transfer and Thermodynamics Applications).
 About the Trainees

➢ Name:

➢ Job Title:

➢ Work location:

➢ Question: What are energy consuming devices you deal with

in your current job?

4
Policy

5
 Activity Time
Activity
▪ Trainees are divided in 3
groups (A,B, and C)
▪ Each group suggests a
design, a modification, an
idea for efficiency A C
improvement for one of the
devices studied.
▪ Activity is 10 minutes with
another 15 minutes
presentation. B
▪ The winner group is marked
for finals. 6
 Contents
▪ Day 1: Significant Energy Users (SEUs) in Oil and
Gas Plant and their Datasheets
➢ Introduction to Energy Efficiency
➢ Fired Heaters
➢ Steam Boilers
➢ Combustion Turbines
➢ Steam Turbines
➢ Compressors
➢ Pumps
➢ Electric Motors
7
 Contents (Cont.)
▪ Day 2: Combustion Process and Fired Equipment
Efficiency
➢ Combustion Principles
➢ Fired Heaters Efficiency Calculations
➢ Steam Boilers Efficiency Calculations
➢ Combustion Turbines Efficiency Calculations

▪ Day 3: Rotating Equipment Efficiency

➢ Compressors Efficiency Calculations
➢ Pumps Efficiency Calculations
8
➢ Electric Motors Efficiency Calculations
 TC3: Day 1
Significant Energy Users (SEUs)
in Oil & Gas Plants and their
Datasheets

9
Introduction to Energy Efficiency

10
• SEUs in Egypt’s Oil & Gas Sector
Note: purchased from EEA, not including
generated electricity within MOP facilities.
Used within
the Plant

Associated
Petroleum Gases

11
Typical Manufacturing Unit
Sankey Diagram – Energy Balance
(Example: Reheating Furnace)
 Typical Energy Efficiency
Approaches
▪ Retrofit – addition of new technology features in existing systems

e.g. lamps in a lighting

fixture

▪ Replacement – complete refurbishment of the system

e.g. complete lighting

fixtures

14
 Energy Equipment

➢Thermal energy equipment

➢Electrical energy equipment
➢Monitoring equipment

15
Significant Energy Users (SEUs)
Establishing a Baseline for EE Activities
 Fired Heaters
Fired Heaters for General Refinery Service
ANSI/API STANDARD 560 (4th Ed., Aug. 2007)

Types in terms of Energy Efficiency; direct (fired box, with convection section, with air
preheater), indirect; Heater treater and Typical efficiency for each type.
Datasheet and energy data that could be extracted from it (efficiency, fuel flow rate, operating
parameters and duty)

18
Direct Type vs. Indirect Type Fired Heaters
❑ In a fired heater, heat liberated by the combustion of fuels is
transferred to fluids contained in tubular coils within an insulated
enclosure.
❑ Based on the way the output heat is transferred to the process
user:
▪ Direct heating to a coil where process medium is circulated to
consume the heat, by sensible energy (temperature rise) or
Latent heat (boiling or changing process medium )
▪ Indirect type utilizes intermediate heating bath of heating fluid
such as saline water, heating oil, which is heated by a fired tube
where fuel is burnt as injected into the coil with air. This bath
transfer heat to another coil where the process medium is
circulated to absorb the heat.
▪ Indirect type heater is slightly less efficient but provides better
safety because it eliminates the inevitable burning of process
medium as it leaks from its coil by the direct heating fuel flames.
19
Direct Heater (More Efficient)

20
Indirect Heater (Heater Treater)

21
Indirect Type Heater

22
Energy Efficient Designs
with air preheater with convection section

23
 Operational Advantages of APH systems
Air preheat systems typically provide the following operational
advantages:
➢ reduced fuel consumption;
➢ improved control of combustion air flow;
➢ reduced oil-burner fouling;
➢ better flame-pattern control;
➢ more complete combustion of difficult fuels.

▪ What about the drawbacks?

