LWT - Food Science and Technology 153 (2022) 112517

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LWT
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Incorporation of leek powder (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum) in wheat

bread: Technological implications, shelf life and sensory evaluation
Nathalie Bernaert a, Els Debonne b, c, Ingrid De Leyn b, Bart Van Droogenbroeck a, Filip Van
Bockstaele d, *
a
Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Product Quality and Innovation Research Group, Burg. Van
Gansberghelaan 115, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
b
Ghent University, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Research Unit Cereal and Feed Technology, Valentin
Vaerwyckweg 1, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
c
Ghent University, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Laboratory of Applied Mycology (MYCOLAB), Valentin
Vaerwyckweg 1, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
d
Ghent University, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Food Structure and Function Research Group, Coupure Links
653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, the incorporation of leek in wheat bread was explored. Green leek leaves were dried with two
Leek techniques to obtain leek powder after milling. The air-dried and freeze-dried powders were incorporated into
Dough rheology wheat flour at five substitution levels (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 g/100 g). The impact of leek powder on dough
Wheat bread
rheology, bread quality, sensory evaluation and mould-free shelf-life was investigated. Leek powder negatively
Mould-free shelf life
Sensory evaluation
impacted the mixing properties and significantly changed the viscoelastic properties of the wheat flour dough. At
low levels, the dough was strengthened whereas at higher levels both dough resistance as extensibility decreased.
Bread quality was also affected, resulting in lower bread volume and coarser crumb structure. The negative
impact on dough and bread properties was more pronounced for freeze-dried powder. The result of the sensory
study showed that wheat flour could be fortified by 1 g/100 g of leek powder without adverse effect on the
consumer acceptability. Finally, the addition of leek powder did not impact the mould-free shelf-life of wheat
bread.

1. Introduction with the health-promoting effects of the Allium species (Kumari,

Leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum) is one of the most important
vegetables cultivated outdoors in Western Europe. In Belgium, it
accounted in 2019 for 6% of the vegetable cultivation area (Statbel,
2021) with a production of 152 340 tons which corresponds to 20% of
EU production (Eurostat, 2021). Leek is grown for its cylindrical
pseudo-stem, which is blanched white from growing underground and is
comprised of long leaf bases. Allium species have been recognized as rich
sources of secondary metabolites, such as polyphenolic compounds
including phenolic acids, flavonoids and flavonoid polymers; which
have been documented to possess health benefits (Augusti, 1990; Gro­
tewold, 2006; Shon, Choi, Kahng, Nam, & Sung, 2004; Singh et al.,
2009). Organosulfur compounds, which are responsible for the charac­
teristic taste, aroma and lachrymatory effects, have also been associated
Mathew, & Augusti, 1995; Lanzotti, 2006; Romanramos, Floressaenz, &
Alarconaguilar, 1995; Singh et al., 1998; Xiao, Pinto, Gundersen, &
Weinstein, 2005).
Despite their valuable bioactive compound profile (Bernaert et al.,
2012), a large portion of the green leek leaves remains unused. Green
leek leaves are tough and bitter, which limits their culinary use as
compared to the white leek shaft. Two fractions of the unused green
leaves can be distinguished. The first fraction is cut on the field during
harvest (industry), while a second fraction is removed during process­
ing. One possible way to stabilize and valorize this large quantity of
valuable plant biomass could be through drying. Fresh leek contains
85–87 g water per 100 g, but for preservation water levels must be below
15 g per 100 g (Diaz-Maroto, Perez-Coello, & Cabezudo, 2002). Drying is
one of the ancient and most efficient ways to preserve food. When food is

