Topic number 1: Family

A family is a social unit consisting of a mother, father and children. They share certain goals
and values and live together in one home...

Family values are: to love, to take care, help each other, support one another and so on. The
family as an institution that provides protection, education, socialization, and care for the
aged, sick or disabled...
Nuclear family/immediate family: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister...
Extended family: grandfather, grandmother, great-grandfather, great-grandmother, grandson,
granddaughter, uncle, aunt, cousin, nephew, niece, godmother, godfather...
In-laws: father in law, mother in law, sister in law, brother in law...

The family fulfills a biological, sociological, emotional, economical and educational function...

A functioning family shows a strong relationship between its members. Biological function: to
have children... sociological function: family belongs to society, family creates society and it
is its part... emotional function: members of the family share their feelings, parents teach
children how to love, and they give them love and of course support their emotions...
Children are sometimes angry, happy, and moody, when they show their emotions...
Economical function: both parents should work and make money for the family to satisfy
needs. Family is not only part of society, but family is also an economical unit. Earning
money and spending money are processes connected with economy... Educational function:
family teaches children and parents many different things like: how to walk, how to talk, how
to do the shopping, how to get to school, how to read, how to keep promises, how to achieve
something in your life, how to help one another and so on...

Human needs are: love, protection, responsibility, support, acknowledgement and so on.
There are higher and lower needs...
A baby becomes a family member immediately after being born. However there are some
exceptions. Orphans and abandoned children grow up in orphanages and foster homes
where they get or should get love from nonbiological parents and siblings. There are charity
organizations that look for parents who could adopt a child. Adopting a child is a very long
process. Couples have to go through different checks on their origin, age, financial situation,
relationships, living conditions and so on...

Orphans are children who do not have parents because they died. Abandoned children have
parents but they do not care about children...

Domestic chores: hovering, sweeping, ironing,cleaning, tidying up, making the bed, washing
up, dusting, doing the shopping, folding clothes, polishing the shoes, taking out the rubbish...
Generation gap is a broad difference in values and attitudes between one generation and
another, especially between parents and their children. For example: there is a real
generation gap in their choice of music, clothes, habits, hair style...

Age: newborn, baby, infant, toddler/ankle biter, school age child, adolescent/teenager,
youngster/juvenile, young adult, adult/grown up, middle aged person, elderly/senior,
citizen/pensioner...
Expressions: the same age as me, when I was your age, people of the same ages, when
you get to my age, at the age of 43, you do not look your age...
Many older people think that the young generation is interested in money. But older people
often don't understand this age. You can not teach an old dog new tricks. You are only as old
as you feel...

What does it mean Modern family? Modern family is monogamous and egalitarian. Married
couples are expected to live faithfully without having love affairs...

Explain the following words: spinsters and bachelors, to live in the same dwelling, to be
engaged, to get divorced, single parent family, widow, widower, step parents, foster family,
christening, funerals, weddings...

Celebrations: Christmas, New year, Easter, Halloween, Saint Valentine's day, Birth,
Wedding...

Talk about your family and describe a family member. (Types of body, hair, eyes, describe
his or her face, round, oval...,clothes, character, hobbies and so on).
Topic number 2: Culture and Art

They enable us to feel the beauty.

They contain two parts:
1.) Mimesis to describe the world and life...
2.) Catharsis. It cleans your soul. Art can do that...

What does the national heritage mean?

Culture and art are integral parts of everyday life of people. They add aesthetic value to our
lives, enrich our mind and please our senses. Both culture and art are parts of national
heritage, they do their best to develop and promote it. Natural heritage gives definition of
nation...

What is the difference between art and culture?

Culture is the way of life of a particular country.
Culture can be connected with everyday life: For example: Behaviour and manners...
Art is expression of one person.
The Arts covers everything: literature (drama, poetry, short stories, novels...), performing arts
(theatre, dance, cinema, opera...), and fine art (sculpture, painting, architecture, and
ceramics)
Art usually means fine art, but it can also refer to technique and creativity. It is a way of
communicating feelings. Artists express themselves in many forms...

There were 6 art periods: Ancient art, Medieval art, renaissance, baroque, romanticism and
realism...

Music has become a hobby, a profession and a part of the lifestyle of many people. Types of
music: pop, rock, jazz, blues, country, folklore music... Those who like classical music can
enjoy a concert of a philharmonic orchestra. Some festivals are held annually such as the
Bratislava Music Festival.
Famous composers are: Mozart, Beethoven and Bach... (Royal Opera House in London,
Carnegie Hall in New York)...

Dramatic art and literature.

It has tradition in England and France. (Royal Shakespeare Company Theatre. London
theatres are concentrated in the West End.
Scotland: Edinburgh International Festival - festival of classical music, opera, theatre, dance.
Slovak theatre - goers like New Scene Theatre in Bratislava...

Cinema.
It has the greatest popularity among young people. Most of the movies are movies of
American productions. Slovak subtitles are very frequent or some films are dubbed.
International film festivals are held in Cannes, Venice, and Berlin...

Painting and architecture.

Painters: Picasso, Van Gogh, Rembrandt, Claude Monet, Michelangelo...
CULTURAL LIFE IN A BIG CITY AND A SMALL TOWN:

A BIG CITY.
In a big city there is usually a better choice of cultural facilities than in a small town/village. In
a large city, you can go to: a cinema, a theatre - in the theatre you can see different kinds of
performance: a drama, a comedy, an opera, a musical, a ballet.
If you want to see a performance in a theatre, you should buy or book the tickets in advance.
Theatre performances take place in the evening and there is always a special class
atmosphere so people should wear nice clothes when they go to the theatre. After you come
to the theatre, you leave your coat in a cloakroom and an attendant will show you your seat.
When the performance ends, the audience applauds and the curtain falls. If the performance
is excellent, the actors can get a standing ovation.
An art gallery - in an art gallery, we can see exhibitions of classical or modern art. For
example the exhibitions of: photographs, paintings, sculptures, book illustrations.
A museum - in the museum we can learn about the history of our country or the history of
the whole world. You can see exhibitions of things which show us how people used to live in
the past...

A SMALL TOWN / A VILLAGE.

In small towns and villages there are not as many opportunities for cultural life as there are
in big cities. Some villages have a community centre or a club where sometimes discos or
balls are held on special occasions - for example on the Mothers' day or during Christmas.
If people who live in a village want to see a film or a theatre performance, they have to travel
to the nearest town or a city. If they don't want to travel, they can watch a film on TV or they
can borrow a DVD and watch it at home...

MY ATTITUDE TO CULTURE:
A romantic novel: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare:
The main heroes are 2 young people Romeo and Juliet whose families hate each other.
They fall in love but their families don't like it and they want them to break up. But they love
each other too much and so they commit a suicide. I liked the book because it is about love,
it has a tragic end and it is very romantic...

FAMOUS PEOPLE & CULTURE:

In MUSIC: Louis Armstrong - he is a famous trumpeter in jazz history. The Beatles - an
English music group famous in the 1960's. It had 4 members: John Lennon, Paul McCartney,
George Harrison, Ringo Starr, Elvis Presley - the king of rock and roll...

IN THEATRE AND CINEMA: Charlie Chaplin - an American actor of the “Silent Era”. Woody
Allen - the American comedy film director, actor. Walt Disney - a producer of animated
cartoon films. Alfred Hitchcock - a film director - he directs horrors and thrillers. Dustin
Hoffman, Marilyn Monroe, Julia Roberts, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Bruce Willis...

IN FINE ART: Andy Warhol - he is famous for his paintings - he is the son of Slovak
immigrants...
Other questions:

Do you prefer going to a cinema or a theatre? Why?

Do you like folk music and folk dance performance? Why? Why not?
What sort of dance do you prefer? (disco, folk, hip-hop, modern, ballroom…)
Who is your favorite actor or singer? Describe him or her.
What sorts of films do you enjoy watching?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of watching a film at the cinema? Or on the
DVD player?
Why do people visit the cinema less often than before?
What is an Oscar?
Topic number 3: Sports and Games

There is a difference between sport and games:

Sport includes all kinds of physical activities that help people to keep fit physically and
mentally. It is one of the most popular leisure activities.
Games are usually played between 2 people or 2 teams. A game has certain rules, there is a
referee who makes sure that the players obey the rules. The referee also decides who has
won. The most popular games are football, basketball, baseball, ice-hockey, tennis and
golf...
Games are for fun, you do not have to be professional to play a game, you need rules and
people who are willing to play together with you. You do not play because you have to be the
first, the fastest, the best or the winner. You play game because it is entertainment for you
and of course it keeps you fit. You feel better after one hour of any sport activity you can
think of...
Sport is considered to be most of the time for professionals. You are expected to win or at
least get some points. You must train very hard every day and forget about your free time or
dating or having fun in a pub. Drinking, smoking, staying out late at night is forbidden...

Sport activities can be divided into:

INDOOR: for example: gymnastics, swimming, basketball, table tennis, badminton, boxing,
wrestling and so on.

OUTDOOR: for example: golf, skiing, snowboarding, cycling, mountaineering, hiking, sailing,
water-skiing, diving, windsurfing, jogging, fishing, athletics and so on.
Athletics includes these sports activities: marathon, half-marathon, 10K run, relay run,
jumping, throwing a hammer or a discus and so on...

Some sports and games can be played both indoors and outdoors. For example: football,
tennis, swimming, skating (speed skating, figure skating, roller-skating) and so on...

WINTER SPORTS: They can be played only in winter. For example: skiing, snowboarding,
ice-hockey, bobsleighing and so on.

SUMMER SPORTS: football, tennis, cycling, golf and so on.

INDIVIDUAL SPORTS: running, cycling, swimming, skating, skiing, snowboarding, shooting,

bodybuilding, weight lifting and so on.

COLLECTIVE SPORTS: ice-hockey, rugby, tennis, water polo.

The most popular collective sports are BALL GAMES - for example football, basketball,
volleyball, water polo...
Some words about Football.

Equipment.
Goal involves: post, crossbar, net, goal line...
Field or football pitch involves: goal, corner flag, center circle, halfway line, touch line,
penalty spot, penalty area...
Players involve: goalkeeper (he plays in net). defender (he plays in defense). midfielder or
forward (he plays in midfield). striker or attacker (he plays in attack). wide player (he plays
on the left or right wing). referee.
Clothes football players wear is called, football strip...
Action contains: dribble, head, free kick, save, tackle, pass, shoot, throw in, kick, score a
goal...

Rules or how to play football.

The modern game is played by two teams of eleven players on a rectangular field with a net
at each end. Players pass the ball to each other by kicking or heading it, with the aim being
to score goals, by getting the ball into the opponent 's net. The game lasts for two 45-minute
halves, and the team scoring the most goals wins. Draws are common, but if a winner has to
be found, a game can go into extra time. If the score is still tied after thirty minutes of extra
time, a 'penalty shoot out' can decide the winner...
In general play, the goalkeeper is the only player who can touch the ball with the hands or
arms. All the other players can kick or head the ball only. Players can tackle an opponent in
order to get the ball from them, but must do so without pushing or tripping the player.
Pushing and tripping, along with other illegal actions such as 'handball' and 'offside', are
fouls that can be penalized with a free kick. If a foul is committed in the penalty area near
either goal, the referee can award a penalty kick, meaning a player can have a free shot at
goal, with only the goalkeeper being allowed to try to block it. If a player commits a more
serious offense, such as dangerous play, the referee can issue a yellow card as a warning.
Or issue a red card, in which case the player is sent off and cannot be replaced by a
substitute...
Teams are normally allowed three substitutes, which can be used to replace players
because of injury, or for tactical reasons...

THE REASONS WHY PEOPLE SPORT:

Amateurs - amateurs are people who do sport for pleasure, not for money or as a job.
They do sport because:
they want to be fit and healthy,
sport is a form of relaxation,
sport can help us to lose weight,
they can meet many new people...

Professionals - they do sport because it is their job. By doing sport, they earn their living.
Most of them want to become famous and achieve success. It is not easy to become a
professional sportsman. You have to start young and be prepared to work hard. You should
train a lot and have a healthy lifestyle. Famous sportsmen are popular among people and
they have many fans.
If you want to be a successful sportsman, you should have these qualities:
stamina/endurance, strong will, discipline, the sense of fair-play...
THE OLYMPIC GAMES:
The first Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece in 776 B.C... They had then an
important political meaning. Women in Old Greece could not take part in the Olympic
Games. The first modern Olympics were held also in Athens in 1896. From then on they take
part every 4 years, every time in a different country of the world. The Olympic Games
promote the idea of liberty and friendship between people all over the world. Only
professional sportsmen and sportswomen take part in them. For them it's great honor to
represent their country. People all over the world pay attention to these sports events and
that is why the Olympic Games are often under the threat of terrorist attacks. Therefore, the
countries which organize the games try to ensure maximum security for everybody involved
in the games...
The symbols of the Olympic Games are the Olympic flag with 5 rings and the Olympic fire
which is lit at the beginning of the Olympics. Rings represent the unity of five continents. The
first part of the Olympic creed “The most important thing in the Olympic games is not to win,
but to take part,” is often used for all kids of other competitions... It is a dream of every
sportsman and sportswoman to take part in the Olympic Games...

DANGERS OF SPORT:
It is connected with several negative phenomena for example: over training and doping. Men
and women are tested during sport competitions and they can be disqualified for taking
drugs. Top sportsmen find it difficult to cope with being rich and famous...

Sports and health. Professional sport.

It is connected with several negative phenomena for example: over training and doping.
Sport can sometimes be harmful to your health. While doing sport, people can get seriously
injured - for example they can get bruises, they can break a leg or an arm or even hurt their
spine. It is important to be very careful when you do sports.
There are very many people who have become addicted to fame or even worse thing -
money. They trade their passion in doing sport for being rich. They became big-headed. A lot
of top sportsmen find it difficult to cope with being rich and famous...
Professionals often take drugs in order to get better results so they can win a prize and gain
a bonus for the winner. But fortunately we have antidoping agency which keeps tracking
sportsmen and prevents world of games from cheating. Men and women are tested during
sport competitions and they can be disqualified for taking drugs...

Questions:
What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a professional sportsman?
Would you like to be a professional sportsman? Why? Why not? Explain.
Which of the games do you like playing or watching? How often do you play or watch them?
Who do you play or watch with?
Would you go to a stadium to watch an important match? Why? Why not? Explain.
Do you have a favorite sportsman or a sportswoman? Describe him or her.
Topic number 4: Housing

Living in towns and villages has both advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages: job opportunities, better schooling possibilities, a rich social life, sport facilities,
cultural events, shopping centres.
Disadvantages: pollution, noise, crowded and hectic places, fumes from factories, chimneys
and cars, dirt, pickpockets, shoplifters, burglars, murders...

One advantage of living in a village is that people have more privacy. People in villages
usually live in houses with a garden. Some of them also have a garage. Living in a house
has many advantages: there is more privacy, there is more space - more rooms - houses
usually have a ground floor and the first floor, houses usually have a garden and a garage,
you can listen to loud music, you can keep bigger pets: dogs, cats, horses. But it can also
have some disadvantages: It is more expensive. You have to work in the garden - you must
cut the grass, look after the trees. You have to tidy up more rooms and clean more
windows...