24
Typical Burner Arrangements.

25
Burners for Fired Heaters
Burners for Fired Heaters in General Refinery Services
API 535 (3rd Ed., XXXXX 2012)

26
Low NOx Staged Fuel Gas Burner

27
Datasheet of Fired Heaters

▪ From the fired heater datasheet both, fuel efficiency and guaranteed fuel
efficiency could be identified.

▪ The guaranteed Fuel efficiency could be used as typical efficiency value

SOR: Start of run

EOR: End of run 28
 Data Sheet

Datasheets Source 1
Datasheets of Fired Heaters

Datasheets Source 2

29
Burner Datasheet

30
 Steam Boilers
(Fired Steam Generator)

31
 Classification of Steam Generators
▪ Application (Utility or industrial)
▪ Basic Design (Water tube or Fire tube)
▪ Operating pressure (sub-critical, super-critical or multi-
pressure)
▪ The firing system (Fired , Electric, Heat recovery boilers or
Heat recovery with supplementary firing)
▪ Energy Saving Components: Economizer, Air Pre-Heater,
boiler blow down

32
Fire Tube Boilers
▪ Heat transfer surfaces are basically those of the fire and the
smoke tubes. The hot surfaces usually form two or three
passes with wet or dry back.
▪ Mainly used in industrial or HVAC applications
▪ Usually has a cylindrical shape
▪ Limited capacity and operating pressure (20 ton/hr and 18
bar)
▪ Can be either horizontal or vertical.
▪ Low response for load changes

33
Fire Tube Boilers

34
Water Tube Boilers

▪ Can Provide high operating pressure as well as steam

flow rate.
▪ High response for load changes
▪ Consists of at least one steam drum, down comer and
raiser .Some designs may include lower drum (mud
drum) and more than one steam drum.
▪ Water circulation inside the boiler can be natural,
controlled or once through (no circulation).

35
View for a Water Tube Boiler

36
Waterwall and Internal Components

37
 Energy Saving Boiler Components
▪ Economizers: are used to recover heat from the boiler flue
gases and thereby increase boiler efficiency. The heat absorbed
by economizer is transferred to the boiler feedwater flowing
through the inside of the economizer tubes.
▪ Air Pre-heaters: The purpose of the air preheater is to recover
the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal
efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the
flue gas.
▪ Boiler Blowdown Control System: The removal of some
quantity of water from the boiler in order to achieve an
acceptable concentration of dissolved and suspended solids in
the boiler water. 38
Economizers and Air Preheaters

39
Boiler Efficiency Improvement
▪ For natural gas-fired boilers, the
lowest temperature to which flue
gas can be cooled is about 250°F
to prevent condensation and
possible stack or stack liner
corrosion.
▪ The condensing economizer
improves waste heat recovery by
cooling the flue gas below its dew
point, which is about 135°F for
products of combustion of NG.
▪ The economizer reclaims both
sensible heat from the flue gas and
latent heat by condensing flue gas
water vapor (see Table 1)
40
 Video: Water Tube Boiler
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dVBoZ4PfZmE

41
 Boiler Blowdown (Bd)
▪ Boiler blowdown is water intentionally
wasted from a boiler to avoid high TDS
concentrations in the boiler drum.
▪ The water is blown out of the boiler
with some force by steam pressure
within the boiler
▪ Bottom blowdown & Surface
blowdown. Manual Bd

▪ Automatic & manual BD.

▪ It is most effective to remove water
with the highest level of impurities; and
such water is found where steam
separates in the steam drum at the top
42
of the boiler.
Tubular Vs. Rotary Air Pre-heater

43
Typical Boiler Efficiencies

44
Typical Boiler Efficiencies (cont.)

▪ Oil-fired boilers are inherently more efficient

than natural gas- or coal-fired boilers, because
of different hydrogen contents and different
flame characteristics and their effect on heat
transfer.
▪ Also, unburned fuel losses are normally higher
with coal-fired boilers.

45
Boiler Datasheets
Boiler Datasheets

47
Boiler Datasheets

48
 Gas Turbines
➢Types in terms of energy efficiency (open cycle, combined cycle
and cogeneration) and typical efficiency for each type.