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: els.debonne@ugent.be (N. Bernaert), filip.vanbockstaele@ugent.be (F. Van Bockstaele).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112517
Received 23 June 2021; Received in revised form 20 September 2021; Accepted 22 September 2021
Available online 23 September 2021
0023-6438/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
N. Bernaert et al.
dried, its water activity lowers, which in turn inhibits microbial growth
and slows down degrading reactions, thereby enhancing stability.
Air-drying is the most extensively used drying method, which involves
blowing hot air through the plant material to remove surface moisture
(Gowen et al., 2006). Air-drying is generally favored due to its low cost
(Katsube, Tsurunaga, Sugiyama, Furuno, & Yamasaki, 2009). Although
very common, this method involves high temperatures and long pro­
cessing times, which causes losses in nutritional value and sensory
properties of foods (Ratti, 2001). Freeze-drying (FD) is a multi-step
process that employs freezing, sublimation and desorption.
Freeze-dried products are known to have high quality, because this
process preserves bioactive compounds, color, texture and flavor. The
solid state of water during freeze-drying protects the primary structure
and the shape of the products with minimal reduction in volume.
Freeze-drying is one of the most expensive drying technologies, because
it uses a vacuum step, sub-zero temperatures and a long drying time
(Hammami & Rene, 1997; Khalloufi & Ratti, 2003). Bernaert (2013)
reported the nutritive value of air-dried and freeze-dried leek powder
and concluded that the health promoting sulphur compounds S-alk(en)
yl cysteine sulfoxides (ACSOs) such as isoalliin and methiin were
significantly more present in freeze-dried samples compared to air-dried
leek. Air-dried leek leaves contained approximately a quart of the iso­
allin content, and half of the methiin concentration, which is due to the
heat sensitivity of the ACSOs.
Bread is the main source of energy for humans in many parts of the
world. This makes bread an interesting food vehicle to augment the
intake of bioactive compounds. However, incorporating vegetable-
based ingredients into bread dough causes changes in water absorp­
tion, dough rheology and bread structure (Mastromatteo, Danza, Guida,
& Del Nobile, 2012). Limited studies are available with regard to the
incorporation of leek powder into bread. Seguchi and Abe (2004)
applied leek powder (A. ampeloprasum L.) in breadmaking and found a
positive impact on breadmaking properties such as bread height and
specific volume at 0.5 g/100 g substitution level. Higher levels caused a
decrease of bread height and volume.
The aim of this study was to investigate the application potential of
leek powder in breadmaking. To reach this aim, this investigation
included dough rheology characterization, baking trials, shelf life tests
and sensory evaluation. The leek powder was produced from green leek
leaves by using two drying techniques, air-drying and freeze-drying. In
this way the impact of the drying conditions on the functional properties
of the leek powder could also be investigated.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Leek powder
Green leek leaves (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum) were obtained
from a local leek grower (Fracha BVBA, Meulebeke, Belgium). The
leaves were rinsed with water, chopped into 1 cm2 pieces and then either
air-dried (AD) or freeze-dried (FD). Air-drying was performed with a
vertical air flow at 70 ◦ C during 7 h (Dörrex 0075, Stöckli, Netstal,
Switzerland). The drying conditions were selected based on the results of
Bernaert (2013). The chopped leek leaves were placed on four trays,
piled on top of each other at a thickness of 5 cm of plant material. For
freeze-drying, the chopped leek samples were stored in bags at − 80 ◦ C
(New Brunswick, Rotselaar, Belgium) and freeze-dried for 5 days
(Martin Christ, Osterode am Harz, Denmark). Afterwards, the dried
samples were milled to pass through a 1 mm sieve (Fritsch, Rotterdam,
the Netherlands). De dried sample pieces were milled by a Fritsch rotor
mill coupled with a cyclone, making use of a 1 mm sieve.
2.1.2. Wheat flour
For all dough and bread experiments in this study a commercial
breadmaking wheat flour (Triticum aestivum L.) (Eurobloem B) with no
2
LWT 153 (2022) 112517
added flour improvers was used (Paniflower, Merksem, Belgium). The
flour had the following specifications: max 15.5 g water/100 g flour,
11.5 g protein/100 g dry matter, max 0.68 g ash/100 g dry matter.
2.2. Leek characteristics
Leek powders were analyzed by an accredited lab for their macro and
micronutrients according to official methods. The analyses included
moisture (ISO 1442), ash (ISO 936), protein (Nx6.25, ISO 1871), fat
(Weibull, ISO 1433), dietary fiber (ASL00.00.18) and salt
(ASL07.00.56).
2.3. Flour and dough characteristics
