Racial discrimination is a pervasive

issue that has deep historical roots

and continues to affect individuals and
communities worldwide. It
encompasses various forms of
prejudice, bias, and unequal treatment
based on race or ethnicity. This
discrimination manifests in systemic
inequalities, such as disparities in
access to education, employment
opportunities, healthcare, housing,
and criminal justice.

Historically, racial discrimination has

been institutionalized through laws
and policies that marginalized and
oppressed certain racial or ethnic
groups. Examples include segregation
laws, discriminatory immigration
policies, and racially biased policing
practices. While overt forms of racism
have decreased in many societies,
subtle and covert forms persist,
perpetuating social inequalities and
limiting opportunities for marginalized
groups.

Moreover, racial discrimination often

intersects with other forms of
discrimination, such as gender, class,
or sexuality, leading to compounded
disadvantage for individuals facing
multiple forms of oppression.
Efforts to address racial discrimination
include legal reforms, affirmative
action policies, diversity initiatives,
and advocacy for social justice.
However, systemic racism persists,
requiring ongoing collective action to
dismantle discriminatory structures
and foster a more inclusive and
equitable society.

Case studies

Sure, here are five case studies on

racial discrimination:

1. **Floyd v. City of New York (2013)**:

This class-action lawsuit challenged
the New York City Police Department's
stop-and-frisk policy, which
disproportionately targeted Black and
Latino individuals. The court ruled that
the policy violated the Fourth and
Fourteenth Amendments, constituting
racial profiling and discrimination.

The case of Floyd v. City of New York

centered around the New York City
Police Department's (NYPD) stop-
and-frisk policy, which allowed officers
to stop, question, and search
individuals they suspected of criminal
activity. The case alleged that the
policy disproportionately targeted
minorities, particularly African
Americans and Latinos, thus
constituting racial discrimination.

A federal judge ruled in 2013 that the

NYPD's stop-and-frisk practices
violated the Fourth Amendment's
prohibition against unreasonable
searches and seizures, as well as the
Equal Protection Clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment. The judge
found that the policy was implemented
in a manner that unjustly targeted
minority communities, leading to a
disproportionate number of stops and
searches of black and Latino
individuals compared to white
individuals.

The ruling in Floyd v. City of New York

highlighted the issue of racial profiling
and discrimination in law enforcement
practices and prompted calls for
reform within the NYPD and other
police departments across the
country.

2. **University of California v. Bakke

(1978)**: Allan Bakke, a white
applicant, sued the University of
California, Davis, for racial
discrimination after being denied
admission to its medical school. The
Supreme Court ruled that while the
use of racial quotas in admissions was
unconstitutional, race could be
considered as one of many factors in
the admissions process.

The University of California v. Bakke

case, decided by the Supreme Court in
1978, centered on the issue of
affirmative action in university
admissions. Allan Bakke, a white
applicant, was denied admission to the
University of California, Davis Medical
School, twice, despite having strong
qualifications. Bakke argued that the
school's admissions policy, which set
aside a specific number of spots for
minority applicants, discriminated
against him based on his race.

The Supreme Court ruled in a complex

decision, with no majority opinion.
However, the court held that racial
quotas in admissions were
unconstitutional. It concluded that
while race could be considered as one
of many factors in admissions
decisions, strict quotas based solely
on race were impermissible. This
decision affirmed the principle of
diversity in higher education but set
limits on how race could be used as a
factor in admissions.

3. **Brown v. Board of Education

(1954)**: This landmark case
challenged the segregation of public
schools in the United States. The
Supreme Court ruled that segregation
was inherently unequal and violated
the Equal Protection Clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment, leading to the
desegregation of schools across the
country.

Brown v. Board of Education was a

landmark Supreme Court case in 1954
that challenged racial segregation in
public schools. It overturned the
"separate but equal" doctrine
established in Plessy v. Ferguson
(1896), which allowed racially
segregated facilities as long as they
were deemed equal. In Brown v. Board
of Education, the Court ruled
unanimously that racial segregation in
public schools was unconstitutional
because it violated the Fourteenth
Amendment's Equal Protection Clause.
This decision marked a significant
victory in the civil rights movement
and set a precedent for desegregation
efforts in other areas of society.

4. **Shelley v. Kraemer (1948)**: This

case involved a racially restrictive
covenant on property in St. Louis,
Missouri, which prohibited the sale of
the property to non-white individuals.
The Supreme Court ruled that state
enforcement of such covenants was
unconstitutional, although private
parties could still voluntarily agree to
them.

Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) was a

landmark case in which the United
States Supreme Court ruled that
racially restrictive covenants, which
prohibited the sale of property to
certain racial groups, were
unenforceable in the courts. The case
involved an African American family,
the Shelleys, who purchased a home
in a white neighborhood in St. Louis,
Missouri, but were sued by white
property owners attempting to enforce
a racially restrictive covenant. The
Supreme Court's decision declared
such covenants unconstitutional, as
they violated the Equal Protection
Clause of the 14th Amendment. This
case played a significant role in
challenging racial segregation in
housing and set a precedent for future
civil rights legislation.

5. **Mendez v. Westminster (1947)**:

Sylvia Mendez, a Mexican-American
child, was denied admission to a
"whites-only" school in California. The
case challenged school segregation in
California and paved the way for the
desegregation of schools in the state,
preceding the Brown v. Board of
Education decision.
The Mendez v. Westminster case in
1947 was a landmark legal battle that
challenged racial segregation in
schools in California. The case was
brought by five Mexican-American
families who sued several school
districts in Orange County for
segregating their children into
separate "Mexican schools."

The court ruled in favor of the

plaintiffs, stating that segregating
Mexican-American students into
separate schools solely based on their
ethnicity violated the Equal Protection
Clause of the 14th Amendment to the
U.S. Constitution. This decision helped
pave the way for the eventual
desegregation of schools nationwide
and was a significant victory in the
fight against racial discrimination in
education.