The countryside is usually quiet and comfortable. In summer you can go out for a walk to the
forest or you can just sit in the garden, read a book or relax. People in the village usually
know each other and they can help you if you need help. But living in the countryside also
has some disadvantages. Some people think that it is boring because there is no cinema,
swimming pool or fitness centre and you sometimes have to travel by train or by bus if you
work or go to school in the town.
Living in a town also has some advantages and disadvantages. People in towns usually live
in a block of flats. The advantages of living in the block of flats are: It is cheaper. It is
comfortable. You don't have to clean a lot because you don't have many rooms and
windows.
But it has disadvantages, too. For example: There is less privacy. There is less space. Flat
usually doesn't have a garden. You can't listen to loud music. If the lift doesn't work, you
have to go up by foot. If anything breaks in your flat, you can cause damage to other people
- for example, if the water tap breaks in your flat, the water will damage your neighbour's flat
below.
Living in the town or a city is exciting. If you live in a town, you can enjoy the cultural life -
you can go to the cinema, to the theatre, for a concert, to the fitness centre or a swimming
pool. You can go out and have dinner in a restaurant, if you want to. There are usually
supermarkets which are opened for longer than the shops in villages. The disadvantages of
living in the city are: city is usually dirty, noisy, it is more dangerous than the countryside...

How do Slovaks live?

Many Slovaks live in flats. A flat is situated in the same building as other flats, often forming
part of the block of flats or town house. During the communist period a lot of huge housing
estates were built in our country. These days, a lot of them are being reconstructed and new
ones are being built but not as many as before. A flat may be large with nearly as much
space as a house, or it may be just one room with kitchen and bathroom. Most of the flats in
Slovakia are two-, three- or four- room flats. Slovak houses are usually quite big and the
older ones are often shared by two families - grandparents, their children and
grandchildren...
British people.
Terraced houses are built in a row. Your house is in a terrace of houses.
Back to back houses share a back wall.
Semidetached houses are joined together by one common wall.
Detached house stands by itself.
Bungalow is a house with only one floor.
A cottage is usually a small house with only one floor.
A typical British house is set in a small garden and has two storeys. It is usually designed for
a family of four or five people. There is a hall, a front room, a back room, a kitchen and a
storage space downstairs. A garage is normally attached to the house. Upstairs there is one
big bedroom and two smaller ones, a bathroom and lavatory...

Comparison between Slovaks and British.

Slovaks and British are people who love gardening. Slovaks tend to have bigger gardens
behind their houses and they spend quite a lot of time growing vegetables and fruits. There
is a lot of work around the house throughout the whole year. British people have gardens for
pleasure. They relax, drink tea or coffee, they do not work like slaves in the garden. They
have a gardener who takes care of plants, trees, flowers and grass.
The furniture in Slovak and British rooms is not very different nowadays. The sitting room
has a settee and armchair, a wall unit with Hi-Fi system, television and video, a bookcase
and coffee table. There is a carpet on the floor to make the room warm and comfortable.
Most British houses have a fireplace because of cold weather. The kitchen furniture includes
the cupboards, sink, cooker, and fridge-freezer. They are usually built in. There is also a
table and chairs. The floor is often tiled. Slovak families usually have the washing machine in
the bathroom, the British in the kitchen or so called utility. The bedrooms are the same...

Americans.
As the standard of living is generally very high in the USA, the average American family can
live comfortably and well. Many wealthy people have large apartments or houses with many
rooms, tennis courts and swimming pool. In the centre of American cities people live in
apartments situated in large apartment buildings.
Topic number 5: Shopping and Services

Shop is a place where we can buy things, where things are sold.
Shopping is an act of choosing and buying products in order to use them...

SHOPPING FACILITIES:

1. a SHOPPING CENTRE. For example EUROVEA, SHOPPING PALACE, AUPARK and

POLUS CITY CENTER in Bratislava. Shopping centre is a large building with many smaller
shops in it. Shopping centers offer many additional services - there are banks, post offices,
travel agencies, a swimming pool, cafés, restaurants and cinemas and so on.

2. a DEPARTMENT STORE. Department store is a large store divided into several big
sections. Each section sells different types of things, for example: clothes, furniture,
household appliances and so on. It has a car park and is situated in bigger cities and towns.
Some of them are opened non-stop. Shopping in a department store has many advantages:
You can buy everything under one roof. They usually offer lower prices. They often offer
sales and bargains. You can use a big shopping trolley to take your shopping to your car.

3. a SUPERMARKET. For example TESCO. They are situated in cities and towns. People
go to the supermarket to buy mostly food and drinks. It is smaller than a department store
and usually offers fewer goods. It has longer opening hours than small shops.

4. a small SHOP. They usually have shorter opening hours than supermarkets, department
stores and shopping centers. Small shops usually sell food or other things. For example: you
can get books in a bookshop, shoes in a shoe shop and so on. People who work in a shop
are shop assistants - they sell things and serve customers. Shop assistants in small villages
and towns usually know their customers.

5. a MARKET. Many people prefer to buy the fruit and vegetables or other things at a
market. Markets are popular because of their special atmosphere - they are noisy,
overcrowded but people can walk from stall to stall, they can touch and taste products and
talk to the salesmen. They can try to bargain and get a reduced price. In Slovakia, products
bought in markets are often cheaper than products bought in shops and supermarkets...

Some shops and most department stores have store detectives who watch customers to
stop them from shoplifting.
Services:
It is a system that provides something that the public needs. It's organized by the
government or private companies. We know many types of services:
Post office is a national organization in many countries, that is responsible for collecting and
delivering letters, postcards...
Bank is an organization, that provides various financial services, such as keeping or lending
money. We can put our money into a bank account. Each bank also has a cash dispenser.
And we can withdraw our money any time we want...
Police is an official organization, who's job is to make people obey the law and to prevent
and solve the crime...
Petrol station is a place at the side of the road where you take your car to buy petrol, gas or
oil...

Some other services:

Dry-cleaning, Shoes repairs , Photo coppie, Babysitting, Gardeners, Window cleaners,
Electricians, Hairdresser. Repairmen, painters and decorators, plumbers, domestic cleaners
(called „daily helps“) and child-minders (women who look after children during the day while
the parents are at work) also often advertise their services in this way. Services are also
advertised in the „classified ads“ section of local newspapers...
Many services can be ordered by telephone and a special telephone directory called the
Yellow Pages. It lists firms according to the services they provide. You can order a cooked
meal to be delivered from a Chinese restaurant or a pizza restaurant. If you want to send a
present to someone, you can arrange for chocolates, flowers, and so on to be delivered.
Many of these delivery services use motorcycles.

Shops and offices in town centers provide services such as dry cleaning, shoe repairs,
photocopying and the use of fax machines. In launderettes you can wash and dry clothes in
coin-operated machines. There are estate agencies for buying and selling houses, letting
agencies for finding rented accommodation and employment agencies for finding a job.
Some employment agencies specialize in a particular kind of job, for example secretarial
jobs...

Advertisement.
Result is to drive customers' behavior towards buying/purchasing product...

History of advertising:
There were paintings on the walls in Ancient Egypt.
Boom started in the 19th Century in the press, 1920's in radio and 1950's in TV...
We know a few types of advertisement:
Street billboards, catchy jingles on TV and radio (in other words Commercials), pictures in
magazines and newspapers, leaflets, sales promotion, catalogs and so on. We also know
store advertising or branding. Branding is wearing a brand in a film or somewhere else. For
example: Celebrity branding. Infomercial is a whole text about a product...
All kinds of advertisements try to attract our attention, (in other words: Target group), and
introduce new products and ideas. Advertisers make us believe we can realize our ambitions
quickly and easily, only if we will use (of course, it means buy) their product. So, advertisers
want us to spend money on their products. They want us to believe that their product meets
our needs. They try to reach your value...
But there are also advantages. Advertising is informative, increases demand, stimulates
industry and keeps prices down.

When advertisers want to create successful advertisement, they use methods that help to
sell new products: Famous or well-known people promote certain products by saying that
they use these products. Average people in everyday situations are often shown using a
certain product.
Advertising says that everybody buys a certain product. Advertising shows a very special
idea, feeling, person or situation. It can transfer your good feelings to the product.
“Jingles” are tunes created for commercials that stick in your ear and you hum the melody
over and over, hopefully hypnotizing you into buying the products...

Christmas shopping:
I always do my shopping long in advance because I don't like the hassle before Christmas. I
don't like when the shops are full of people and everybody is in a hurry. People are often
nervous. I think it's stressful to do Christmas shopping at the last moment...

CATALOGUE SHOPPING:
The advantages of buying things from a catalog are: You don't have to go to the shop. You
can do the shopping comfortably from your house. There is a wider choice of goods.
The disadvantages are: You can't try the things on. You can't touch the things to see what
material they are made of. It is more difficult and more expensive to return the goods if you
don't like it (because you have to pay for postage)...

Explain:
Direct sale. Buying goods through mail order. Door to door selling. To get things on hire
purchase order.
Hire purchase: It's when you pay installments every month...
Topic number 6: Health Care

Human body is the most wonderful organism on the Earth. We have been exploring it for
decades but we haven't been able to find and to know all facts hidden in it so far.
Human body consists of bones and muscles. There are three parts of the body: head, body,
arms and legs.
Head is covered by hair. It contains the brain - the centre of the nervous system...

BODY PARTS:
head, eye, mouth, ear, cheek, nose, neck, shoulders, chest, back, arm, elbow, hand, wrist,
fingers, bottom, leg, thigh, knee, whistle, ankle, foot...

Health is very important and therefore everybody should look after it.
World Health Organisation, describe Health as a state of complete physical, mental and
social well- being...
People can suffer from these illnesses and diseases.
A FLU. When you have a flu, you have a fever, your body aches and you feel bad. You
should see the doctor - he will give you antibiotics. You should stay in bed, drink a lot of tea
and take pills. Try to avoid using any pills.
A COLD. When you have a cold, you sneeze, you have a sore throat and your nose is runny.
You should stay in bed, drink a lot of hot tea and take some vitamins.
DIABETES. When insulin is not produced in your pancreas. You have to inject it every few
hours on your own.
APPENDICITIS. When you have inflammation of your appendix.
DIARRHEA. You have to go to the toilet every while.
MEASLES. It manifests with inflammation of nasal mucosa and ocular conjunctiva, high
fever and coughing...
People can also suffer from fatal diseases. For example:
AIDS. If you have AIDS, you lose your immunity. The patient feels weak, can have a fever,
loses weight and any infection can be fatal to him. It is a very serious disease and scientists
are trying to find a cure for it.
CANCER. A serious disease - the patient has a tumor which is cured by tablets, injections or
chemotherapy.
HEART ATTACK. It is when someone's heart stops beating. Resuscitation is necessary...
Diseases of civilization:
ASTHMA, ALLERGIES, MIGRENES, CHICKEN POX...

If we feel ill, we go to see our doctor who is called a GP (general practitioner). We should
make an appointment in advance and we must take our insurance card with us. Everybody
in our country has the right to choose a doctor. When we come to the doctor's surgery, he
asks us how we feel and what problems we have. He examines us and prescribes medicine.
Sometimes we must see a specialist - for example a dentist, a surgeon, a psychiatrist and so
on.
Some people prefer alternative medicine - it isn't the traditional way of treating illnesses. For
example acupuncture when thin needles are put into different parts of the body...
If we want to avoid illnesses, we should keep a healthy lifestyle. A healthy lifestyle can help
us to protect our body against diseases. A healthy lifestyle involves: Regular exercise, plenty
of rest, enough sleep, good eating habits, a lot of vitamins, no smoking or alcohol. We
should think positively. If we want to be healthy, we should take care of our health. We
should: clean our teeth regularly, do some exercises every day, go for a walk, have a
massage or a sauna sometimes. Reduce the amount of fat, salt, sugar and cholesterol. Lose
weight if we are overweight. Visit our doctor - GP (General practitioner) regularly for
check-ups. Visit a dentist once a year. Eat a lot of vegetables, take some vitamin pills. It's
better to eat fruit and vegetables. It is more healthy because fruit and vegetables don't
contain chemical additives but the vitamin pills usually do. It's better to eat raw fruit and
vegetables because when we cook it, it loses the vitamins...

Health care in Slovakia is provided for people from birth to death. In Slovakia we have these
health facilities:
1) State
2) Private

Medical care can be given in: a health centre, a clinic, a hospital, a surgery, an ambulance.
A pediatrician is a doctor who looks after the health of children. When a child is born, he is
vaccinated against such diseases as tuberculosis, tetanus and so on. GP (general
practitioner) is a doctor who looks after the health of adults. In case of emergency we can
call an ambulance - we call the number 155 - the ambulance takes the patient to a hospital.
Serious cases are immediately operated on in the operating theatre. If we break a leg or an
arm, we are X-rayed...

World Health Organisation

It is an agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1948. The Headquarters is in
Geneva, Switzerland. World Health Organisation should sort out the problems: epidemic
control, drug standardization and so on. World Health Organisation defines health as "a state
of complete physical, mental and social well being". It operates through 3 principal organs:
the world health assembly, an executive board of health specialists, and a secretariat. The
organization is financed from annual contributions made by members of governments. The
work of World Health Organisation may be divided into 3 categories: Health information,
Disease control, Consultation and Education.

Three Healthy Principles:

1. Water principle.
2. Fruit eating principle.
3. Food combination principle.
Topic number 7: Traveling

Travelling means to make a journey, typically of some length or abroad, go or be moved from
place to place.
Journey is an act of travelling from one place to another.
Trip means going on a short journey.
Voyage is a long journey involving travel by sea or in space - (for example take a cruise
down the river).
Tour is a journey for pleasure in which several places are visited...
Examples: Business trip/ Work stay... Study stay, Exchange stay, expedition, Scholarship,
Commute. Backpacker's holiday... Cruise tour and sailing tour...
Work stay is when you stay there for a long time. Scholarships are money for study stay.
Commute is travelling to school every day. Backpacker's holiday is when you get a trip by
yourself. Package tour/trip is when you use a travel agent...
Globe trotter is a passionate traveler...

Travelling in Slovakia.
In communism we needed special permissions to visit any country...

Travelling and seasons of the year:

In winter we use ski resorts. You cannot ski under the influence in most countries...

People travel for many reasons. For example:

It is a good way to learn about life - to learn new things, to understand other cultures, their
traditions, customs and to get to know them.
For a holiday - to relax and to get some rest.
To learn a foreign language or to become better at it.
From necessity - people need to travel to work, to do shopping, to visit friends and so on...