FD and AD leek powder were blended into the wheat flour at sub­
stitution levels of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 g leek powder/100 g wheat
flour.
2.3.1. Hagberg falling number
The α-amylase activity was determined using Hagberg’s falling
number method according to the standard AACC approved method
56–81.03 (Perten Instruments, Stockholm, Sweden). The falling number
is defined as the time in seconds required to stir and allow a viscometer
stirrer to fall a measured distance through a hot aqueous meal, flour or
starch gel undergoing liquefaction due to α-amylase activity.
2.3.2. Water absorption and kneading properties
The impact of the leek powder on the water absorption and kneading
properties of the wheat dough were determined using a Farinograph
equipped with a mixing bowl of 300 g (Farinograph-E, Brabender GmbH
& Co. K.G., Duisburg, Germany) according to ICC standard method no.
115/1. The water absorption was adapted to reach maximum consis­
tency at 500 Farinograph units (FU). From the farinogram the following
dough kneading properties were derived: dough development time
(min), stability (min) and softening (FU).
2.3.3. Chopin Alveograph
The viscoelastic properties of the dough were evaluated with an
Alveograph NG (Chopin, Tripette et Renaud, Villeneuve La Garenne,
France) using the standard AACC approved method 54-30 (AACC,
2000). The alveogram characteristics were automatically recorded by
the Alveolink-NG software program. The characteristics obtained were:
dough tenacity (P), extensibility (L) and deformation energy (W).
2.4. Bread making procedure
The bread making procedure was based on Van Bockstaele, De Leyn,
Eeckhout, and Dewettinck (2008). The reference bread dough formula
contained wheat flour (2.4 kg, 14 g moisture per 100 g), dry instant
yeast (Algist Bruggeman, levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae)(1 g per 100 g
flour), salt (1.5 g per 100 g flour), ascorbic acid (0.025 g per 100 g flour)
and malt flour (0.21 g per 100 g flour). On a flour weight basis, 58.9 g of
tap water per 100 g flour was added as determined based on the Far­
inograph water absorption. When including leek powder, wheat flour
was partially replaced by the leek powder at percentages of 0.5, 1.0 and
1.5 g per 100 g flour and dry blended on beforehand. The ingredients
were mixed in a De Danieli spiral mixer (Verhoest Machinery) for 7 min
and dough was placed to rest for 10 min in a proofing cabinet (Pan­
imatic) at 30 ◦ C and 80–90% relative humidity. After the first rise, the
dough was divided (8 × 400 g and 3 × 175 g) and rounded with a
Brabender Rounder. The dough pieces were placed back into the
proofing cabinet for 30 min. After this, the doughs were punched,
molded and placed in greased metal baking tins (4 open and 4 closed
pans) (dimensions: length (bottom: 14.5 cm; top: 16.5 cm) x width
(bottom: 9 cm; top: 10 cm) x height (6 cm)) or on a U-shaped baking
plate (dough pieces of 175 g). After a fermentation time of 65 min, the
N. Bernaert et al.
Table 1
Evaluated descriptors and their scale explanation as used in the sensory
evaluation.
Descriptor Scale
0 10
Visual acceptability Unattractive Attractive
Crust color Too light Too dark
Crumb color Unattractive Attractive
Odor Unattractive Attractive
Taste Not tasty Tasty
Leek taste Unpleasant Pleasant
Mouth feeling Too dry Too wet
breads were baked in the oven (MIWE aeromat FB12) for 30 min (240
mL steam, 14 min at 230 ◦ C, 13 min at 200 and 3 min at 190 ◦ C during
which the steam valve was opened).
2.5. Bread evaluation
2.5.1. Technological evaluation
Both dough and bread weight (before and after baking) were recor­
ded using a KERN balance (±0.01 g). Bread volume was measured by a
Volscan Profiler 600 (Stable Micro Systems) (open pan breads). Gas cell
counts and sizes (mm2) were derived as described by Debonne, De Leyn,
et al. (2018) (open pan breads). Color images of bread slices (12 per
condition) obtained using a HP Scanjet 2400 digital flatbed scanner (HP,
California, USA) and subsequently processed using in house image
processing scripts. Color parameters of bread crumb and crust (CIE L*,
a*, b*) of the open pan breads were measured using a CM700d/600d
spectrophotometer (D65) (Konica Minolta), after standardization with a
white calibration plate. Color was expressed as L*, a*, and b*, indicating
luminosity, chromaticity on a green (− ) to red (+) axis, and chroma­
ticity on a blue (− ) to yellow (+) axis, respectively. Further, ΔE was
measured as follows: ΔE = sqrt(ΔL2 + Δa2 + Δb2). Texture of the bread
crumb was evaluated with a TA.XTplus Texture Analyzer with a 5 kg
load cell. A texture profile analysis (TPA) was performed on the crumb of
the closed pan breads to determine hardness and springiness. Three
slices of bread with a thickness of 9 mm each were piled on the platform.
A cylindrical metal probe (36 mm) compressed the crumb two times
over a distance of 11 mm, with a test speed of 1.7 mm/s. The