➢Datasheet, performance curve and energy data that could be

extracted for them.

49
Stationary Gas Turbines
▪ It can be used to drive generators, compressors and pumps.
▪ It can be used in ships and small compact units are available
for automobiles.
▪ Suitable for utility either for base or peak loads.
▪ Energy in exhaust gases of a gas turbine can be recovered in
Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) to raise steam for
either power generation (combined cycle) or process heating
(cogeneration).

50
Gas Turbine Classifications
▪ Regarding the application :
➢ Micro gas turbine (small power range)
➢ Aero-derivative (gas turbine originally designed for air craft propulsion
or derived from unit designed for air jets
➢ Industrial gas turbines
➢ Heavy duty gas turbine
▪ Regarding the design:
➢ Single shaft
➢ Two shaft turbines (eliminates the need of a gear box; suitable for
driving compressors and pumps).
▪ Regarding Energy Efficiency:
➢ Open cycle,
➢ Combined cycle
➢ Cogeneration 51
 According to Gas Turbine: design

Combustion Chamber Combustion Chamber

Load Load

Inlet Air Exhaust Gases Inlet Air Exhaust Gases

Single Shaft Gas Turbine Two Shafts Gas Turbine

52
Simple Open Cycle (Brayton Air Cycle)
Gas Turbine
▪ Regeneration, intercooling, and
reheat sometimes are not
practical.
▪ Energy in exhaust gases can be
recovered in Heat Recovery
Steam Generator (HRSG) to raise
steam for either power
generation (combined cycle) or
process heating (cogeneration).
53
Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

HRSG

54
New Capital CC Power Plant
4800 MW Capacity
(4×1200 MW)

55
HRSG Design

56
Cogeneration
(aka: CHP, Combined Heat & Power)

57
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1hSFLXADQ0

58
 Efficiency Range
▪ Simple open cycle efficiency
≈ 22 %

▪ Combined Cycle efficiency

≈ 60 %

▪ New Capital CCPP is H-

Class with efficiency > 60 %

59
Combined Cycle Plant Datasheet

60
61
62
Activity
 Workshop Activity : 15 minutes
Reflect upon efficiency improvement in
studied technologies
Activity
▪ Split into groups A, B, and C
▪ Each group select a topic of
the 3 covered today (Fired
Heater, Boiler, Combustion
Turbine)
▪ Discuss with your group some A C
proposed techniques to
improve energy efficiency in
the selected equipment.
▪ List down your suggestions
▪ Present your group work in B
front of the whole audience.
 Steam Turbines
➢Classification and typical efficiency .
➢Datasheet and performance curve and energy data that
could be extracted for them.

65
 Steam Turbines
There are three basic types of steam turbines:
▪ Condensing turbines, in which all the steam that enters
the turbine expands to the high-vacuum condensing
pressure.
▪ Back-pressure turbines, which operate with an exhausts
pressure equal or greater than, atmospheric pressure to
meet the process steam requirements.
▪ Extraction turbines, in which steam is extracted at one or
more intermediate stages, often at comparatively high
pressures, either to meet process load or to heat boiler
feed water. Extraction can be applied to condensing or
back-pressure turbines.
66
67
Industries Served (GE’s Oil and Gas Business)

68
Data Sheet (Design Parameters)

69
Steam Turbine Data Sheet (Design Parameters)

70
Data Sheet (Maintenance)

71
Specific Steam Consumption

Specific Steam Consumption most/kWh [kg/kWh] 72

Compressors

73
• Functions of Compressors
• Compression of gases and vapours is an important operation in chemical
and petrochemical plants.
• Compressor is a mechanical device used to increase the pressure of
compressible fluid, either gas or vapour, by reducing the fluid specific
volume during passage of the fluid through compressor.
• As gases are compressible, the compressor reduces the volume of the
gas and transports the fluid through pipes.
• The benefits of operating the gas at higher pressures includes the
ability to transmit larger volumes of gas through a given size of a
pipeline, lower transmission losses due to friction, and the scapability to
transmit gas over long distances without additional boosting stations.