Advantages and disadvantages of travelling by:

1.) CAR.
Advantages are:
Traveling by car is comfortable.
You can listen to the radio while you drive.
You can go anywhere anytime - you don't have to use the public transport, you don't have to
buy a ticket.
You can stop at any time you need to have a break.
The car has a trunk - it has a big space to carry your luggage and other things...
Disadvantages are:
A car is expensive to buy.
Petrol is expensive.
You must have a driving license.
You must pay for parking.
You can end up in a traffic jam.
Statistically it is the most dangerous way of transport - you can have a car crash.
It pollutes the air which is not good for our environment...
Vocabulary of car.
Accident rate... exhaust fumes... bumper to bumper traffic means there are traffic jams... Car
pool is when a few people are in one car, and they together pay for fuel.
Hitch hike is when somebody is close to a road and waiting for the stranger to give him a
ride...

2.) BUS.
Type of the bus.
Coach, it is long distance bus.

Advantages are:
We can spend time talking to other passengers on the bus.
We can relax - read and look out of the window, work, eat...
Buses stop more often than trains - you can get off at a bus stop which is closer to the place
where you need to go.
You don't have to drive...
Disadvantages are:
It's expensive (but usually cheaper than traveling by car).
It's often crowded.
It's sometimes delayed.
You have to get to the bus stop.
You must travel at certain times.
Sometimes stopping at too many bus stops can be a disadvantage...

3.) TRAIN.
Types of train.
Cargo train/ passenger train/ express train... TGV in France... or EUROSTAR from the UK to
France, which goes through the British channel via the Europe tunnel...
Local trains and international trains. International trains offer high quality...

Advantages of trains are:

We can spend time talking to other passengers on the train.
We can relax - read and look out of the window, work, eat...
It usually isn't stressful.
Trains are comfortable if they are not crowded.
You don't have to drive...
Disadvantages are:
It's expensive (but usually cheaper than traveling by car).
It's often crowded.
It's sometimes delayed.
You have to get to the station.
Sometimes you have to use other transport to get to the station.
You must travel at certain times...
4.) PLANE.
Advantages are:
Traveling by plane is comfortable.
It is safe.
It's fast - you can get to any place in the world and it takes only a few hours.
You can read and sleep during the flight...
Disadvantages are:
It is expensive.
It's strictly dependent on timetable - you have to travel at certain times.
Sometimes the flight can be delayed or cancelled.
You have to buy the plane ticket in advance.
Some people are afraid of heights and confined spaces...

5.) BOAT/SHIP.
Special type of ship:
Hydrofil. It is a fast ship...

Advantages are:
It's relatively safe.
It's mostly used for trips during holidays...
Disadvantages are:
You can get seasick.
A ship can sink.
It isn't used often nowadays. It was more often used in the past. One of the biggest and the
most famous ships was the Titanic. It was considered unsinkable but it sank on its maiden
voyage from England to New York and more than one thousand and 500 people died...

Means of transport - we can travel:

1.) By land.
By car, by train, by bus, by bicycle, by motorcycle, by underground, by foot...

2.) By water.
A boat, a ferry, a ship, a cargo...

3.) By air.
A plane/a jet plane, a helicopter...

Public transport. Public transport is cheaper but also less comfortable. It's often crowded and
it' s dependent on the timetable. It includes: bus, train, tram and underground/subway.
Subway is the fastest way of transport in the city. It usually goes every 5 minutes.
Undergrounds were built in order to make the trams and buses less crowded...

Traveling on holiday.
When we want to travel on holiday, we should first find accommodation. We can make a
reservation in a travel agency, make a reservation on the internet or call directly the hotel or
motel and book the accommodation before we arrive...
Hotels and motels are different in price and comfort. Motels are usually situated by the
roads, and the services in a motel are usually at a little bit lower level than in a hotel...
In hotels and motels we can get different services:
1.) Bed and breakfast.
2.) Full board...
If we need anything, we can call the reception desk and the receptionist will arrange what we
need. We can also use the hotel''s services: for example: restaurant, bar, coffee shop,
swimming pool, fitness centre, hairdressers or a beauty salon and so on...
When young people travel on holiday, they can find accommodation in youth hostels. It's a
special kind of accommodation for young people mostly in Great Britain. It's cheaper but you
can stay only for a limited number of nights...
When we travel abroad for a holiday, we should take with us: passport, visa - if we need it,
money or a credit card, luggage - Either a suitcase or a rucksack. and insurance...

Description of a railway station.

The railway station is a big hall with a ticket office where we can buy a single ticket or a
return ticket and a seat reservation... There is:
The arrival and departure board, a luggage office, a waiting hall, lockers, telephones, a drink
machine, toilets...
From the waiting hall we go through the under-passage onto the platform...

Travelling in the past...

The landmark inventions that followed are:

Around 3500 BC - Two-wheel chariot. World's first form of wheeled transportation - invented
in Sumeria. This eventually led to the invention of four-wheel chariot.
In 1670 - Cart driven by a steam turbine, built by a Jesuit missionary in China.
In 1790 - Modern bicycles were invented.
In 1814 - George Stephenson invented the first practical steam powered railroad locomotive.
In 1885 Karl Benz built the world's first practical automobile to be powered by an internal
combustion engine.
In 1908 Henry Ford improved the assembly line for automobile manufacturing...

The landmark inventions in water transportation are:

In1620 Cornelis Drebbel invented the first submarine.
In 1787 Steamboat was invented.
In 1912 First diesel-powered ship.
In 1958 First nuclear powered ship launched...

Air Transport.
Man's next stride in transportation looked not to the land, or even to the seas, but to the sky.
Although many people had toyed with the idea of flight, but the first sustained, controlled
flight took place only on December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The inventors of
this new flying machine were brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright, two bicycle makers. They
invented a bicycle propelled contraption which later evolved into jet-propelled aircraft
capable of world-wide mass transfer. It came to be called the aeroplane. Aeroplane made it
easier for people to travel great distances in less time...
The landmark inventions in air transportation are:
In 1492 Leonardo da Vinci was first to seriously theorize about flying machines.
In 1783 The Montgolfier brothers invented the first hot air balloons.
In 1903 The Wright Brothers invented and flew the first engine airplane.
In 1907 Very first helicopter - through an unsuccessful design...

Space Transport.
Man wasn't yet satisfied and set his gaze towards the night sky, and the stars. The United
States, in 1955, announced the formation of the Vanguard Satellite Program and began
exploring what it would take to break away from the Earth's gravitational pull and thus
followed a series of experiments in aerospace engineering...

The landmark events in space transportation are:

In 1957 USSR's Sputnik first. first earth-orbiting satellite.
In 1961 USSR's Vostok first. first manned space-flight.
In 1969 Man Lands on moon. American astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first man to
set foot on the moon.
Every development that followed, made history. Recently, USA's NASA has also launched its
unmanned expeditions to other planets like Mars and Pluto. With the pace of developments
in aerospace engineering, that day is not far when we will see man travel as far as Pluto or
maybe further...

Travelling today.
Affordable air travel soon contributed to international mass tourism, pretty much as we know
it today. Over the years different developments in tourism have changed the way we travel,
such as technology, safety and security, costs, social changes, and so on. Today the hoards
of backpackers and gap-year students travel through one continent to another. So when we
wonder why we travel, and where it all started, it might be comforting to think about our
predecessors, and how they moved first out of necessity, then for religion, migration,
emigration, commerce, enlightenment and finally for pleasure. Today each of our personal
reasons may vary, but one thing is certain: there will never be rest for a species that can only
move, move and keep moving.
Topic number 8: Education

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN SLOVAKIA:

The general education in Slovakia is free of charge. You don't have to pay if you go to a
state school but in most private schools you have to pay fees. School attendance in Slovakia
is compulsory for children aged from 6 to 15 years.
In Slovakia we have:
1.) state schools.
2.) private schools.
3.) church schools.

Education in Slovakia has these stages:

1.) PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION. It includes nursery schools and kindergartens. They are for
children from 3 to 6 years old.

2.) PRIMARY SCHOOLS. Children start attending primary schools when they are 6 years
old and finish when they are 15 years old. The children at primary schools study these
subjects: mathematics, physics, Slovak language, a foreign language, geography, history
and so on.

3.) SECONDARY SCHOOLS. It usually takes from 3 to 4 years to complete secondary

education. To complete secondary education you have to pass the final exam. We have to
pass the school leaving examination. When children finish the primary school, they can
choose one of the following secondary schools:
3.1.) Grammar schools. They prepare students for university study.
3.2.) Special schools. They include: technical colleges, business academies, music and art
schools.
3.3.) Vocational schools. These are apprentice schools that train their students for practical
jobs: for example to become a shop assistant, a plumber, a builder or a carpenter.

4.) UNIVERSITIES. If you pass the entrance exam, you can go to a university. University
study takes from 4 to 6 years. When you successfully finish university, you get a diploma and
you are awarded with a degree. For example: Bachelor's Degree (Bc.) and Master's Degree.

5.) FURTHER EDUCATION. It includes different kinds of training courses. You usually have
to pay for them...
THE BRITISH SYSTEM OF EDUCATION:

The optional school attendance starts at nursery school. Then at kindergarten/infant school.
They are supposed to study ABC and D class there...
The compulsory school attendance in Britain starts at the age of 5.
Children start primary education. It is divided into first school, prep school and junior school.
Pupils at most of the primary and secondary schools have to wear uniforms, which are
usually different for every school...
At the age of 11, most children start secondary education. They take ASET, (Second
standard assessment test). It is compulsory until the age of 16, when the students take an
exam called “GCSE” (General Certificate of Secondary Education). Students who pass the
GCSE exam can attend a 2-years long course and take A levels examination. They can go
to university only if they pass A-levels. Or they can even get GNVQ (General National
Vocational qualification)...

THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION:

In the USA there is no national system of education. Each of the 50 American states has its
own laws that regulate education. Children begin school at the age of 5 or 6 and finish at the
age of 16 or 18...
American children attend:
0.1) Pre-kindergarten. From 3 to 5 years old...
0.2) Kindergarten. From 5 to 6 years old...
1.) Elementary school. They start compulsory education and it's from 6 to 11 years old. In
elementary school there are 5 grades...
2.) Middle school. from 11 to 14 years old. There are grades from 6th to 8th...
3.) Secondary schools. called High school, from 14 to 18 years old. There are grades from
9th to 12th... When they finish it, they get a high school diploma. During the school
attendance, children have to take the SAT (Stanford Achievement Test). The results of this
test is important if the student wants to attend a college or a university...

THE SCHOOL YEAR:

The school year in Slovakia starts on 2nd of September and ends in June - on the 30th of
June. We have 2 terms: a summer term and a winter term. In July and August we have
holidays. We also have a few days off school in autumn, during Christmas and a week
holiday in spring. We have on average 6 lessons a day. A lesson is 45 minutes long.
Between the lessons we have breaks that are 5 or 10 minutes long. We also have a lunch
break which is 20 minutes long. Students are evaluated by marks on the scale from 1 to 5 - 1
is the best and 5 is the worst.
During the school year we have some special events, for example: sport events, school trips,
going to the cinema, parent-teacher meetings, graduation balls...
Subjects taught at school during the school year:
1.) compulsory, and 2.) optional.
Subjects are: math, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, history, foreign languages,
technical subjects, PE - physical education, religious education, social sciences...

Other things you should know:

1.) What is school? School is any place where people learn. For example, college, university,
institute and so on...
2.) College is not high school or secondary school. College and university follow after high
school. Either you choose one or another. But when you choose college, you finish it and
then you can decide whether you go to university or not...
3.) A two year college offers an associate's degree...
4.) A 4-year college or university offers a bachelor's degree.
5.) Most colleges are separated schools. They are not located in university. Some colleges
are part of universities and are located on the university campus. The campus is the school
building's surrounding area...

Questions:
How much money do you spend on education and things related to it?
Why do students cheat at school?
Are teacher-parent meetings helpful? In what way? Give reasons.
Education in Slovakia has been free of charge for a long time. Many people now think that
university students should pay tuition fees. What positives or negatives will paying school
fees have?
Is truancy a serious problem in Slovak schools?
What should be done to make students attend school regularly?
What subjects do you consider to be the most boring? Why?
Would you like to study abroad? What are the advantages and disadvantages of studying in
a foreign country?
Topic number 9: Jobs

People need a job because they have to earn money for themselves and their family. They
want to achieve something in life. People at work meet new people. Without work there are
no cakes. This way we don't only earn money but also find our place in society, spend time
with people and feel useful...

They choose the school to study what they are interested in by the study at the university
they are getting to know and to be oriented in their future jobs. It depends on the selected
job what will be in the future and how we will live...

People need to work because: They need money to cover their living costs - to buy food, to
pay for electricity, to pay bills... They want to make the most of their talent... For some
people their job can also be their hobby...

We know:
1.) Physical work. For example: a mechanic, a plumber, a carpenter, a builder, a miner, a
fireman and so on...
2.) Mental work. For example: a lawyer, an architect, an accountant, a designer...

Labor market.
It contains two groups of people:
1.) Economically active population. A group of people who are willing and are able to work
and people who are still searching. This group also includes self-employed people and
employees.
2.) Economically inactive population. people who are retired, the disabled, the sick or those
who don't wish or are unable to work...

Other things which labor market contains:

Employment is a contract between employer and an employee. The employer is a person
who hires employees. People who have their own business are self-employed. The
unemployed are people who lost their job, quit or were fired. They live on unemployment
benefit support and are on a list in job centres, which help them find a new job...

Selection of the employees.

When people search for a new job, they look at several factors, such as type of work,
possible promotion and career development, salary, working time, travel opportunities, place
of work and others. The available positions are published in the newspapers or on the
internet. The candidates send the job application and their CV together with a cover letter.
Their CV should include personal data and details about education, skills and work
experiences...

Recruiting new staff.

The best candidates are invited to an oral interview. At the interview, they usually answer
questions, describe their motivations and expectations. Candidates should prepare well for
the interview, find information about the organization or the company, answer clearly and
stay calm. Successful candidates are offered a job with a starting salary, positions, medical
benefits and vacation days...
The unemployment in Slovakia.
Slovakia is still a country with relatively high unemployment compared with western europe.
Unemployment in Slovakia is around 12%. It is not because the Slovaks would not want to
work. The reason is lack of good jobs. While in Bratislava unemployment is below 5% in the
districts of southern and eastern Slovakia it is more than 20%. Therefore the people of these
regions are more considering leaving to work abroad...

Types of contract:
Permanent, temporary, full-time employment, part-time contract and contract upon order...

THE WAYS HOW PEOPLE CAN LOOK FOR A JOB:

There are several ways how to find a job. You can: Look at job advertisements in
newspapers or on the internet. Ask your family, friends and acquaintances if they know
about any job vacancies. You can go to a job centre or to an employment agency and ask for
help...

When you find a job advertisement, you have to contact your future employer either by post,
telephone, or e-mail and find out if the position is still free. If it is, you have to write a CV, in
which you include all the necessary information - your personal data and details about your
education, qualifications and special skills (for example computer skills, driving license …).
Then you send your CV together with a cover letter (a letter that offers more detailed
information about you), to your potential employer. After that you should prepare for the
job-interview...

If you are looking for a job, you should find out these informations:
What is the working time? What is the salary ? What are my duties, responsibilities? When
would you need me to start?...

Working and bringing up children:

Raising a child is the hardest, most responsible and satisfying task a human being can face.
When they have a child, one of the parents must go on maternity leave which takes 2 or 3
years...