TPA-analysis was performed on day 1 and 4 after baking with storage at
room temperature (22 ± 1 ◦ C) in closed plastic bags (PA/PE/20/70) (PA:
polyamide; PE: polyethylene; 90 μm).
2.5.2. Mould shelf life
After baking, the breads for the challenge test with bread moulds
Aspergillus niger (P1118) and Penicillium paneum Frisvad (IHEM 6652)
were placed under a sterile flow cabinet. The preparation of the fungal
spore suspensions as well as the procedure for the challenge test were
identical to (Debonne, Van Bockstaele, De Leyn, Devlieghere, &
Eeckhout, 2018) Per baking test, three breads were divided in 8 pieces,
to obtain 6 replicates per baking test, per mould and per inoculation spot
(crust or crumb). All breads were individually packaged under air at­
mosphere in sealed plastic bags (PA/PE/20/70) (PA: polyamide; PE:
polyethylene; 90 μm) and stored at 22 ◦ C till visible mould spoilage.
2.5.3. Sensory analysis
On the same day of the baking tests, sensory analyses were organized
in the sensory lab of ILVO (Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries
Research, Merelbeke, Belgium), conform with ISO 8589:2007. Pan
breads made with different levels of AD and FD leek powder (0, 0.5, 1.0
and 1.5 g per 100 g flour) were sliced to obtain slices about 1.5 cm thick,
coded with a number and served to 31 semi-trained panelists. An
informed consent letter was signed by each participant. The study was
approved by the Ethics Committee of ILVO and Ghent University.
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LWT 153 (2022) 112517
Table 2
Compositional analysis of air-dried (AD) and freeze-dried (FD) leek powder. All
data expressed per 100 g leek powder.
AD FD
Moisture (g) 8.5 6.7
Ash (g) 8.07 8.05
Protein (g) 14.8 15.1
Fat (g) 1.4 1.2
Dietary fiber (g) 32.7 31.9
Salt (g) 0.16 0.16
Different descriptors were studied as indicated in Table 1 and in addi­
tion, an overall ranking was asked.
2.6. Statistical analysis
All experiments were conducted in triplicate and the mean values
and standard deviations are reported. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
performed by the SPSS statistical software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA).
When applicable, the treatment effects are compared using one-way
ANOVA, followed by Tukey or Dunnett T3 (in case of non-
homoscedasticity) post-hoc tests. The Duncan test was used for results
of the sensory analyses for the different descriptors, for the ranking, the
Friedman test was performed. Differences of p < 0.05 were considered
significant. To assess significant differences for among AD and FD leek
powder at similar substitution levels, a t-test was applied (p < 0.05). The
Scheffé test was performed to analyze the significant differences be­
tween data (p < 0.05). To explore relationships between variables, the
Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was calculated at p < 0.01 (**).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Leek powder characteristics
Table 2 summarizes the composition of AD and FD leek powder. The
macronutrient levels were found to be in the same range for both type of
powders.
3.2. Impact of leek powder on the flour and dough characteristics
Fig. 1 shows the effect of AD and FD leek powder on the mixing
profile and the viscoelastic properties of bread dough respectively
determined by the Brabender Farinograph and the Chopin Alveograph.
The derived parameters obtained from the farinogram and alveogram
are summarized in Table 3.
In the Farinograph mixing tests, water addition was adjusted to work
at constant consistency. Incorporation of leek powder up to 2 g per 100 g
flour in the flour blend increased the water absorption significantly from
57.3 to 58.1 g per 100 g, indicating a higher water absorption capacity of
the blends (>0.5 g leek powder per 100 g flour). Similar effects were
observed for AD and FD leek powder. As leek is rich in dietary fiber,
incorporating leek powder into wheat flour increased the water ab­
sorption of dough because more water binding was created through
hydrogen bonding. Similarly, increased water absorption was reported
when mango peel powder and tomato or apple pomace were blended
into wheat flour and mixed into a dough (Ajila, Leelavathi, & Rao, 2008;
Majzoobi, Ghavi, Farahnaky, Jamalian, & Mesbahi, 2011; Sudha, Bas­
karan, & Leelavathi, 2007). Dough development time was not impacted
but the incorporation of leek powder in the wheat flour blend clearly
changed the mixing profile. The reference curve shows a maximum at a
mixing time of 2 min after which the dough consistency gradually de­
creases upon further mixing. Addition of leek powder provokes the
appearance of a second peak maximum which is situated between 5 and
7 min of mixing. After reaching the second peak maximum, leek addition
generally results in a sharper dough breakdown upon further mixing
compared to the reference. Differences in mixing profile can be observed
N. Bernaert et al. LWT 153 (2022) 112517