74
• Classification of Compressors

75
 Positive Displacement Compressors
• In a positive displacement compressor, a fixed amount
of the working fluid (gas or vapour) is positively
contained during its passage through the machine and
undergoes changes of pressure energy by means of
variation in the volume of container.

76
• Reciprocating Compressors

Intercooler

77
• Rotary Screw Compressors

78
• Rotary Vane Compressors

79
 Dynamic Compressors
• Dynamic compressors are used for converting mechanical energy
into fluid energy (pressure or enthalpy rise), dealing with
compressible fluids.
• They are based on a dynamic principle where kinetic energy is
imparted by a rotating impeller to a gas in order to keep it
continuously flowing, while a suitable diffuser converts this
kinetic energy into pressure energy.
• For very low pressure ratios, these machines are called fans or
blowers where most of the mechanical energy input is converted
into kinetic energy.
• For high pressure ratio compressors, the pressure rise may be
achieved in more than one stage; i.e., in a multistage compressor.80
• Centrifugal Compressors

81
82
• Multistage Centrifugal Compressor

83
• Axial Compressors

84
• Turbo-Jet Application

85
• Compressor Performance Characteristics

86
• Compressor Performance Curves

87
88
• Compressor Range Chart

89
• Compressor Datasheets – Centrifugal Type

90
• Compressor
Datasheets – Screw
Type

91
• Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics
of Compressors

92
• Specific Power Consumption

93
 Pumps
• Pumps are fluid machines that convert mechanical energy
into fluid energy and handle incompressible fluids (liquids).
• Positive displacement pumps are either reciprocating or
rotary types.
• Dynamic pumps include radial-flow (centrifugal) pumps,
axial-flow (propeller) pumps and mixed-flow (screw) pumps.

94
• Pump Types

95
• Examples of Positive Displacement
Pumps

96
• Examples of Centrifugal Pumps

97
 Dynamic Pumps
• Most of the centrifugal
pumps are shrouded,
while the screw and the
propeller pumps are
generally not shrouded
as shown in the Figure.

98
• Pump Specific Speed

99
 Volute Casing and Diffuser

• The function of stator

(diffuser) in pumps is to
convert the exit kinetic
energy into useful
pressure energy.
• Most single-stage
centrifugal and screw
pumps have a stator of
the volute casing type,
while multi-stage pumps
have diffuser blades. 100
• Double Suction Pumps

101
• A Typical Three-Stage Pump

102
• A Multistage Centrifugal Pump

103
• Axial Flow Pumps

104
• Typical Pump Performance Curves

105
• Reciprocating Pump Performance

106
• Centrifugal Pump Performance

107
 Pump Capacity Regulation
• The discharge of pumps may be controlled by different methods
depending on application:
❑Discharge Throttling: the cheapest and most common
method.
❑Speed Regulation: by changing the speed of pump driver
and is mainly used with centrifugal pumps.
❑Adjustable Guide Vanes: The vanes angles produce pre-whirl
of flow at inlet to the impeller, hence for the same speed,
the head, capacity and pump efficiency may be changed.
❑Rotor-Blade Pitch Adjustment: by changing the stagger
angle of rotor blades while running and is used only with
axial and diagonal rotors. 108
• Pump
Datasheets –
Centrifugal Type

109
• Efficiency of
Centrifugal
Pumps

110
• Performance Comparison of Pump Types

111
112
Activity
 Workshop Activity : 15 minutes
Reflect upon working principles and performance
enhancements
Activity

▪ Each group select a topic of

the 3 covered today (Steam
Turbines, Compressors,
Pumps)
▪ Discuss with your group some A C
proposed techniques to
improve energy efficiency
and performance in the
selected equipment.
▪ List down your suggestions
B
▪ Present your group work in
front of the whole audience.
 Electric Motors
• An electric motor is an electrical machine that
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most
electric motors operate through the interaction between
the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire
winding to generate force in the form of torque applied
on the motor's shaft.
• Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC)
sources, such as from batteries, or rectifiers, or
by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power
grid, inverters or electrical generators.
115
• Motor Systems’ Energy Use (Global)