Retirement:
Retirement is the point where a person stops employment completely. A person may also
semi-retire by reducing work hours. The standard age for retirement is considered 62,
although many individuals choose to retire earlier or later due to personal or financial
reasons...

WORKAHOLICS:
Workaholic is a man who loves his job and he doesn't want to do anything else. He works
from morning till evening and he doesn't have any free time which he could spend with his
family and friends. I think that it is fine to have a good job and do it perfectly, but it's also very
important to do some hobbies, or to go for a walk and enjoy sport activities.
Topic number 10: Human Relationships

Relationship is the way people feel and behave towards each other. When two people are
friendly towards each other and get on well together, we say that they have a good
relationship...

Relationship can be:

1.) formal - for example: public relations or diplomatic relations. Also relations between
Manager and assistant... In a formal relationship people should keep their feelings at bay...
2.) informal - for example: personal relationships, romantic relationships or friendship.
Relations among friends, neighbors, acquaintances, family members, girlfriend and
boyfriend, or fiancee and fiance...and so on... In informal relationship people are on a first
name's terms. They can express their emotions...

Relationship can also be:

1.) Short term relationship.
2.) Long term relationship.

In long term relationship, there are three vital components that make up true love:
1.) Intimacy.
2.) Passion.
3.) Commitment.

Conditions for Full-valued Relationship.

It contains foundation, some secrets but trust. To be honest with each other, not half-truth. To
be pleasant to look at him or her. It is absolutely okay if there are occasional blowouts.
Periodic arguing is usual... Problem is constant arguing, in other words: constant bickering...
If you want to maintain your relationship with your love, you should also do these things:
More compliments than criticize. Talking positive things about friends of your husband or
wife. Remember, that it's okay to do things differently. Do not change your partner! Make
time for the two of you. Marry someone that you enjoy listening and talking to. Marriage is
sometimes beautiful and awful: Be patient and solve all of your problems with a calm mind.
Best gift to children is the love of their parents. Dividing houseworks and spending money...
Never, ever go to bed angry! Remember, that people do fight. It's how you do it that
matters... Before starting an argument, consider if it's really worth it. Never, ever mention the
word divorce. Respect each other's privacy. Do you want to be right or to be married? ...
Love is like childhood: You must learn to share... Marriage is not 50 50, it's two people giving
100%, all of the time...
A few types of relationships.

1.) The relationship between men and women. The relationship between men and women in
general has changed over the years. Women were not treated equally to men in the past.
They didn't have equal rights. In the past women stayed at home and looked after children.
They didn't have a job and couldn't vote. Today women have better jobs and better
educational opportunities. Formally women have equal rights to men, but they still do not
have equal political power, or it is difficult for them to get a leading position in a company...

2.) The relationship between a man and a woman. Girls and boys like to go out together. The
boy usually asks the girl out: we say that they go on a date. If they don't understand each
other and argue a lot, they break up/split up. If their relationship lasts and they get to know
each other, they can fall in love and have a romantic relationship. Later they get engaged
and they get married. When they get married, they become a husband and a wife. Some
couples have problems in their marriage. For example: They don't understand each other.
They argue a lot (because of money, they don't like their new relatives and so on)... One of
the partners can start having an affair/ romance/a flirt. He or she falls in love with somebody
else and finds a lover. If there are too many problems in the marriage, they can get a
divorce...

3.) Friendship. When we make friends, we usually try to find people who have similar
hobbies and attitudes towards life as we do. A friendship between a man and a woman can
sometimes change into love. I think that friendship is very important in our life. People often
say: "A friend in need, is a friend indeed". ...And I think it's true, because friends are here to
help us when we need help...
Most people have a best friend. A best friend is someone who: Is always here for you when
you need him. He always helps you when you have problems. He always finds time to listen
to you. He doesn't envy you when you are happy and successful, but he's happy with you.
He helps you when other people disappoint you and let you down. And he can also forgive
and forget when you disappoint him...

4.) Relationships between neighbors. People have different relationships with their
neighbors: Some people get on well with their neighbors. They help each other when they
need help, they visit each other and they are good friends...
Some neighbors have neutral relationships. They don't see each other very often, they only
say hello to each other when they meet...
Some neighbors have a bad relationship. They don't like each other because they argue,
usually because of land or garden… This happens especially when there is a big difference
between the neighbors. For example: younger and older neighbors. The older neighbors
don't like loud music and so on...

5.) Relationships between the older generation - grandparents and the younger generation -
grandchildren. Sometimes there are generation problems between the younger generation
and the older generation. Older people usually don't understand young people...
Other relationships in a society.

1.) The relationship between different races, religions and social groups. In many countries
the relationship towards other races, religions and social groups is very bad. In every country
there live minorities: for example Gypsies. Also people who have a different color of the skin:
for example black people, Chinese people, people from India and so on. These relationships
are based on prejudice, intolerance and narrow-mindedness. Sometimes people are rude
towards these people, because they know nothing about them and they are suspicious...

2.) Society and disabled people. People usually had prejudices or were ignorant towards
disabled people in the past, but the situation nowadays is better because people have more
information. There are many organizations that help disabled people and look after them.
Some disabled people are very intelligent: for example Dr. Stephen Hawking. He is a
scientist, he writes books and lectures at the Oxford University. He cannot move and he's in
his wheelchair. Many disabled people are artists, actors or sportsmen. They can participate
at the Paralympic Games...

3.) Homeless people. They have nowhere to live because they lost their job and home. But
there are some homeless people who like to live on the street. They don't want to do
something with their life to improve it. We can support them by buying a magazine called
Nota Bene. This magazine is sold by homeless people and it gives them a chance to earn
some money for a better life...

There are many types of parents.

1.) Assertive democratic. They have rules, but they know how to make compromises. They
monitor the child, so they know him very well.
2.) Authoritative style. They have strict rules, they are not dealing with children.
3.) Permissive parents. They give children freedom and flexibility, They don't give them any
rules, so they are allowed to do everything.
4.) Overly strict parents. They control their children and they are extremely strict...

Reasons for change of behavior of a child: physical illness, changes at school, pressure in a
group, growing up, finding their purpose...
We can say that too much freedom is not good for children...

Life events and celebrations:

Life events: Birthday party, Christmas, New Year, Saint Valentine's day, Easter, Carnival,
Wedding, Divorce, Funeral...
Topic number 11: Man and Nature

Climate is the condition of the atmosphere, which is characteristic for a certain place on
Earth...
Weather is a contemporary state of the atmosphere, it often changes...
We can identify the following main types of climate:
tropical, dry, warm temperate, cold temperate, and cold. During a year exchanges four
seasons. Spring, summer, autumn and winter...

1.) SPRING... Spring is a beautiful season. Nature, the trees and forest animals awakes
from its long winter sleep. All the landscape turns green and birds start flying around and
small animals are born. Soon in gardens the first flowers... Basic features of spring:
There is more sunshine and the weather becomes warmer than in winter. The snow melts.
Nights get shorter and days get longer. Flowers and trees bloom. For example: snowdrops,
dundee lions, daffodils... Birds return from the south. People start working in the garden. We
have Easter holidays...

2.) SUMMER... Summer is the warmest season of the year. The temperature is mostly high.
The days are longer and nights shorter than in winter... Basic features of summer:
Everything is green. Birds sing. The sky is mostly blue. Sometimes there are storms. It
means there is a crash of thunder and a flash of lightning...
We don't have to go to school in summer. People travel on a holiday in summer and they
visit foreign countries. They go to the sea or to the mountains...

3.) AUTUMN/FALL... Autumn is a season full of colors. The leaves get yellow, red and brown
and fall down. The days are shorter and nights are longer than in summer. The weather gets
colder and it is usually cloudy and foggy... Basic features of autumn:
It is the season when the leaves on the trees change their colors. At the beginning of autumn
the weather is usually still nice and warm - we call this period Indian summer... The fruit
ripens and people pick it from the trees...
Later days become shorter, weather gets colder, the wind starts blowing. The trees shed
their leaves and it rains a lot... Mornings are foggy and there is more frost. Birds fly to the
south...

4.) WINTER... Winter is the coldest season when the temperature is below zero. There is a
lot of snow in the mountains. The trees are bare and the whole landscape is covered with
snow... Basic features of winter: It starts snowing and freezing, and the wind is icy... People
can do winter sports, such as skiing, snowboarding and ice-skating... In December,
Christmas time comes and people buy presents for each other...
Weather.
During the year the weather changes a lot. It can be sunny, it can rain, snow, it can be
overcast, or it can freeze. The weather influences many aspects of our lives. It influences:

1) What we wear... When the weather is nice and warm, people wear T-shirts, shorts or
skirts. On the other hand, in winter, when the weather is cold and when it's freezing, people
wear warm clothes. For example: jumpers, coats, gloves, scarves and so on. When it rains,
people must take an umbrella or a raincoat...

2) Our mood... The weather can influence our mood a lot. When the weather is nice and the
sun shines, people feel better: they are happy and they smile more. On the other hand,
when the weather is bad, especially in autumn and winter: it rains a lot, it's foggy and cloudy
and the days are short, people are melancholic and depressed. Statistics say, that in autumn
and winter there are more suicides than in summer...

3) Our health... Some people are very sensitive to weather changes. When the weather
changes, their health becomes worse or their body hurts. For example: their eyes or bones
hurt, they have a headache... Especially older people complain about the pain, when the
weather changes because their body can't adapt to the weather changes so quickly...

When we talk about environment, we can talk about several problems:

Acid rain, the hole in the ozone layer... the greenhouse effect or global warming...
Our life is dependent on 3 elements: the air, the water and the land...

1) Air pollution. It's the biggest problem in big cities where there are many factories and a lot
of traffic. It's caused by smoke, dust, emissions, exhaust fumes... It later causes acid rain
and greenhouse gasses...
Acid rain is when chemicals mix with water in clouds and make acid rain, which damages
buildings, kills trees and pollutes the soil...

2) Water pollution. It's caused by the households and agriculture. We use detergents,
fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals...
The water pollution can also be caused by big cargo ships and tankers. They can cause a
catastrophe. For example: the oil can get into the ocean and kill fish and plants in the
ocean...

3) Soil/land pollution. It can be contaminated by chemicals or by individuals. We throw out

our rubbish and so on...

Greenhouse effect.
Because of pollution there are more and more gasses in the atmosphere, and temperatures
get higher. It causes that It will get hotter, and then ice on the Poles will begin to melt, the
level of the sea will rise, and there will be floods in flat coastal areas...
Greenhouse effect causes global warming...
Global warming causes big changes on the Earth.
The temperature of the atmosphere rises. The level of the oceans rises. The glaciers melt,
which may cause floods... The number of very hot days can increase. This has an effect on
the climate changes and the changes in the ecosystem. These changes can affect people's
health, because we will have to change food, and we can have health problems. For
example: ultraviolet radiation causes skin cancer, different allergies and eye damage... The
weather patterns change in many countries. For example: the weather in cold countries gets
warmer, and in hot countries it can get colder and there can even be snow... Global warming
can cause droughts... Some species of animals become endangered or extinct. They can die
out... Changes on the Earth may cause more tornadoes, earthquakes, floods and droughts...

Natural disasters.
Catastrophes are for example: earthquakes, hurricanes, floods and so on...
1.) Earthquake. Vibrations are produced inside the earth. This moving of earth plates can
destroy all buildings and kill many people, not only in the epicentre...
2.) Hurricanes. The Greatest Storms on Earth. It's a hot air which moves with unbelievable
speed, and destroys everything that is in his way...
3.) Flood. It's a wild water which occurs when there is a lot of rain in the country. The level of
water rises and rises, then rivers get out of their way and this water can destroy houses,
gardens and everything that is near the river...

Protecting nature.
The National Parks and natural reservations provide protection. There are also ecological
organizations such as Greenpeace, which organize campaigns and many activities to
explain people how dangerous pollution is, that they shouldn't destroy nature...
There are people who are interested in the future of the Earth. For example in summer there
were big concerts in big cities around the world, during the day of Earth. Many singers sang
here, and helped to inform the public about global changes, and to save money for it...

Importance of plants.
The main importance of plants in our lives is that they take in Carbon Dioxide that we
breathe out and in place they let out oxygen which we breathe in. Without plants we would
run out of oxygen and die very quickly. This applies not just to us humans but to all animals
as well. They are also the source of food for animals...

Endangered animals.
The most endangered species are rhinos, tigers, pandas, whales, turtles, chimpanzees,
gorillas, polar bears and so on...
Topic number 12: Science and Technology

Difference between science and technology.

Science and technology go hand in hand. They are inseparable parts, one influences
another...

Science is a process of gaining knowledge. Science tries to ask questions that can be
tested. So you can't ask the question. “Why does the universe exist?“ the right question can
be: “When did the universe come into existence?“ Because you could design experiments to
test the answer. This reveals another characteristic of science. It usually involves doing an
experiment. In science your experience has to be repeatable...One of the most popular
conceptions of what makes science different is that it follows the scientific method. This
method involves asking a question, performing an experiment, gathering observations and
coming to conclusions...

Technology is the usage and knowledge of tools, machines, systems or methods of

organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the
collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures...

Science and technology is as old as mankind. Science has started to develop as people
have sought to somehow improve their lives. The first inventions and discoveries were very
simple...
As the first important discovery in the development of mankind, we consider the discovery of
fire. On the other hand another vitally important invention was the invention of Wheel -
(about 3 thousand and 500 Before Christ)...
About the year 3000 Before Christ people started to live in towns, where science began to
grow. Many important inventions like writing, reading, counting, astronomy, medicine and
chemistry began to develop... Man's effort to survive and to improve his way of life made him
invent new and better tools, get deeper knowledge and control of the forces of nature. As
man's knowledge grew, people found it useful to classify it. It was separated into various
branches, such as Physics: the study of natural forces... Biology: the study of living beings
and Chemistry: the study of materials...

Comparison between life in the past and in the present.

Science has been very fast growing and our understanding of it has increased in comparison
with the world hundred years ago. In that time patients battle illness, while doctors can't do
more than counsel and comfort them and keep them clean... Now doctors treat and often
cure patients with a variety of medicines and medical technologies. Public sanitation has
eliminated many of the lethal diseases such as plague dysentery and tuberculosis...
Many cures have been found for infectious diseases, flu, diabetes, and so on... Penicillin (an
antibiotic that kills bacteria) was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928... Insulin by
Sanger in 1958... Quite a few people live longer owing to transplanted organs, such as heart,
kidneys, lungs or liver...
Nowadays television signal can be instantaneously transmitted by satellites to households.
The news will spread as well by radio, newspaper, and the World Wide Web...
Inventions of the past.
In the prehistoric times, people's lives were very simple: people hunted for food and made
primitive tools from stones, and simple clothes to protect them from the cold. The only tool
which they had was the human hand...
People wanted to make their lives easier and more comfortable and so they invented the
wheel. They also built windmills to use the wind energy. Important discoveries and inventions
came in the 15th and 16th centuries: new continents - America, Asia, Africa were
discovered, and sciences such as astronomy, philosophy, medicine and biology were
developed...At that time also the printing press was invented in Germany by a man called
Gutenberg...
Many important inventions came in the 18th and 19th century. It was the time of the
Industrial Revolution:
The steam engine by James Watt. The electric light bulb by Edison. The electric motor by
Michael Faraday. The 1st petrol driven car by Daimler and K. Benz. The electricity...