Fig. 1. Farinograph (A,B) and alveograph (C,D) profiles as influenced by the incorporation of air-dried [A,C] and freeze-dried [B,D] leek powder in concentrations of
0 (REF). 0.5. 1. 1.5 and 2% (% or g/100 g wheat flour).

Table 3
Impact of air-dried (AD) and freeze-dried (FD) leek powder on dough properties: farinograph parameters [water absorption (WA); dough development time (DDT).
dough stability (STAB) and dough softening (SOFT)]; alveograph parameters [resistance to extension or tenacity (P), dough extensibility (L) and deformation energy
(W)] and falling number (FN)* (n = 3).
Farinograph Alveograph FN

Conc. WA DDT STAB SOFT P L W

(g/100 flour) (%) (min) (min) (FU) (mmH2O) (mm) (10− 4J) s
a a a
AD 0.0 57.3 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.3 5.8 ± 0.5 49 ±3b 92 ± 2 d 84 ±5e 255 ± 6e 308 ± 11 a
a a c
0.5 57.5 ± 0.2 1.9 ± 0.3 9.3 ± 0.4 29 ±6a 101 ± 2 e 73 ± 3 d,e 247 ± 2e 313 ± 6a
b a b
1.0 57.9 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.1 7.3 ± 0.3 49 ±5b 96 ± 1 d,e 71 ±1d 212 ± 3d 306 ± 10 a
b a a
1.5 58.2 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.1 6.3 ± 0.1 66 ±2c 92 ± 2 d 69 ± 5 c,d 176 ± 8c 314 ± 10 a
b a a
2.0 58.1 ± 0.1 2.0 ± 0.3 6.1 ± 0.1 71 ±1c 83 ± 4 c 57 ± 6 b,c 134 ± 15 b,c 300 ± 9a

a a a
FD 0.0 57.3 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.3 5.8 ± 0.5 49 ±3b 92 ± 2d 84 ±5e 255 ± 6 e 308 ± 11 a
a a b
0.5 57.7 ± 0.1 2.2 ± 0.1 7.2 ± 0.3 54 ±5b 98 ± 2e 63 ± 2 c,d 187 ± 3 c 305 ± 3 a,b
b a a
1.0 57.8 ± 0.2 1.9 ± 0.1 6.2 ± 0.2 84 ±3d 77 ± 2b 51 ±2b 110 ± 4 b,c 291 ± 6 a,b,c
b a a
1.5 58.1 ± 0.2 2.3 ± 0.2 5.7 ± 0.2 90 ±9d 69 ± 1a 42 ±2a 83 ± 5 a 288 ± 7 b,c
b a a
2.0 58.1 ± 0.2 2.1 ± 0.2 5.6 ± 0.2 97 ±5d 69 ± 1a 46 ± 5 a,b 85 ± 4 a 278 ± 8c
a-e
Values in the same column followed by different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05).

between AD and FD powder. Addition of FD leek powder leads to a more
pronounced second peak and a faster decrease of the dough consistency
upon further mixing. These changes in mixing profile were also reported
by Seguchi and Abe (2004), which they interpreted as increased dough
strength. Our hypothesis, however, is that leek powder addition
weakens the dough structure in such a way that dough stickiness is
increased. Dough with leek powder sticks more to the mixer walls after a
few minutes of mixing resulting in more resistance on the mixing blades
observed as an increase in dough consistency. Dough stickiness is mostly
observed when the water content of a dough is too high or when a dough
is overmixed. The presence of increased dough stickiness was also
observed by interrupting the mixing process at the second peak and
manually evaluating the mixed dough.
At small quantities (0.5 g per 100 g flour) of AD and FD leek powder
incorporation, dough stability increased significantly compared to the
reference. At higher amounts, dough stability time decreased again but
never below the reference level due to the appearance of the second
peak maximum. Dough stability time is an indication of the ability of the
dough to resist mixing without losing its maximum consistency of 500
BU (Majzoobi et al., 2011). Ajila et al. (2008) reported only a decrease in
dough stability after the addition of mango peel powder. Dough soft­
ening usually is inversely related to dough stability (Van Bockstaele
et al., 2008). This is also the case for these tests (r = -0.77**). Softening
increased upon the incorporation of leek powder but only from a con­
centration of 1.5 g per 100 g flour and 1 g per 100 g flour for AD and FD
powder respectively. Addition of 0.5 g per 100 g flour of AD leek powder
even decreased dough softening significantly compared to the reference.
Dough stability was clearly affected by the leek drying method. For
every concentration, FD leek powder resulted in a significantly lower
dough stability time and a significantly higher softening compared to AD