116
• Motor Lifecycle Costs

117
• Motor Types

118
• Typical Torque Speed Curve – Induction
Motor

119
• Motor Losses

120
• Energy Efficient Induction Motors

121
• Efficiency Classification Standards in the World
– IEC 60034-30-1

122
 Typical Motor Nameplate Data

• Motor service factor (SF) is an indication of the ability to exceed the

mechanical power output rating on a sustained basis.
123
Electric Motor Datasheets

124
125
 Day 1 Assessment

• 15 MCQ to be solved online in 10 minutes.

• Link: https://forms.gle/dQcKn9AW3mmqF4Xd7

Purpose:
• Measure the ILOs of Day 1
• Pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses

Results and Conclusions

Conclusion of Day 1

Thank You !
Backup Slides

128
 Energy Efficiency
▪ Energy Efficiency - involves reducing energy
consumption per unit of production (Specific Energy
Consumption or SEC).
▪ Energy Efficiency Leads To:
➢ Improved profitability
➢ increased availability of energy sources for
incremental
➢ production output in terms of avoided energy
consumption.
➢ lower GHG emissions.
129
 Motivation

▪ Investments in energy efficiency (EE) in homes,

businesses, and other production facilities are a
proven and cost-effective strategy for meeting
electricity and thermal demands and avoiding
generation that would otherwise occur at
electricity generating units (EGUs) or usage of
extra fossil fuel resources.

130
Benefits of Energy Efficiency
Retrofitting vs. Replacement
Typical Energy Efficiency Methodology
 Preliminary Assessment
▪ 10 MCQ to be solved online in 10 minutes.
▪ Link: https://forms.gle/5m6meTXTT7TZzBmp6

Purpose:
▪ Measure the background information related SEUs (Boilers,
Fired Heaters, turbines, pumps, compressors, …)
▪ Pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses
▪ Deciding the pace of transition and the level of detail.

134
 Fired Heaters
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jtYZPtbJSH4

135
Fired Heaters, Classified by Fluid-Flow
Design

136
 Fired Heaters, Classified by Preheater
(Exchanger) Design

Key

1 fired heater
2 air
3 air preheater
4 induced-draught fan
5 flue gas
6 forced-draught fan
7 separate stack (alternative)

Balanced-draught APH system with

direct exchanger 137
 Fired Heaters, Classified by Preheater
(Exchanger) Design

Key
1 flue gas
2 induced-draught fan
3 fired heater
4 air
5 air preheater
6 forced-draught fan
7 heat medium

Balanced-draught APH
system with indirect
exchangers
138
 Fired Heaters, Classified by Preheater
(Exchanger) Design

Key
1 fired heater
2 air
3 air preheater
4 forced-draught fan
5 process or utility stream

Forced-draught APH system with

external-heat-source exchanger
139
 Further Classifications of Fired Heaters
▪ Classified by Based on structural configuration: cylindrical, box,
cabin and multi-cell box,
▪ Classified by Radiant tube coil configuration: vertical, horizontal,
helical and arbor.
▪ Classified by Burner arrangement: up-fired, down-fired and wall-
fired. The wall-fired arrangement can be further classified as
sidewall, endwall and multilevel.
▪ Classified by fluid-flow design: Balanced-draught APH system,
Forced-draught APH system, Induced-draught APH system
▪ Fired Heaters classified by APH (exchanger) design: Direct APH
systems, Indirect APH systems, and External Heat Source systems.
140
Typical Heater Types

141
Heater Components
Key
1 access door
2 arch
3 breeching
4 bridge wall
5 burner
6 casing
7 convection section
8 corbel
9 crossover
10 tubes
11 extended surface
12 return bend
13 header box
14 radiant section
15 shield section
16 observation door
17 tube support
18 refractory lining
19 end-tube sheet
20 pier
21 stack/duct
22 platform
23 process in
142
24 process out
 Energy Saving Boiler Components