Other famous inventors and scientists:

Isaac Newton. English mathematician, physicist, astronomer. He invented the law of
gravitation...
Charles Darwin. An English scientist. He developed the modern theory of evolution...
Alexander Graham Bell. Scottish inventor. He invented the telephone...
Albert Einstein. He developed the theory of relativity...
Sir Alexander Fleming. Scottish bacteriologist. He discovered the first antibiotic drug -
penicillin...
James Dewey Watson. American biologist. Discovery of a structure for DNA...

Thanks to these inventions, large factories were built and everything started to be produced
by machines. Mass production started and many goods became cheaper, and so more
people could buy them. Also the technologies improved and new and cheaper materials
were used: Rubber, glass, leather, paper, plastics and synthetic materials...

Later, in the 20th century, these inventions came to existence: The airplane, the computer,
the mobile phone, the Internet, the TV, the videophone, the credit cards, pesticides, fertilizers
or genetically modified food...

In the 20th century, scientists made a lot of medical research that helped doctors to save
human lives and to cure many illnesses. For example: The laser, new drugs and vaccines,
penicillin, vitamin C, X-ray, and so on...

Inventions and technology that we use every day.

Today we cannot imagine our lives without technology. We use it every day at home, at work,
at school and in many other parts of our lives. They are very important for us. There are
many inventions that we use every day...
For example at home we use these inventions:
Electric appliances. Fridge, a washing machine, PC, TV, an electric kettle, a mobile phone,
an answering machine, a dishwasher, a plug, a socket, a microwave oven, a hoover and so
on...
At work we can use.
A telephone, a fax machine, a computer, a notebook, a car, and so on...

Science and Technology in the hands of a human.

Advantages:
It made our lives easier and more comfortable. Sometimes science can help to make a
human life longer. for example: new medicine - penicillin, and medical technology was
developed - X-ray, so many people can be cured.
Science and technology help us to learn new information about our life, the life of animals,
our world and space. People can travel to space, search the oceans and the jungle because
we have the technology for it. We can measure, weigh very precisely. Science and
technology helps us to overcome the distance. For example: the telephone, we can talk to
and see people who are far away from us, even on the other side of the world. It helps us to
make transactions easier. We use credit cards, phone cards…
It can help us to protect our environment, to find some alternative sources of energy. For
example: wind power, solar power...

Disadvantages:
Science has brought some ethical problems. For example the cloning of animals and people.
Some people think that it is right, some people think it is wrong...
Science and technology can endanger people. We can be destroyed by the new inventions:
ballistic missiles, laser and nuclear weapons, hydrogen bombs...
Pollution of the environment, on the one hand science can help us to protect it, on the other
hand, we can destroy it by fertilizers, pesticides...
We spend less time talking to our family and friends. We prefer sending messages, using
mobiles and we communicate with computers, not with real people...

We should use the technology wisely, so that we can improve our lives and not destroy it...

Misuse of science and technology.

Everything has its pros and cons. This phrase belongs also to science and technology. It's
very satisfying how science has influenced our lives from a positive side of view, but it has
also influenced our lives from a negative side - science can be misused...
The best example of how the science can be abused are weapons. At first, it was meant as
a defensive tool used only in a case of danger. But we all know that it isn't like that. Weapon
that influenced the world the most was nuclear weapon with enormous destructive power. A
single nuclear weapon is capable of destroying a city. Nuclear weapons have been used
twice for war, by the US against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (bomb called Little Boy)
and Nagasaki (bomb called Fat Man) during World War II. With dreadful results. Little Boy
had a force of 12000 tons of TNT, it leveled all buildings and 100000 people died. Very
dangerous are also chemical and biological weapons...
Science and technology in the future.
In the house you have a washing machine, which will wash your dish for you. As science
develops, people become lazier, simply they are living an easier life but only from a physical
side of man...From a mental side people get more and more stressed, they are still in a rush.
People don't do any sports because they simply don't have any time... Besides a healthy
nutrition, people eat hamburgers, drink alcohol and smoke cigarettes. This all doesn't
influence our health positively. And that's why civilization diseases came into existence...
Right example can be the heart attack or diseases which are related to metabolism, blood
flow. Many people die from these diseases. The steep development of industry in the last 50
years is a great danger for life on the Earth... There are two pressing problems with the
atmosphere on our planet, which are caused by emitting polluting materials into the air. The
most pressing problem is caused by the impairment of the ozone layer in the stratosphere of
the Earth. Ozone is decomposed by Freon above all... The second great problem is the
greenhouse effect which is caused by a lot of Carbon Dioxide in the air. The increase of
temperature can cause melting of polar icebergs maybe in a period of 50 years...
Topic number 13: Man and Society

WHAT IS SOCIETY?

1.) It is a group of people who share a defined territory and a culture.

It's also a social structure where are expected certain patterns of behaviour and
relationships. Thus, a society is not only the group of people and their culture, but the
relationship between people and their culture and relationship between people and
institutions...
2.) An organized group of people associated together for religious, cultural, scientific, and
political purposes...
3.) A highly structured system of human organization where there is protection, security and
national identity...

What is ethics and etiquette?

ETHICS is the study of morals. It is also called morality or moral law, because it is about
what is right and what is not, and how we decide what to do... So, ethics is the ability to see
differences between good and bad, and decide for good...
Everybody has the right to life, the right to freedom from injury and the right to privacy...
People must avoid from rape, murder, slander, stealing, assault, fraud and so on...

ETIQUETTE is the formal rules of correct, or polite behaviour in society, or among members
of a profession...

Position of a man in society depends on many things. The 1st one is a family where the man
was born... In society there are classes, into which people are divided according to their
origin, job position, education or lifestyle. For example in Great Britain there are 3 classes -
upper, middle and lower class... We could say that something similar we have also in
Slovakia. But in our upper class there are no people with noble origin, and we include here
people according to their property, like politicians, sportsmen, actors and other people with a
big estate...

All people have basic human rights.

Good manners and principles...

Rules, values and ethics are the basis of every good society. It's very important to keep
these principles. They can help people to get on with other people. And it's very important,
because when people are on good terms with other people it's better for society. We could
prevent wars and conflicts...
We learn moral rules and principles all our life. Our parents raise us up, they teach us moral
principles, values, they teach us what is polite and impolite, what we should do, and so on...
At first they have to show us how to do it, because if they expect their children to take good
manners seriously, they have to show the same manners to them... They tell us that we
should greet older people, that man should greet woman, children should greet adults they
know... They tell us that we should greet loud, with clear voice, looking into the eyes. They
prepare us for life. They give us the basis of morals and it's good for us. Because when we
are polite, we can have good relations with other people...
Living in society requires following a code. (If we don't follow it, we would have anarchy).
They contain rules of behaviour/manners, and appearance/dress code...
The basic social rules are taught at home, and at school...

Children can learn how to behave well:

1.) At home. Parents should give their children a good example at home. They must look
after them and teach them what is good and what is bad. They shouldn't let them do
everything their children want to do. They should talk to them and explain if they have a
problem. Sometimes parents punish their children, but the punishment should always be
reasonable...
2.) At school. Teachers must also give students a good example. At school students can
have lectures organized by the school about how to behave on a bus or a train, in a
restaurant, when we go to a party and so on...
3.) At special institutions. Some institutions organize courses where people can learn how to
behave well in society - how to eat, drink, talk politely, how to ask woman for a dance and so
on...

Communication in society.
We talk differently to different people:
1.) When we talk to our parents and friends - we use informal language and slang. When we
are angry, we sometimes argue with them and sometimes we even shout. When we talk to
our friends or parents we can chew a chewing gum. When we meet our friends, we usually
say Hi! ...
2.) When we talk to our teachers - our communication is more formal. We usually don't use
slang words and we shouldn't argue or shout at our teachers, because it's rude... When a
teacher comes into a classroom, students should stand up, because it's a way how we greet
teachers in Slovakia, and it is polite. When we meet our teachers, we usually say Good
morning/afternoon/evening! ...

Good manners start at home. At home and also in society people should and should not:
A man and his wife should not argue in front of their children, because they set a bad
example to them. People shouldn't argue in public, they should say their opinions politely. If
people argue, they should do it in private...
We shouldn't talk when other people are talking. It's polite to wait until they say what they
want to say, and then we can give our opinion politely...
We should greet our guests when they come for a visit to our house. We should say hello.
We should offer them a cup of coffee or something to drink, offer a snack and so on...
We should answer if somebody greets us. A man should greet a woman first, a younger
person should greet the older person first...
We should say “please”, and “thank you” often...
We shouldn't make comments about disabled people, racial comments and so on...
If we make a mess, we should tidy it up. We shouldn't throw rubbish on the street...
We should apologize when we make a mistake, we should say for example:
I'm sorry. I apologize. Excuse me, could you tell me the time, please? And so on...
When we travel.
We should let older or disabled people, and pregnant women or mothers with young children
sit down...
We shouldn't smoke or drink on the bus or train...
We shouldn't be noisy - listen to loud music, laugh too loudly, make loud phone calls,
because it disturbs other passengers...
We shouldn't argue with other passengers...

Table manners.
We shouldn't spit out the food. We shouldn't talk when our mouth is full of food...
We should use a knife and a fork for eating... When we are in a restaurant, we shouldn't be
noisy...

Crime and Punishment.

There are many different types of crimes, I think four main:
1.) Minor offenses.
Drivers offenses, for example: illegal parking, speeding, running a red light...
Shoplifting is stealing things from opened shops...
Tiny thefts from pockets, for example: purses, mobile phones, keys, papers and so on...

2.) Crime against property.

Arson is when someone intentionally lights a fire on somebody's car, house or office...
Burglary is when someone breaks into a flat, office or closed shop and steals something...
Hooliganism - fans, drunkards or demonstrationists pass a street, wreck cars, break
windows, light a fire, make noise, demolish public property...
Robbery is stealing money from shops, banks, post offices, petrol stations and so on...

3.) Crime against people.

Assault is attacking someone and hurting him...
Rape is special type of assault, it's violent sex...
Blackmail - call for money from somebody, for example: because of secret information about
him, which he doesn't want to make public...
Kidnapping is taking someone as a prisoner and demanding money for his release...
Mugging is attacking someone and stealing his car in the street...
Manslaughter is killing someone unintentionally...
Murder is intentional kill, often planned...

4.) Economical crimes.

Imposture - borrow money from someone and not return it, sell false things...
Smuggling is importing or exporting things secretly. For example: goods, subject of duty...
Forgery is making false documents, money, signatures, stamps...

There are also other, I think more dangerous crimes: hijacking, terrorism or dealing drugs...

Crime prevention. We can make life more difficult for thieves for example by carrying our
wallet in an inside pocket, and not letting our handbag out of our sight, by locking doors and
windows in cars or houses and switching on the alarm too...
Punishment. When someone breaks the law or commits a crime, is caught by police and
arrested, he always calls for a lawyer and makes a statement. He often can be released on
bail during court trial. Police look for evidence, investigate the accused and witnesses. When
police have good evidence, a criminal is prosecuted and comes into court. If he's plead
guilty, then in case of minor offenses he can get away with probation, fine or community
service. But in case of serious crimes someone can be sentenced to jail or life imprisonment.
Convict can of course make an appeal...

Death penalty. Capital punishment has been used throughout history, although its methods
and the crimes for which it is used have changed over the centuries. Now the death penalty
is used only in the USA, China, Arabian countries and south-east Asia...
People are divided into two groups - one is for the death penalty, second against it.

Social problems in Society.

In our society we have many problems like abortion, euthanasia, death penalty, alcoholism,
drugs and drug addiction. Criminality, vandalism, violence, homelessness, prostitution,
poverty, illiteracy, illnesses and so on...
We hear about them, talk about them and each of us has his own opinion on how to prevent,
or to keep them down... It is difficult to say which one of these problems is the most
serious...
Topic number 14: Communication

It is the act of passing information to each other. It requires feedback.

We have two basic types of Communication:

1.) Verbal.
Verbal communication is spoken language, which is often spontaneous. The spoken word is
usually face to face, which may allow the speaker to ask questions...
In verbal communication we can use tension, tone and the modulation of the voice to
express different meanings... Spoken language can also include laughter, signs and long
expressive pauses to produce additional meaning... When something has been said it
cannot be taken back...

2.) Non verbal.

Non verbal is written communication... It requires more thought and planning, and is often
expressed in rather more formal terms. The ideas are more structured and better organised
with suitable examples included...
Written words can be read several times, which helps their understanding...
Written communication is one way, and the reader is not usually able to make an immediate
response to the writer, to ask for more explanations or further examples...
Written language does not allow the reader to fully appreciate the feelings, and attitudes of
the writer at first hand, as the spoken word does. Writing is a better form of communication
for recording facts and ideas...

There are 2 means of communication.

1.) Auditory means. It includes speaking, singing, tone of voice, modulation of voice and so
on...
2.) Physical means. It contains body language, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, writing
and so on...

We have 6 dimensions of communication.

1.) Content. What is communicated? ...
2.) Source. By whom it is communicated? ...
3.) Form. How do we communicate? ...
4.) Channel. Which medium do we use? ...
5.) Destination. To whom it is communicated? ...
6.) Purpose. Why is it communicated? ...

There are 2 types of communication.

1.) Interpersonal communication. It is communication with other people...
2.) Intrapersonal communication. It is communication with one's self. It contains thoughts…

3 Semiotic rules:
1.) Syntactic. It's the formal properties of signs and symbols...
2.) Pragmatic. It's the relation between signs or expressions and their user...
3.) Semantic. It's connected with meaning. It's the relation between signs and symbols and
what they represent...
Process of communication.
1.) Image... For example: I see a tree in a garden...
2.) Codifying that image... I know that image I see in a garden is called a tree...
3.) Transmission... I pass the information that I see a tree to another person...
4.) Decodifying... He knows what the word tree means, so he is able to imagine a picture of
a tree. But his picture of a tree doesn't have to be the same as the real tree that I saw...
Everybody has a little bit different perspective about what words mean...

If we want to communicate properly, we need to know signs and symbols of a particular

medium...
For example: In Europe, if you tap your index finger on your temple, it means a sign of
stupidity, but in Arabic countries you touch the lower eyelid, with the tip of the index finger...
The thumbs up sign in England is a positive sign of success, whereas in Australia it's rather
insulting...

Dividing of language.
1.) Morphology.
2.) Syntax.
3.) Lexema. It contains words and sentences...
All of these three parts are verbal communication...

We also have sign language, or morse code. Morse code has its dots and dashes...
Interaction is a kind of relation. Interaction is always happening, but communication isn't...
Topic number 15: Mass Media

It serves to distribute some kinds of content.

Public media has a large number of people in the audience at the same time.
Most are based on a nation state level basis...