4
N. Bernaert et al.
Fig. 2. Fermentation height (mm), oven rise (%) and specific volume (g/mL) of pan bread and form ratio H/W (− ) of plate bread baked with air-dried (AD) and
freeze-dried (FD) leek powder at 0.5. 1 and 1.5 g per 100 g wheat flour incorporation compared to the reference bread without leek powder. (a-d Values followed by
different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05)) (n = 4).
leek powder (t-test, p < 0.05).
In bread making, the rheological and more specifically the visco­
elastic properties of the bread dough are of uppermost importance. The
rheological properties determine the machinability of the dough during
dividing/molding and the ability of the dough to expand during proof­
ing. From Fig. 1 (C-D) it can be observed that the leek powder has a
pronounced effect on the alveogram profiles. The resistance to extension
or tenacity P corresponds to the maximum peak in the alveogram.
Addition of 0.5 g leek powder per 100 g flour (both AD and FD) resulted
in a significant increase in P indicating an increase in dough resistance
against deformation. Increasing the levels of leek powder however
reduced dough resistance especially when applying FD leek powder.
Also, the leek powder resulted in a significant decrease of the dough
extensibility except for 0.5 g AD powder per 100 g flour. FD powder
resulted in a more pronounced decrease than AD powder. From these
findings, we hypothesize that the reduction in dough tenacity indicates a
weakened gluten network. This is clearly illustrated by the deformation
energy W which is calculated as the area under the alveograph curve
taking into account both changes is P and L. Addition of leek powder
results in a reduction of W, except for 0.5 g AD powder per 100 g flour.
Up to 1.5 g per 100 g flour incorporation, increasing levels lead to lower
values for W. In all cases, FD powder also results in lower W values
compared to AD powder at the same concentration.
The Hagberg falling number was determined to identify possible
impact of the leek powder to the amylase activity in the wheat flour. For
breadmaking, most wheat flours are standardized to a falling number of
250 s. AD leek powder did not influence the falling number (Table 3). In
contrast, FD powder decreased the falling number significantly from a
substitution level of 1.5 g per 100 g flour onwards compared to the
reference. At levels of 1.5 and 2 g leek powder per 100 g flour, AD
powder significantly differed from FD powder. These results indicate
that during air-drying (70 ◦ C during 7 h) inactivation occurred of
enzymatic activity in the leek powder.
It has been well documented that edible Allium species such as onion,
garlic and leek are a rich source of phytonutrients and possess of a wide
range of biological activities such as anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial and
health promoting effects. The biological activities are related to the
presence of the thiosulfinates and related sulphur components
5
LWT 153 (2022) 112517
(Benkeblia & Lanzotti, 2007). The presence of sulphur containing amino
acids and peptides such as cysteine and glutathione may thus act as a
redox agent in bread dough (Seguchi & Abe, 2003). From our results, it
is clear that leek powder obtained from the green leek leaves has very
pronounced effects on the rheological properties of bread dough. The
Farinograph data showed that the water absorption capacity increased
and that the mixing profile was altered resulting is an apparent increase
of dough stability during mixing. Manual evaluation of the dough,
however, revealed also an increase in dough stickiness. These results
correspond to Seguchi and Abe (2004), however they concluded that the
increase in dough stability was due to the presence of dimethyl disul­
phide which may enhance disulphide formation among gluten proteins
by oxidation. Although this hypothesis was supported by an increase in
the high molecular weight (HMW) protein fraction in the dough with
0.5 g leek powder per 100 g flour after 30 min of mixing, this did not
relate to the Farinograph mixing curves, as a lower bandwidth for the
leek dough was observed at the time of sampling (30 min mixing),
indicating a weaker dough structure. In general, it seems that leek
powder negatively impacts the rheological properties as noticed by
increased dough stickiness, higher sensitivity to overmixing and
decreased extensibility. Similarly, addition of garlic to a bread formula
resulted in a decrease of dough strength and rapid breakdown during
mixing (Rao, Savithri, & Indrani, 1992).
3.3. Breadmaking trials
3.3.1. Bread quality
Baking trials were performed on representative scale using a stan­
dardized baking procedure with fixed water absorption and dough
mixing time. The height of the dough was measured as an indication of
dough expansion capacity and stability during fermentation. From Fig. 2
it can be observed that addition of AD powder led to an increase of the
fermentation height (only significant for 1 g per 100 g flour) whereas for
FD powder no positive impact was found. In contrast to better or con­
stant fermentation capacity, oven rise was negatively influenced by leek
powder addition. Doughs containing leek powder, seemed not to be able
to withstand the fast expansion occurring in the beginning of the baking
process and even showed collapse at concentrations higher than 1 g per
N. Bernaert et al. LWT 153 (2022) 112517

Fig. 3. Pictures of bread slices and corresponding close-up of the bread crumb structure for breads with incorporated air-dried (AD) and freeze-dried (FD) leek
powder at 0 (REF), 0.5. 1 and 1.5 g per 100 g wheat flour.

Table 4
Results of analysis of pan bread containing air-dried (AD) or freeze-dried (FD) leek powder (gas cell distribution: total number of gas cells. mean size of gas cells
(pixels2), area gas cells/total area (%) (n = 12)), color difference ΔE of crust or crumb compared to reference and bread texture (crumb hardness (ga), hardness increase
during storage (Δ) and springiness (− ) measured on days 1 and 4 after baking (n = 8)).
Gas cell distribution ΔE