Economizers and Air Preheaters

Economizers
143
 Sub-Critical vs. Super Critical Boilers

Drum Type Boilers Once-Through Boilers

• Pcr = 3206.2 psia (221.2 bar) , Tcr =705.40oF (374.15oC)
Burner Location for Boilers

145
Tangentially Fired Boilers

146
Economizers

147
Typical PFD for
Boilers

148
 Boiler Terminology (1/3)
▪ MCR (Maximum Continuous Rating)
Steam boilers rated output is also usually defined as MCR (Maximum
Continuous Rating). This is the maximum evaporation rate that can be
sustained for 24 hours and may be less than a shorter duration
maximum rating (e.g. Shoubra P. Station: 1072 ton/hr)

▪ Boiler Rating
Conventionally, boilers are specified by their capacity to hold water and
the steam generation rate. Often, the capacity to generate steam is
specified in terms of equivalent evaporation (kg of steam / hour at
100°C).

149
Boiler Terminology (2/3)
▪ Boiler Turndown
Boiler turndown is the ratio between full boiler output and
the boiler output when operating at low fire. Typical boiler
turndown is 4:1. The ability of the boiler to turndown reduces
frequent on and off cycling. Fully modulating burners are
typically designed to operate down to 25% of rated capacity

▪ Balanced Draught
The condition achieved when the pressure of the gas in a
furnace is the same as or slightly below that of the
atmosphere in the enclosure or building housing.
150
 Boiler Terminology (3/3)
▪ Blowdown
The removal of some quantity of water from the boiler in order
to achieve an acceptable concentration of dissolved and
suspended solids in the boiler water.

▪ Oxygen Trim Sensor

measures flue gas oxygen and a closed loop controller
compares the actual oxygen level to the desired oxygen level. The
air (or fuel) flow is trimmed by the controller until the oxygen level is
corrected. Oxygen Trim maintains the lowest possible burner
excess air level from low to high fire. Burners that don’t have
Oxygen Trim must run with Extra Excess Air to allow safe
operation during variations in weather, fuel, and linkage.
151
Water Wall

152
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjiUUJdPGX0

153
 Advantages of Gas Turbines
▪ Wide power range form fraction of Megawatts up to hundreds of
Megawatts
▪ High power to weight ratio
▪ Compact
▪ Fuel flexibility where it can use gaseous as well as liquid fuels
▪ No need for cooling water
▪ No vibration due to its rotatory design.
▪ Suitable for combined cycle and cogeneration
▪ Minimum environmental impact due to combustion at very lean
conditions
▪ Short delivery and quick to install 154
Disadvantages of Gas Turbines
▪ What do you think???

▪ Relatively low thermal efficiency when used as simple cycle

▪ Not suitable for solid fuels
▪ Power output as well as efficiency are sensitive to site
conditions

155
• Egypt’s New CCPP Mega Projects

156
New Capital CCPP (Siemens)

157
 Types of Cogeneration Cycles
Fuel Bottoming Cycle
Heat Industrial Use
Source (e.g. Furnace)

Engine Generator

Electrical
Energy

Topping Cycle
Thermal Energy
Heat Exchanger
Fuel (Hot gases, Steam, Hot
water)
Engine Generator
Electrical Energy
158
 Video: Steam Turbines
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPg7hOxFItI

159
Steam Turbine Rotors

160
 More Classifications of Steam Turbines

▪ Operating Principles: ▪ Exhaust Direction:

➢ Impulse: ➢axial
• Velocity Compound (Curtis Turbine) ➢Upward
• Pressure Compound ➢Downward
➢ Reaction
▪ Intermediate Steam
Supply/Extraction
▪ Number of Stages: ➢Induced turbine
➢ Single stage (De-laval impulse turbine) ➢Extraction turbine (i.e. controlled and
➢ Multistage (Rateau for impulse and un-controlled extraction)
Parsons for reaction turbines)