Mass Media can be divided into 2 parts:

1.) Printed Media. It contains newspapers and magazines...
2.) Electronic Media...

Something from history.

First type of material for writing was tipao from China. It was invented in 713. It was a piece
of silk. There was pointed some information and it was distributed to public places... In Rome
there was Acta Diurna...
In the modern age, In 1443 Gutenberg invented a printing machine. First book was the
Bible...

Printed media...
Newspapers.
It contains feature articles on sports, politics, comics, advertising, obituaries, business,
crimes, weather forecast, and so on... All of this is called journalism...

Newspapers are divided by FORMAT.

1.) Broadsheet. It is the most quality newspaper, according to its content...
For example: New York Times...
2.) Tabloid/Gutter press. It's half the format of a broadsheet. It has very low quality. They
mislead readers...
For example: The Sun Globe, and New York Post...
3.) Berliner/Midi. It is something between broadsheet and tabloid.
For example: Guardian...
4.) Newsprint/Off white. It is printed on low quality paper. It's a local print for local people...

Newspapers are divided also by how many times they are produced.
1.) Daily. (mostly five or six times per week)...
2.) Weekly. (one time per week). It is often the second half of the week...
3.) Fortnightly. (one time per two weeks)...
4.) Monthly...
5.) Annually...
Daily, Weekly and also Fortnightly are based on national state level...

Magazines are divided according to its CONTENT.

1.) General interest. For example: Slovenka, Plus 7 dní, Týždeň...
2.) Special interest. They have a limited number of readers. Very narrow topics.
They are subscription only and freely accessible... They are printed on glossy paper...
For example: Muscle and Fitness...
Magazines are produced fortnightly, monthly and annually...
Electronic media...
The Internet is the first interactive media accessible at any time. For example social
networks like Facebook or Twitter...
From history. End of 19. century, Marconi invented wireless telegraph. Wireless means
distributed via air... Now we have AM (Amplitude Modulation) and FM (Frequency
modulation). FM has a higher quality of signal, it can play stereo...
In 1916 there was the first radio broadcasting.
From 1927 we have TV broadcasting...

Broadcasting.
1.) Public. It has informative, educative and entertaining function...
It's based on taxes. It's funded by the state treasury... Government redistributes money.
Public TV is owned by the state... It is a channel between authority and inhabitants...
Content must be independent...
2.) Commercial. It's based on advertising... They must be attractive... They follow ratings of
programs...
Topic number 16: Young People and Their World

Adolescence is a stage of development between childhood and adulthood, when a person is

biologically adult. Their physical or psychological development is almost complete, but
emotionally they are not fully mature...
A term youth includes teenagers from the age of 13 till the age of 19, but also young adults
from 20 till 30...

The age at which a person has full legal rights differs from culture to culture. In each country
there are different age limits for driving a car, getting married or buying cigarettes...
During puberty, most children go through dramatic physical changes, which often begin
between the ages of nine and thirteen. Girls usually go through this stage earlier than boys.
As puberty progresses, levels of sex hormones rise. This causes the changes in the
secondary sex characteristics. Boys grow more facial hair, greater muscle mass and a
deeper voice... Girls breasts enlarge and their hips widen. Their sex organs change and they
are able to reproduce...

Young people, in general, do not trust the authorities and tend to risk more...
At this age they are under pressure, because they usually start and complete their
secondary education, and have to decide about their future career...

Characteristic features of young people.

1.) Appearance.
Young people like to dress nicely. They like to wear brand name clothing, like Adidas, Puma
or Nike...
They like being fit and attractive. Girls want to be slim, and boys want to look fit and have
strong muscles. That's why boys often go to the fitness centre and girls are often on diets
because they want to lose weight...
Young people like nice hairstyles. They dye their hair and use a lot of cosmetics, like for
example: make-up, gel, face creams and so on. Some of them also like to have piercings
and tattoos...

2.) Character.
Young people like to be independent and respected. They know what they want from life,
and they like freedom...
They don't like criticism and they don't like to be told what to do...
They have their dreams and plans for the future...
They like their friends and they like spending time with them. So love and friendship is very
important to them...
On the other hand, some young people nowadays are very cheeky, rude and impolite, and
they don't care about other people... Sometimes they are lazy, so they don't help other
people...
Young people are goal-oriented and ambitious... They have an open mind...
A few of them are geeks...
They often fight with unrequited love... And when they are in a relationship with somebody,
they are sometimes jilted/dumped... Youngsters usually struggle with rejection...
3.) Lifestyle
They want their life to be interesting and exciting . They like to live fast...
In the developed world, young people are usually well-educated, experienced and
self-confident... They know their goals and try to reach them... They are often hardworking,
and they have many opportunities to study or work abroad... They often travel to foreign
countries to learn a foreign language, earn money and gain experiences...
But sometimes it's difficult for them to find a job, because they don't have enough work
experience when they finish school, and because there are few job opportunities in Slovakia.
They can't afford to buy their own flat or start a family...
Many young people today start their own families later in life than their parents did... They
want to work on their career first, and get married later... Young families are different
nowadays... In modern families they share domestic chores, husbands help at home more,
or sometimes stay on a maternity leave, if his wife earns more money...

4.) Interests and leisure time.

They like to go out with friends. They go to pubs, cinemas, discos, music festivals and so
on...
They like modern inventions that make our lives easier. They can't imagine life without the
mobile phone or the computer. They are used to Internet banking, shopping on-line and
using the Internet to find information. They spend a lot of time playing computer games or
listening to music...
Young girls like to buy new clothes and make-up...
Most young people like sports. They like to go skiing, swimming, running and so on...

Advantages and disadvantages of being young.

Being young has many advantages:
You have all your life ahead of you. You can make plans and decide what you want to do in
the future...
If you want to, you can travel abroad, find a job or study...
You don't have to think about your children because you don't have any...
You have your freedom...

Being young can also have some disadvantages. For example:

It's more difficult to find a job because you don't have enough experience...
If you study and go to school, you don't have your own money. You are dependent on your
parents and family...
You can't buy your own flat, house or what you want, because you don't have money...
Older people don't understand you. They have different opinions...
Problems that young people face.
Young people can face these problems:

1.) Alcohol and drugs. Sometimes young people become addicted to alcohol and drugs.
They are curious and they want to try it, and later they can't stop. Alcohol and drugs have
ruined many young lives...

2.) Smoking...

3.) Teenage pregnancy. Sexual activities often lead to teenage pregnancy. Not only it can
have a negative effect on a girl's body, but it often ends her education. Teenagers are also
not emotionally mature enough, or financially able to bring up children...

4.) Generation problems. These are the problems between older people and young people.
Young people think that older people don't understand them - They don't like the music that
young people listen to, the way they dress, their hairstyles, the slang which young people
use... Young people consider older people very old-fashioned...
Older people despise the young generation, because they are different. They think that
young people are bad - much worse than themselves when they were at the same age...

5.) Problems with parents. Young people feel that parents don't treat them as equals. They
treat them as little children, and young people don't like that. Parents sometimes don't have
time to spend with their children, to talk to them and so on...

6.) Young people don't have enough experience. It is difficult for them to find a good job and
to earn money...

Relationships among adults and youngsters.

1.) to Peers. Friendship is one of the most important values in the lives of young people.
Friends are used to getting together. They have the same or similar attitudes and views.
They share their opinions,experiences and feelings with each other, they help each other...

2.) to Parents. Many of young people, especially teenagers have some conflicts with their
parents. Young people often criticize their parent's conservative lifestyle. They claim that
parents don't give them enough freedom. They don't like when their parents criticize their
friends, clothes or hairstyle... They think parents underestimate them, and they also
complain that they don't have enough pocket money, or that they are not allowed to come
home later...

There is a generation gap between Youngsters and Adults. Generation gap is a broad
difference between generations in opinions, styles, ideas and experiences...
Generation gap throughout history.

1.) 1920s. During what was known as the Roaring Twenties, a large generation gap
occurred. The older generation fought in the war and found it inappropriate, that the younger
were out at dance halls and listening to jazz music...

2.) 1950s. The age of Baby Boomers in which veterans from World War 2 had children after
a long period of war. Why they were called "boomers" was because in the 1940s and 1950s,
medicine and treatment for certain illnesses and diseases were starting to come into use,
making the population explode. Also, the end of World War 2 allowed soldiers to return home
and start a family. But they also launched the large protests of the 1960s and were detested
by earlier generations. Some of them are called beats or hipsters...

3.) 1960s. Although some generational differences have existed throughout history, during
this era differences between the two generations grew significantly in comparison to
previous times, particularly with respect to such matters as musical tastes, fashion, drug use,
culture and politics. The huge Baby Boomer generation of their parents gave them
unprecedented power, influence, and willingness to rebel against societal norms...

4.) MTV Generation. It could also be considered a generation gap, between Generation in
the late 70s and Generation in the early 90s. Culturally, one of the primary differences that
creates the gap between these two generations is the reduction of mass/recycled/popular
culture, with the advancement of more specialized media during the later half of the 1980s...
Contemporary youngsters are frequently referred to as "the Youtube generation"...

Going steady/dating somebody.

A date refers to an activity two people share together with the intention of getting to know
each other better on a potentially romantic level... This differs greatly from 'hooking up',
which usually describes a casual get together between two people, that may or may not be
sexual in nature. Two people who are dating therefore, have shared several dates together,
and have made it clear to one another they are interested in more than just a friendship.
Dating is, essentially, getting to know someone over an extended period of time to determine
if a relationship is something worth pursuing...

Marriage.
Marriage is the process by which two people who love each other make their relationship
public, official, and permanent... It is the joining of two people in a bond that putatively lasts
until death, but in practice is increasingly cut short by divorce. Of course, over the course of
a relationship that can last as many as seven or eight decades, a lot happens. Personalities
change, bodies age, and romantic love waxes and wanes. And no marriage is free of
conflict. What enables a couple to endure is how they handle that conflict...
Topic number 17: Food

Eating habits in Slovakia.

In Slovakia a typical day starts with breakfast. Between breakfast and lunch we usually have
a snack. At midday we have lunch. Later we can have a snack again. In the evening, we eat
dinner...

1.) BREAKFAST. The typical breakfast in Slovakia consists of a slice of bread with butter,
ham, cheese or jam with a cup of tea or coffee... Some people like sausages or rolls. Some
people prefer healthy breakfast/light breakfast. For example cereals (Cornflakes, Chocapic
or Nestle) with yoghurt... They drink fruit juice...
Breakfast is very important, because it gives us energy for the start of the day...

2.) SNACK. We usually have a snack between breakfast and lunch. and we eat it at school
or at work... Children and students usually bring their snack from home, or they buy it at the
school buffet... As a snack people usually have a sandwich with ham or cheese, fruit, a
chocolate bar or some sweets...

3.) LUNCH. Lunch is the main meal that we have during the day... We eat our lunch at
midday. Some people have their lunch at work, at school in the canteen or they wait and eat
their lunch when they come home... Our lunch usually has 2 courses:
a) Soup. For example: meat soup, tomato soup, vegetable soup and so on...
b) Main meal. In Slovakia we usually have meat with potatoes or rice and some vegetables.
In some families, people have lunch together.
We can have these things in our main meal:
Meat (types of meat: chicken, beef, pork, lamb, fish, tuna, salmon...)
With meat we eat for example: Potatoes, French fries, Rice, Dumplings, Pasta, Salad...
If you are looking for vegetables, there is always cabbage, often in form of sauerkraut...

4.) DINNER. In Slovakia it's not very common to cook dinner. We usually cook lunch and
most people eat for dinner what they had for lunch. Some people just have a snack. For
example: rolls, a cake with milk or tea and so on... In Slovakia people always have dinner
together at Christmas...

My favourite food are pancakes with chocolate, whipped cream and curd...

Food in ENGLAND.
1.) Breakfast. Cereal with milk. To drink coffee or orange juice. For special occasions and
weekends a full English may be eaten including eggs, bacon or sausage, baked beans,
tomatoes, mushrooms and toast with butter or margarine or jam...

2.) Lunch. Packed lunch: a sandwich, packet of crisps, a piece of fruit and drink...

3.) Dinner. Hot dressing on the meat, vegetables (and usually potatoes). Afters for kids. For
example: ice cream, pie, and so on...
Food in AMERICA.
1.) Breakfast. Porridge, maize porridge, eggs, bacon, hash browns (Hash browns is a dish of
cooked potatoes), toasts, pancakes, waffles, baguettes, cereals with tea or juice...

2.) Lunch. Burger and fries with a coca cola, pizza, hot dog, sandwich and soup...

3.) Dinner. Meat with potatoes and vegetables...

After dinner they usually have deserts. For example: Apple pie or ice cream...

If you want to eat, you have a number of options.

The best one is to cook by yourself or by someone who lives with you...
Most parents prepare snacks for their kids. But some parents like to give them money, so
they can buy whatever they want. It can be not only unhealthy food, but also more expensive
than food packaged at home...
For lunch children can use the school's canteen. It's cheap and there is a quite good quality
of food...

Though many kids buy lunch in fast food. Fast food is the term given to food that can be
prepared and served very quickly. Fast food is very popular especially with young people.
For example McDonalds', KFC and so on... Fast food restaurants sell hamburgers,
cheeseburgers, ice cream, chicken with chips, sweet fizzy drinks...
This food usually contains too many calories and oil, and is too heavy for our stomach... But
it's tasty and easily accessible and many people like it. It is also quite expensive, but for
many people it's a comfortable way of eating because they are busy, and they don't have
time to cook, or wait in a restaurant for lunch. They can just buy a hamburger in a fast food
restaurant, carry it with them and eat it when they have time...
Nowadays many fast food restaurants have a drive-in. It means you can buy food while you
are sitting in your car...

Many people like to eat at the restaurants because it's very comfortable. But if you do it
every day, it's expensive. In addition, there is a big possibility that your food is unhealthy. So
you better watch out you don't eat your main meal just in a restaurant...
We also know take out/take away. It's a food served to the customer in a packaged form...

Food around the world.

Different nationalities have different national dishes.
SLOVAKIA. Our national dish is Bryndzové halušky. It is food made from potatoes mixed
with sheep cheese...
GREAT BRITAIN. The national dish is “Fish and chips”. People in Britain usually buy it in a
shop, they don't cook it. It's usually wrapped in paper and eaten outside.
The British are also famous for their English tea - tea with milk and for Christmas they have
a Christmas pudding, which is made of candied fruit... For Thanksgiving Day they have a
turkey and the whole family has dinner together...
THE USA. They don't have a national dish because it's a very multicultural country. Their
cuisine contains food from different parts of the world - Indian, Chinese food and so on...
American people also like eating steaks...
CHINA. They eat a lot of vegetables and rice. It's eaten with chopsticks...
CANADA. Canada is famous for its Maple syrup...
Healthy eating.
If we want to be healthy, we should eat healthy food. We should:
Eat at least 3 times during the day...
Eat smaller portions but more often during the day...
We should eat slowly...
We should eat a lot of fruit and vegetables...
We should drink a lot of water...
We should stop skipping meals...
We should avoid too much salt and spices...
We should avoid eating in fast food restaurants...
We should avoid eating late at night...
We should avoid sweet fizzy drinks like Coca Cola...
We should avoid drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes...
We should avoid drinking too much coffee and caffeine...
We should eat more fish and dairy products...