Conc. (g/100 g Total no. of gas Mean size of gas Area gas cells/ crust crumb Hardness 1 Hardness 4 Δ Springiness Springiness
flour) cells cells total area 1 4
a a
REF 0.0 454 ± 60 141 ± 14 0.176 ± 0.017 a – – 823 ± 34 a,b,c 1486 ± 99 a,b 663 0.91 ± 0.02 a 0.89 ± 0.01 a

a
AD 0.5 461 ± 24 153 ± 7 a,b 0.195 ± 0.011 b,c 4.6 5.6 849 ± 46 a,b,c 1405 ± 99 b, 556 0.91 ± 0.01 a 0.89 ± 0.02 a
c,d
a b,c
1.0 469 ± 30 163 ± 12 0.212 ± 0.013 d 8.8 8.6 780 ± 43 a,c
1323 ± 57 d 543 0.90 ± 0.02 a 0.89 ± 0.03 a
a c
1.5 451 ± 34 170 ± 15 0.212 ± 0.007 d 13.6 11.6 873 ± 41 b
1357 ± 65 c,d 484 0.89 ± 0.01 a 0.88 ± 0.03 a

a a,b
FD 0.5 443 ± 51 151 ± 11 0.185 ± 0.018 a,b 3.7 6.5 768 ± 66 a,c 1465 ± 72 b,c 697 0.90 ± 0.02 a 0.89 ± 0.03 a
a b,c
1.0 450 ± 51 158 ± 12 0.196 ± 0.012 b,c, 6.2 11.9 869 ± 61 a,b,c 1426 ± 78 b, 557 0.89 ± 0.02 a 0.91 ± 0.03 a
d c,d
a b,c
1.5 469 ± 37 159 ± 10 0.207 ± 0.01 c,d 11.9 13.7 908 ± 119 a,
1587 ± 62 a 679 0.88 ± 0.02 a 0.89 ± 0.04 a
b,c

a-d
Values in the same column followed by different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05).
a
1 g = 9.80665 m/s.2.

100 g flour. This resulted in a decreased specific volume of the pan bread
from 1.5 g per 100 g flour (AD) and 1 g per 100 g flour (FD) leek powder
incorporation. Further, plate bread was even more negatively affected as
all leek powder concentrations led to a decrease in form ratio (H/W)
mainly due to a combination of increased width and decreased height.
As such, plate bread is more sensitive to changes in dough rheology
which were already shown to occur from 0.5 g per 100 g flour incor­
poration. Overall, a negative impact was found for leek powder incor­
poration higher than 0.5 g per 100 g flour. Seguchi and Abe (2004)
described that leek powder improved the bread-making properties such
as bread height and specific volume up to a substitution level of 0.75 g
per 100 g flour with maximum bread volume occurring at 0.5 g per 100 g
flour. However, the leek powder had a huge effect on crumb color,
which turned intense green.
Pictures of pan bread slices are shown in Fig. 3. Results of the
analysis of the gas cell distribution, crumb color and crumb texture are
summarized in Table 4. The gas cell distribution of the center crumb
indicated an increase of the gas cell area over total crumb area ratio
upon leek incorporation. Combined with a constant total number of gas
cells, this meant an increase in average gas cell size, significant for leek
powder concentrations from 1 g per 100 g flour. AD and FD powder
showed similar impact on gas cell properties. Combined with the pic­
tures in Fig. 3, it can be concluded that leek incorporation leads to more
coarse crumb structure.
Concerning color, it can be clearly seen in Fig. 3 that leek powder
affects crumb color, especially from the 1 g per 100 g flour level. Already
at a level of 0.5 g per 100 g flour, ΔE are found between 3.7 (FD) and 4.6
(AD) which is clearly noticeable for the human eye (Habeych, van
Kogelenberg, Sagalowicz, Michiel & Galaffu, 2016). Higher levels of
incorporation resulted in higher color differences. Further, AD leek
powder impacted crust color more whereas the impact on crumb color
was reverse.
Texture of bread crumb was assessed by texture profile analysis to
obtain crumb hardness and springiness. To minimize the impact of bread
volume on texture, the tests were performed on closed pan breads. No
significant differences in initial hardness were found on day 1 after
baking between the leek fortified breads and the reference. After 4 days,
crumb hardness had increased for all breads but, surprisingly, the
hardness increase was significantly lower for the breads containing 1
and 1.5 g AD powder per 100 g flour, meaning that staling was delayed
during storage. This was not observed for the FD powder. Springiness of
the crumb was not significantly affected by leek powder addition.
3.3.2. Mould shelf life
In order to determine the impact of the leek powder on the mould
free shelf life, challenge tests were set up. The pH (5.61–5.67) and aw
(0.974–0.976) of all bread crumbs could be regarded as constant. No
significant influence of mould species inoculated on the crust (p =
0.521) and no significant influence of the addition of leek powder added
in concentrations of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 g per 100 g flour on the shelf life of
bread crumb were observed (pcrust = 0.256; pcrumb = 0.649). The only
factors that impacted the shelf life were the type of mould inoculated on
the bread crumb (p = 0.000) and the inoculation spot (crust or crumb).
On bread crumb, growth of P. paneum was faster visible compared to