▪ Exhaust Pressure:
➢ Above atmospheric pressure (back
pressure turbines)
➢ Below atmospheric pressure
(condensing turbine)

161
162
• Multistage Centrifugal Compressor

163
• Multistage Centrifugal Compressor

164
• Rotary Vane Compressors

165
Compressor Off-Design
Conditions
• At the design point, the minimum energy loss takes place.
• At off-design conditions, the energy loss will be higher.
• So, the shape of characteristic curve deviates from the
straight line relation ship.
• Taking into consideration effect of leakage loss the curve is
shifted to the lift.
• Surge effects will limit the relationship at a certain
minimum value which represents the stability limit of
operation.
• Choking limits flow rate to a certain maximum value (on the
right hand side of the performance curve - stone wall). 166
167
 Surge
• The general shape of the characteristic curve for pressure
ratio as a function of mass flow rate at constant rotational
speed is a descending line.
• But, incidences increase with decreasing flow rate.
• So, boundary layer separation occurs below a certain flow
rate.
• The flow is then said to be stalled, meaning that the
compressor does not function properly anymore.
• During surge, a noisy and often violent flow process can
occur causing cyclic periods of backflow through the
compressor.
• Operation in surge not only drastically reduces the
performance of the compressor but can damage the
168
compressor and its installation.
• In stalled flow, the
tangential force of the
blade drops.
• This causes a
maximum in the
characteristic curve for
pressure ratio as a
function of flow rate.
• This maximum may be
very sharp.

169
Cell Propagation Mechanism

170
 Choking
• By reduction of the backpressure of a subsonic flow
compressor, the flow rate increases and all velocities increase
until sonic speed is attained in some through-flow section.
• With further reduction of the backpressure, the flow rate
then stays blocked.
• This phenomenon is called choking.
• The choking flow rate depends on the rotational speed, both
for choking within the rotor blade passages as for choking in
the stator vane passages.

171
Choking
Boundary

172
• Rotary Screw Compressor Cycles

173
• Compressor Performance Characteristics

174
• Compressor Capacity Regulation
Exit Valve Throttling Inlet Valve Throttling Variable Speed Drive

175
• Centrifugal Compressor Operating Range

176
• Inlet Conditions
• It’s very important to note that the performance curves for a
particular compressor are valid ONLY for the inlet condition
specified in the performance diagram for that compressor.

(Pressure Transducer Designation)

177
• Changing Operating Point

178
• Field Activity Normally Rated Varios Type of
Compressor

179
• Energy Transfer in the Pump Impeller

180
• Double Inlet (Suction) Single-Stage
Pumps

181
• Multistage Pumps

182
Pump Volute Casing

183
• Suction & Discharge Nozzles

184
 Pump Performance
• Since in actual
conditions, pumps
operate often at
fluctuating duty points
(off-design conditions),
it is quite important to
know the variation of H
(head) of a certain pump
at various values of flow
rate ∀,ሶ when running at
constant speed.
185
 Pump Capacity Regulation

• Discharge Throttling

186
• Speed Regulation

187
• Adjustable Guide Vanes

188
• Rotor-Blade Pitch Adjustment

189
• Pump Cavitation Factor

190
• Series & Parallel Pump Connections

New operating point

191
New operating point

192
 Pump Cavitation & NPSH
• In order to avoid cavitation and its harmful effects, the
minimum absolute pressure, in any point inside the
pump must be higher than the vapor pressure pv of the
pumped liquid at the ambient temperature.
• The difference between the absolute pressure at inlet
and the vapor pressure, is usually expressed as the
suction head or the "net positive suction head",
NPSH.
• The operating point of a pump can only be taken as a
point of continuous operation if NPSHav. NPSHreq.
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻
• The Thoma’s cavitation factor: 𝜎 =
𝐻𝑚 193
• Cavitation Damages

194
• Pump Applications

195
• Energy Efficient Induction Motors

196
• Motor types and applications

197
• Typical Power Factor vs. Motor Load%

198