Diets and vegetarians.

1.) Diets. Especially young girls often go on a diet, because they want to be slim and
attractive. Too much dieting is not healthy, but it can be dangerous to health. Nowadays
many young girls become seriously ill, because they want to lose weight and be as slim as
famous models. Such illnesses are for example: anorexia, bulimia and so on...

2.) Vegetarians. Vegetarians are people who don't eat meat or fish. They eat only vegetable
products like grains or fruit. People become vegetarians because they think it's more healthy,
or for moral reasons. For example because they don't like the cruel treatment of animals, so
they protest in this form... Vegetarians are less ill. They don't suffer from heart attack so
often because it's healthier to eat vegetable products than to eat meat...

3.) Vegans. Vegans are people who don't eat any animal products at all. They don't eat
meat, fish, cheese, milk, eggs - Nothing that comes from animals...
Doctors believe that a natural diet for a human being should contain both animal and
vegetable products...
Topic number 18: Interests, Hobbies and Leisure Time

Leisure time is a time people like to spend in their free time. It's usually time for having fun
and there are many ways how to spend it...

Leisure activities in general.

We can spend our leisure time:
1.) Actively. It means doing sport, working in the garden...
2.) Passively. Watching TV, reading a book, playing computer games...

In summer we can do these leisure activities.

Gardening. People grow fruit, vegetables, cut the grass...
Do summer sports. Cycling, swimming, playing tennis, golf, football...
Go out with friends. We can go to a musical concert, to the cinema, to the theatre, to the pub
for a beer...
Go to nature. Go hiking, go for a walk in the forest, climbing, picking mushrooms...
Go to the ZOO...

In winter we can do these leisure activities.

Do winter sports. We can go skiing, snowboarding, skating, we can play ice-hockey at the
pond...
Go to the fitness centre...
Collect objects. For example: collect stamps...
Play a musical instrument. Play guitar, piano, violin...
Men can do practical jobs around the house. For example decorating, repairing...
Some people can have cooking and baking as their hobby...
Meet with friends in a pub or in a cafe...
Go to the cinema, theatre, to an art exhibition...
Education. We can study languages, computers...

Spend our leisure time passively. We can:

watch TV, read books, play computer games or do crosswords...

Young people like these hobbies:

Playing team sports...
Going to the disco, pub, parties, cinema...
Doing sport. Roller-skating, skateboarding...
Playing computer games...
Some people join a group to practice their hobby. For example: folk dancing, choir singing
and so on...
After-school activities.
School. Some schools have sports clubs, many after-school activities. For example: foreign
languages, computer club, folklore group, tennis, gym and so on...
Out-of-school activities. Mostly are paid and regular attendance is required. For example:
language course, musical instrument, drawing, ballet, football, hockey, tennis, dance, singing
and so on...
Other. Spending leisure time at home alone, with siblings, friends, schoolmates after school
like we want...
Part-time job. Many young people go after school to work. They earn money to spend them
on clothes, travelling, disco, new experience, new contacts for the future and so on...

FREE TIME ACTIVITIES. Passive and active.

ART. Collecting, taking photos, drawing, visiting galleries, exhibitions...
MUSIC. Listening to music, playing a musical instrument, membership in some group/choir,
visiting parties, disco...
CULTURE. Cinema, theatre, concerts, watching TV...
READING. Possible everywhere, books are for everybody - children, youth, adventure
books, love stories, crimi...
SOCIAL GAMES. Chess, cards, quiz, domino, riddle, puzzle, crossword puzzle...
SPORT. Healthy for body, it's for everybody, better form, football, volleyball, squash, tennis,
jogging, cycling...
HOUSEHOLD WORKS. Useful leisure time activities - gardening, decorating, car
maintenance, plumbing...
NATURE. Climbing, walking in the woods, picking mushrooms, fishing...
HAND WORKS. Sewing, needlework, knitting, crochet...
COLLECTING. Stamps, napkins, postcards, minerals...
TRAVELLING. Alone or with family or friends. By travel agency or private, see mountains,
city sightseeing...
STUDY. Foreign languages, computer courses...

FREE TIME BEFORE AND NOW.

Spending of a free time has changed, before: folklore, pets, gardening, reading, hand works.
Nowadays less time for free time, many duties brought home, just relaxing, TV, computer,
cinema, gym, jogging and so on...

FREE TIME ACCORDING TO AGE.

Free time activities depend also on our age.
1.) Children. They are playing with toys, singing, drawing, playing outside in the garden or
playground…
2.) Young people and adults. Relaxing, cycling, something to stay healthy. Men take care of
the garage, do-it-yourself. Do it yourself is building, modifying, or repairing something without
the aid of experts or professionals...
Women are cooking, going to the gym, reading, gardening, shopping, disco and so on...
3.) Seniors. A lot of free time, reading, music, hand works, gardening, pets, taking care of
grandchildren, travelling, talking with friends, neighbours, swimming or TV…
Topic number 19: Multicultural Society

Multicultural society is a society where people of different nationalities live together... In the
world we can find people of different race, nationality and religion. We all have to learn how
to live in tolerance and peace. People shouldn't be judged according to their race, nationality
or religion. We should try to bring people of different nationalities and races together. We all
need to live and work together...

Holidays and celebrations in SLOVAKIA.

In Slovakia people celebrate these holidays:
1.) CHRISTMAS. In Slovakia, Christmas is a Christian holiday. People in Slovakia prepare
for Christmas long before it comes. They clean and tidy up their house, clean windows, bake
cakes and buy Christmas presents for friends and family...
At home they decorate a Christmas tree with Christmas decorations and lights. People
usually buy a fish and some of them have it at home in the bath. In Slovakia, we celebrate
Christmas on the 24th of December. The family gets together and has Christmas dinner
together. We eat soup, fish, potatoes and cakes. After the dinner, the family goes to unwrap
their Christmas presents, and after that they usually watch TV or play Social games
together...
People celebrate Christmas because it is a Christian holiday. We celebrate the birth of Jesus
Christ who was born in Bethlehem. In the evening people go to the Midnight Mass...

2.) NEW YEAR. On the 1st of January we celebrate the end of the year. The last day of the
year is called the New Year's Eve, which is Silvester in Slovakia. People meet with friends,
watch TV or go out to a party and have fun. At midnight they open a bottle of champagne
and wish each other love, happiness, health in the new year...

3.) EASTER. We celebrate Easter in spring. It is a Christian celebration. People celebrate

the resurrection of Jesus Christ. During Easter people paint Easter eggs and bake cakes.
Boys symbolically whip girls and pour water over them to keep them healthy. Girls give them
painted eggs, chocolate or money in return...

In Slovakia we also celebrate Mother's day and Father's day...

Events in Slovakia are very traditional. When two people get married they have a wedding.
We have many family celebrations such as birthdays, namedays, school leaving celebrations
and many others...
In Slovakia we have these public holidays, which are connected with our history. For
example:
1st January - The Day of the Establishment of Slovak Republic...
5th July - The Day of Saint Methodius and Cyrils...
29th August - The Anniversary of the Slovak National Uprising...
1st September - The Day of the Slovak Constitution...
15th September - Our Lady of Sorrows...
17th November - The Day of the fight for freedom and democracy...
Holidays and celebrations in GREAT BRITAIN.

St. Valentine's Day - February 14th. It is lovers day. Friends and lovers send one another
letters of greeting cards expressing their love and affection. Some of them are romantic,
humorous, sentimental, satiric or provoking...

All Fools Day - April 1st. Day full of jokes and tricks. People play tricks on other people and
then they shout „April Fool“...

Easter - between March and April. Easter is a Christian festival, it is also a welcome spring
holiday...
Good Friday is the Friday before Easter. It is the anniversary of Christ's crucifixion.
Easter Sunday commemorates the Resurrection of Jesus. Easter eggs, symbolizing new life,
are given as presents... Easter Monday is celebrated with fireworks...

Halloween - is celebrated on October 31st. People dress up in funny costumes (for example:
ghosts, devils, fairies) and go to a party. Children light pumpkins... People tell tales about
ghosts and witches. This tradition marks the beginning of winter...

Christmas - December 24th. Special christmas decorations, coloured lights and Christmas
trees can be seen in the streets and shops. Christmas carols are sung almost everywhere.
People buy presents. Children hang up Christmas stockings at the end of their beds for
Santa Claus and then they go to bed. In the morning children get up early to find presents.
Christmas dinner consists of filled turkey and Christmas pudding...
The 26th of December is called Boxing Day. On this day boxes with presents are given to
postmen and other people who do services to the household...

New Year's Day - January 1st - people sing and dance. Famous place for this event is
Trafalgar square... New Year's Eve and New Year's Day are not public holidays in England.
People go to work as usual...

Holidays and Celebrations in the USA.

Thanksgiving Day - is celebrated on the last Thursday in November. People celebrate their
first harvest and the first people who came to America... These days families in the USA
meet together and they have a big dinner which consists of roast turkey...

Independence Day - July 4th The Declaration of Independence was signed. People do not
go to work and meet together...
There are a lot of nationalities living in Slovakia. Most of them are people from lands which
border with our country. So there live people from Hungary, Czech Republic, Austria, Poland,
Ukraine, and people from Germany too. The biggest ethnic minority living in our country is
the gypsy minority. They are temperamental and are living on their own. I think most
minorities which are living in our country don't have a different way of life. They live like the
Slovak people, there are no differences. They can differ only by color of their skin, by religion
or holidays which they celebrate. I don't see any other difference...

In every country there is the majority of people living there as well as some minorities.
Government should try to improve the situation so that all people live peacefully and respect
each other... People of different nationalities have different cultures, customs and traditions.
Every country and every nation has its own traditions, habits and holidays. Living in a
multicultural society gives us many advantages. We can share experiences, ideas and it also
helps us to learn how to be tolerant and respectful to the people that differ from us... It's very
dangerous when people are not tolerant enough, because it causes racial unrest...

How can we overcome the differences between different cultures?

There are a lot of possibilities of how we can overcome the differences. Everything depends
on society. So I think we should recognize other nationalities and their cultures. The first
possibility is to be informed and multiculturally educated. People should recognize other
nationalities, their cultures and traditions. Then they won't have strange feelings about these
people. The other important thing is understanding and respect. We should be tolerant to
foreign people and we should try to understand them. In my opinion these relationships
would improve if people were more tolerant.

Customs of different countries.

Japan. We can't look people in the eyes. Men take their shoes off before they go to a
restaurant. They sit on the floor around a small, low table and they sing songs...

Great Britain. They can't point at people. They never ask you personal questions about your
family or job... They never talk about religion or matters of finance and education... They stay
with safe subjects like the weather, films, books and so on... When the host serves coffee,
this is sometimes a sign that the evening is nearly over, but they can have as much coffee as
they want...

Germany. They usually take chocolates or flowers. But they always take an odd number of
flowers, and they remove the paper before they give them to the hostess. They can also
send flowers before they arrive. They do not usually take wine except when they visit very
close friends. They arrive exactly or fifteen minutes before when they are invited...

Taiwan. You must give a gift with both hands...

China. You can't kiss in public...

Saudi Arabia. They always offer their guests something to drink when they arrive, tea, coffee
or water and soft drinks... They think it's polite to accept a drink even if they are not thirsty.
When they have had enough to drink, they tap their cup or put their hand over it...
In many religions people don't eat meat. Muslims don't eat pork and people in India don't eat
beef...

Problems with multicultural society.

On the negative side, cultural differences can be emphasized in order to divide a society.
This can lead to prejudice and discrimination. There will always be people who think that
their religion and culture is superior and right, and that other beliefs and cultures are inferior
and wrong... These people will try to keep trouble in a multicultural society, and will try to
blame ethnic minorities for social and economic problems even when it's not true...
Ethnic minorities may suffer racial disadvantage in a multi ethnic society...
In education, children from ethnic minority groups, like refugees, may not perform as well as
they could, simply because they are in an unfamiliar environment...
Topic number 20: Towns and Places

Places have always been important in people’s lives. Throughout our lives we get to know
various places. However, the most important place in our life is our birthplace. We know this
place pretty well as it is connected with lots of memories from our childhood, with our
parents and siblings and with our friends...
Some of us stay in our birth town forever. Those who have to leave their birthplace for any
reason never forget about it, and always come back at least for a short visit...

Basic facts about the city of Bratislava, if you want to introduce it to someone...
BRATISLAVA also referred to as the Beauty on the Danube... Bratislava is the capital city of
Slovakia, the seat of President, Government and National Council and cultural, economical
and educational institutions. It's the largest city in the country with a unique position on both
sides of the Danube, having almost half a million inhabitants... From the historical point of
view Bratislava was an important crossroads of military and trade roads. One of the city
dominants, which can be seen from far distance is Bratislava Castle... The most attractive
part of Bratislava is the Old Town, where the most historical sights as well as cultural
institutions are concentrated... Its tiny lanes offer an ideal atmosphere for romantic walks, to
those who love to follow signs of history in the middle of the modern world...

Some tips to use to welcome tourists.

Welcome to the wonderful town of Bratislava, capital city of Slovak Republic. My name is...
and I will guide you during this stay... Your stay will last three days and during that time you
will be accommodated here - at hotel Carlton. Today, we will go and see Bratislava Castle,
then we will go to the ruins of Devin Castle...
The programme for the next three days is written on the table over there... Now you have 3
hours to accommodate, have a shower or a nap. We will meet right here at 11 o’clock. The
receptionist will tell you the numbers of your rooms. See you in 3 hours!...

Differences between living in a city and living in a village.

There are many differences between life in the city and life in the countryside. I live in the
city. There are many advantages of this living. There is everything available... There are
many cultural and shopping facilities, everything is near...
Life in the city is more hectic. People can go out in the evenings, they can meet with
friends... In the city there are also more jobs available. I like living in the city, I have more
privacy there. Nobody knows me. I have everything there...
On the other hand, living in the countryside can also be interesting. People live in beautiful
surroundings. They are in nature. There isn’t so much noise, there is a peaceful atmosphere.
There are also some disadvantages. People can’t get everything there. There are only a few
shops, there used to be only one or two shops for the whole village... There aren’t many
cultural facilities too. People have to travel to work because there are not many jobs
available... Everyone knows you. It could be disagreeable when your neighbors are too
curious. They usually poke their noses into what is not their business...
We all leave our homes when we travel for holidays. There are many beautiful, surprising,
exciting and inspiring places in the world that offer a lot of excitement, possibilities for
sightseeing, shopping in luxurious shops, going to restaurants and clubs... The most
beautiful cities are Prague, Barcelona, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, San
Francisco and others. Those people who look for the exotic and relaxation prefer the
Hawaiian Islands. To the most beautiful wild places belong the Antarctica, Amazon, Grand
Canyon, Canadian Rockies and Sahara...

Towns and places in Slovakia...