6
N. Bernaert et al. LWT 153 (2022) 112517

Table 5
Organoleptic properties of bread made with different levels of dried leek powder (air-dried (AD) or freeze-dried (FD)).
Conc (g/100 g flour) Visual Crust color Crumb color Odor Taste Leek taste Mouth feel Sum of ranks
d a a d c c a
AD 0.0 7.4 ± 1.7 4.5 ± 1.1 6.7 ± 2.2 7.3 ± 1.8 6.6 ± 1.9 6.8 ± 2.2 4.4 ± 1.3 65 a
c,d a a c b,c b,c a
0.5 6.5 ± 1.5 5.0 ± 1.1 6.4 ± 1.6 6.1 ± 1.9 6.0 ± 1.5 6.2 ± 1.7 4.2 ± 1.3 80 a,b
b,c c b b b,c b,c a
1.0 5.7 ± 2.0 5.6 ± 1.0 5.3 ± 2.1 5.1 ± 2.0 6.0 ± 1.8 5.8 ± 2.1 4.1 ± 1.3 70 a,b
a,b c b b b b a
1.5 5.1 ± 2.3 5.7 ± 1.0 4.5 ± 2.3 4.7 ± 2.1 5.4 ± 2.2 5.2 ± 2.4 4.3 ± 1.4 95 b
d a a d c c a
FD 0.0 7.1 ± 1.8 4.7 ± 0.9 6.9 ± 2.0 7.1 ± 2.1 6.7 ± 2.0 6.4 ± 2.3 4.3 ± 1.5 64 a
c b a b b b,c a
0.5 6.1 ± 1.7 5.1 ± 0.9 6.0 ± 1.9 5.3 ± 1.8 5.6 ± 1.6 5.5 ± 1.3 4.6 ± 1.3 66 a
a b,c b b a,b a,b a
1.0 5.2 ± 2.2 5.2 ± 1.1 5.0 ± 2.2 4.7 ± 2.0 4.9 ± 1.9 4.9 ± 2.1 4.5 ± 1.4 80 a,b
a c b a a a a
1.5 4.6 ± 2.5 5.7 ± 1.2 4.1 ± 2.2 3.7 ± 2.3 4.6 ± 2.2 4.2 ± 2.2 4.1 ± 1.6 100 b
a-c
Values in the same column followed by different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05).

A. niger which resulted in a shorter mould free shelf life (4.0 ± 0.2 versus
4.7 ± 0.5 days) (n = 42). The breads inoculated on the crumb had a
shorter mould free shelf life compared to the breads inoculated on the
crust (8.0 ± 0.7 days) (n = 84).
3.3.3. Sensory characteristics
Table 1 shows the evaluated descriptors and their scale explanation
as used in the sensory evaluation. Table 5 shows the results of the sen­
sory analyses performed on bread made with AD and FD leek powder.
The sensory analyses indicate that the higher the concentration of leek
powder in bread the less attractive the outlook, the darker the crust, the
less attractive the crumb color and odor, the less tasty the bread, and the
less pleasant the leek taste. These results are more pronounced for the
addition of FD leek compared with AD leek. Previously, Bernaert (2013)
found that freeze drying results in less reduction of volatile sulphur
components compared to air drying which results in the lowest accep­
tance rate.
Addition of 0.5 g flour AD per 100 g showed no significant difference
with the reference for the evaluated descriptors, except for odor. The
sum of ranks indicated that there is no significant difference in appre­
ciation between the reference and the addition of 0.5 and 1 g dried leek
powder per 100 g flour.
4. Conclusion
In this study, the functionality of leek powder in breadmaking was
investigated. Two types of leek powder were evaluated, more precisely
leek powder obtained from AD and FD leek leaves. The study included
different aspects such as dough rheology, bread quality, organoleptic
properties and shelf life. It was demonstrated that the drying method
had a huge impact on the functionality of the leek powder. FD leek
powder clearly showed a more pronounced negative impact on dough
rheology and bread properties. Further, AD leek powder was surpris­
ingly found to limit crumb hardness increase during storage. The result
of the sensory study showed that wheat flour could be fortified by 1 g
leek powder per 100 g flour without adverse effect on the consumer
acceptability. Finally, the addition of leek powder did not impact the
mould-free shelf life of wheat bread. Overall, it is suggested to use air-
dried powder for the application in bread making preferably at substi­
tution levels up to 1 g per 100 g flour.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Nathalie Bernaert: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review
& editing, Supervision, Visualization. Els Debonne: Validation, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing, Supervision, Visualization. Ingrid De Leyn: Validation, Formal
analysis, Investigation. Bart Van Droogenbroeck: Resources, Funding
acquisition. Filip Van Bockstaele: Resources, Funding acquisition,
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
Visualization.
Declaration of competing interest
There is no conflict of interest.
- This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is under review at,
another journal or other publishing venue.
- The authors have no affiliation with any organization with a direct or
indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed in the
manuscript.
Acknowledgement
Nathalie Bernaert was funded by Ph.D. grant nr 083276 from the
Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology Flanders.
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