There are many interesting places in Slovakia. These are:
Mountains. The High Tatras, The Low Tatras...
Old towns or villages...
Caves. The Dobšinská - Ice Cave and others...
Castles. Bratislava Castle and others...
Spas/spa baths. Piešťany, Bardejov, Rajecké Teplice...

The nature in Slovakia is very beautiful. In summer we can go hiking and in winter, we can
go skiing in our mountains. We have The High Tatras and The Low Tatras - the nature there
is protected by law...
You can also visit old towns and villages, where you can see how people in Slovakia lived in
the past. There are old wooden houses. Vlkolínecc is protected by UNESCO. In Rajecká
Lesná there is an old wooden Bethlehem...
In Slovakia there are many caves. The Dobšinská - Ice Cave is the largest ice cave in
Europe. Other caves are the Cave of Freedom, Belianska Cave and others...
There are also some very nice castles in our country. For example:
Bojnice castle. Every year there is a ghost festival...
Čachtice. A home of a bloody countess Alžbeta Báthoryová who killed young women and
bathed in their blood...
Other castles are Beckov ruins, Trenčín Castle, Bratislava Castle, Spish Castle, Orava
Castle, Strečno, Krásna Hôrka and so on...
In Slovakia we have spa baths in Piešťany, Bardejov, Rajecká Lesná...

Although Slovakia is not a very big country, it has a lot of natural beauties, monuments and
sights. You can admire many nice towns here. For example: Trnava has many nice baroque
churches and an old university. Trnava is also called „The Slovak Rome“...

OTHER SLOVAK TOWNS and CITIES.

Košice. There is a university. We can see there the historical St. Elizabeth’s Cathedral,
Andrassy’s palace...
Trenčín. We can see a Trenčín castle there...
Bojnice. In Bojnice the famous ghost festival takes place every year. Many people from
Slovakia and also foreign tourists visit Bojnice Castle every year to see this festival...
Piešťany. Tourists can visit spa baths to relax and become fit...
Kremnica. People who come to Slovakia should also visit a historical town called Kremnica.
There was a mine for gold and this town is famous for the production of golden coins...
These are some of the most interesting places in the world:

1.) In the USA.

New York. We can see the Statue of Liberty, Manhattan there...
The US National Parks: the Grand Canyon National Park and the Yellowstone National
Park...

2.) In Europe.
Paris. We can see the Louvre there, the Eiffel Tower and many other sightseeing places...
London. The Buckingham Palace, The Tower Bridge, The Houses of Parliament and Big
Ben...
Rome. The Colosseum...

3.) Other places in the world.

Rio de Janeiro. There is a famous carnival every year...
Africa. People like to see safari and wild life...

People like to spend their holiday at different places. It depends on their hobbies, but also on
the amount of money they have for their holiday. During their holiday, people can go to:
1.) Hot or exotic countries. Most people like to go on holiday to hot or exotic countries,
because there is hot weather and a sea and they can lie on the beach, sunbathe and swim
in the sea. For example: people like to go to Spain, Egypt, Croatia, Italy, Canary Islands and
so on...
2.) Sightseeing places. Some people don’t want to sunbathe and lie on the beach, but they
want to spend their holiday actively. They want to see new things and learn a lot about new
countries, people and their customs and traditions. They prefer places like Vienna, London,
New York or Paris. They visit museums, galleries, concerts and art exhibitions... For
example: People go to Paris to see the Eiffel Tower and Louvre. In the Louvre there is a
picture of Mona Lisa...
3.) Mountains. Some people like to spend their holiday in the mountains. For example: they
go skiing to the Alps or the High Tatras. In summer they go hiking...
4.) At home. Some people like to spend their holiday at home. They don’t want to travel and
so they stay at home and read a book, watch TV or they just spend time with their family and
friends...

Good place to relax and to socialize.

If you want to find a place to spend your free time, you should decide if you want to spend it
in an active or passive way. If you want to idle, the best solution is going to the cinema or a
football stadium to see the match and relax. If you want to be active, go to the leisure or
sport centres, to the swimming pool or to nature by bicycle. If you want to feed your soul, go
to the library, ballet, opera or theatre and enjoy the aesthetic experience.
Topic number 21: Fashion

Fashion is the style of dress or behaviour popular at a certain time. Fashion is important, it
represents a person’s style and his or her own way of life. Each person has his own style
and taste. People wear clothes according to their taste, mood and their character. They want
to look good...

Men’s and women’s fashion.

Women’s fashion has always been different from men's fashion. Women wear skirts,
make-up, high-heel shoes...
Women usually pay more attention to fashion than men do. Their wardrobe is different from
the men’s wardrobe. They like shopping for clothes more than men do. They like
window-shopping. They like to admire clothes and new models in the shop’s windows
without buying them...
Women often buy fashion magazines and they like fashion shows. They pay attention to the
changes in the style, patterns, colors of the seasons and they change their wardrobe
according to these changes... Women want to be like famous models, for example: Claudia
Schiffer, C. Crafford and so on...

There is a difference between the fashion nowadays and the fashion in the past. In the past
women couldn’t wear trousers. They had to wear stiff corsets and long skirts which was very
uncomfortable. They always wore long hair... Men used to wear a hat, a suit and mustaches
were popular... Women’s skirts and dresses became shorter in the 20’s and nowadays
women’s fashion is similar to men’s fashion: women wear trousers and ties nowadays...
Women more often dye and bleach their hair...

The wardrobe...
The wardrobe consists of:
1.) MEN.
Underwear, undershirt, trousers, jeans, shorts, suit, dinner jacket... Jumper, T-shirt, shirt,
anorak, jacket, socks, tie, belt, hat, cap… Gloves, scarf, pyjamas, dressing gown, shoes,
boots, trainers...

2.)WOMEN.
Underwear, knickers, bra, stockings, night dress, pyjamas, dressing gown, skirt, miniskirt,
blouse, costume... Jumper, pullover, trousers, jeans, shorts, jacket, anorak, fur coat, winter
coat… Cocktail dress, long evening dress, shoes, high-heels, trainers, boots...

ACCESSORIES.
Handbag, scarf, gloves, hat, jewellery, earrings, ring, bracelet, necklace, chain, brooch,
handkerchief...
My attitude to fashion.
People have different attitudes to fashion. For some people fashion is very important and a
very necessary part of their life. People want to dress nicely, they like expensive clothes and
accessories.
Young people like casual wear and sports wear because it is comfortable and practical.
Many young people like to shop in brand name shops. For example: NIKE, ADIDAS,
REEBOK and so on. Some people like bright colours, others prefer dark colours, but the
colours should be always well-combined. Hairstyle and accessories are also important. For
example: a mobile phone, handbag and so on...
I like to wear bright colours or dark colours... My favourite colour is ... I prefer sports wear
and when I have money, I buy my clothes from brand name shops... My favourite shoes are
my trainers because I like to do sports and I often play football. I wear a suit and a tie only
when I must. For example: for family celebrations - weddings, christenings … or on the day
of the school-leaving examination...

Weather and fashion.

Geography and climate influence fashion a lot.
In summer people wear light summer dresses, loose blouses, shorts, T-shirts and sandals
on their feet. When we go swimming, we put on a swimsuit/swimming costume. Women can
wear bikinis and men can wear swimming trunks. People usually sunbathe. They want to
have a nice suntan, because they want to look good in short clothes and dresses... They
wear straw hats on their heads. In summer people wear less clothes and use lighter
materials, brighter colours (yellow, red, white and so on...) and many different patterns...
In winter. On the other hand, in winter we need to wear something warm to protect ourselves
against the cold weather. We go skiing, snowboarding and so we wear anoraks, winter and
fur coats, jackets, gloves, scarves, hats and caps. On our feet we usually put boots. People
usually wear darker colours because the weather is bad. The snow on the roads melts and
therefore they don’t wear bright-coloured clothes because they would become dirty...

Materials.
Cotton, wool, linen, silk, nylon, denim...

Patterns.
Flowered - kvetinovy.
Geometric - geometricky.
Stripped - pasikavy.
Checked - kockovany.
Spotted - bodkovany.
Topic number 22: The Book - a Person’s Friend

People like reading books. It is one of the most favourite leisure activities. We can buy books
in a bookshop or we can borrow them from a library...
We can read books anywhere - at home, on the bus or train, at the doctors’...
Books are a good source of information and entertainment. Reading books can be fun when
it is a hobby, but it can also be boring. For example, for students who have to study and
learn a lot of information, when they have to take an exam or a test...
Every year, the Nobel Prize for Literature is awarded to the writer whose work of fiction is
considered unique and great. Nobel Prize winners are for example: Solzhenitsyn with One
day of Ivan Denisovich. Samuel Beckett with Waiting for Godot. Jean-Paul Sartre with The
wall...

Different kinds of books.

Literature can be divided into 2 categories.

1.) NON-FICTION BOOKS. They are usually for information. They can be divided into:
Textbooks. These are educational books which contain information about a subject. For
example: mathematics, geography, or a foreign language...
Dictionaries. They tell us about the meaning of words...
Encyclopedias. They are large books and they contain a lot of facts and dates about different
subjects. For example: the world encyclopedias, the animal encyclopedias and so on...
Biographies. They contain information about the life of a famous person. For example: of a
president, scientist and so on... Sometimes there are also biographies about ordinary
people...
Autobiographies and memoirs...
Travel books...
Art books...
Cookery books. They contain recipes and teach people how to cook different meals or bake
cakes...

2.) FICTION BOOKS.

There are 2 types of fiction books:
POETRY. It contains poems...
PROSE. It contains:
Fairy tales, short stories, westerns, science-fiction, crime novels, romantic novels, historical
novels, and thrillers...

Famous English writers.

There are many famous English writers. For example:
William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Ernest Hemingway, Oscar Wilde, and so on...
Sum up about the life of Charles Dickens.
Charles Dickens was born in 1812, and he was the main leader of English realism. He grew
up in a very poor family. His parents had problems with the police, because they owe money
for accommodation... His father was a small official and he was arrested in jail for debtors.
Also his mother was later arrested so he had to earn money for living at the age of twelve...
He was working in a shoe shop. Because of his childhood he was usually writing about
children without home and family. He usually derived from his own experience...
His famous books, where a child is a hero, are Oliver Twist and David Copperfield...

His first book was Chronicle of a Pickwick club. In this book he criticised jails, poorhouses
and social rates. This book brought him popularity and he became famous. Now I would like
to speak about his well-known book called Christmas Carol...

Charles Dickens: Christmas Carol.

A mean-spirited, miserly old man named Ebenezer Scrooge sits in his counting-house on a
frigid Christmas Eve. His clerk, Bob Cratchit, shivers in the anteroom because Scrooge
refuses to spend money on heating coals for a fire. Scrooge's nephew, Fred, pays his uncle
a visit and invites him to his annual Christmas party. Two portly gentlemen also drop by and
ask Scrooge for a contribution to their charity. Scrooge reacts to the holiday visitors with
bitterness and venom, spitting out an angry "Bah! Humbug!" in response to his nephew's
"Merry Christmas!"...

Later that evening, after returning to his dark, cold apartment, Scrooge receives a chilling
visitation from the ghost of his dead partner, Jacob Marley. Marley, looking haggard and
pallid, relates his unfortunate story. As punishment for his greedy and self-serving life his
spirit has been condemned to wander the Earth weighted down with heavy chains. Marley
hopes to save Scrooge from sharing the same fate. Marley informs Scrooge that three spirits
will visit him during each of the next three nights. After the wraith disappears, Scrooge
collapses into a deep sleep...

He wakes moments before the arrival of the Ghost of Christmas Past, a strange childlike
phantom with a brightly glowing head. The spirit escorts Scrooge on a journey into the past
to previous Christmases from the Scrooge's earlier years. Invisible to those he watches,
Scrooge revisits his childhood school days, his apprenticeship with a jolly merchant named
Fezziwig. And his engagement to Belle, a woman who leaves Scrooge because his lust for
money eclipses his ability to love another. Scrooge, deeply moved, sheds tears of regret
before the phantom returns him to his bed...

The Ghost of Christmas Present takes Scrooge through London to unveil Christmas as it will
happen that year. Scrooge watches the large, bustling Cratchit family prepare a miniature
feast in its meager home. He discovers Bob Cratchit's crippled son, Tiny Tim, a courageous
boy whose kindness and humility warms Scrooge's heart. The ghost then zips Scrooge to his
nephew's to witness the Christmas party. Scrooge finds the gathering delightful and pleads
with the spirit to stay until the very end of the festivities. As the day passes, the spirit ages,
becoming noticeably older. Toward the end of the day, he shows Scrooge two starved
children, Ignorance and Want, living under his coat. Then he vanishes...
The Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come leads Scrooge through a sequence of mysterious
scenes relating to an unnamed man's recent death. Scrooge sees businessmen discussing
the dead man's riches, some vagabonds trading his personal effects for cash, and a poor
couple expressing relief at the death of their unforgiving creditor. Scrooge, anxious to learn
the lesson of his latest visitor, begs to know the name of the dead man. After pleading with
the ghost, Scrooge finds himself in a churchyard, the spirit pointing to a grave. Scrooge
looks at the headstone and is shocked to read his own name. He desperately implores the
spirit to alter his fate, promising to renounce his insensitive, avaricious ways and to honor
Christmas with all his heart. He suddenly finds himself safely tucked in his bed...

Overwhelmed with joy by the chance to redeem himself and grateful that he has been
returned to Christmas Day, Scrooge rushes out onto the street hoping to share his new
found Christmas spirit. He sends a giant Christmas turkey to the Cratchit house and attends
Fred's party, to the stifled surprise of the other guests. As the years go by, he holds true to
his promise and honors Christmas with all his heart. He treats Tiny Tim as if he were his own
child, provides lavish gifts for the poor, and treats his fellow human beings with kindness,
generosity, and warmth...
Topic number 23: Role Models

ROLE MODEL is a model example, a person according to whom somebody else tries to live,
look like, wear and so on, because of his character or skills...
Importance of role-models. Some people need no role models, they want to go their own
way, but many people are influenced by role models - (good look, intelligence, humour,
talent, skills, success, lifestyle, character…) who inspire people, are their ideal...

Every person is influenced by other people during his or her life. We watch how people
behave in different situations and we copy positive but also negative qualities. Especially
children and young people have many role models. We can talk about:

1.) Family role models. The first models were our parents, brothers, sisters and
grandparents. They are important to us because: they teach us to be friendly and polite.
They help us to learn how to solve problems. We learn how to get on well with people...
From our family members we learn many positive but also negative qualities: we learn to
compromise, to cooperate, to help other people, but also to envy, to be selfish and so on… If
a child is loved, he or she will love. If a child is criticized, he or she will be very hit...

2.) School role models. They are our schoolmates, teachers and other people we meet at
school… They are nearly as important as family. With entering school we become a part of
society: here we learn to cooperate with other people, to compromise with others, to be
tolerant, patient, self-disciplined, and hard-working. These qualities are necessary if we want
to be successful. For some of us our teachers became our role models...

3.) Celebrity role models. Most teenagers look for role models outside their families or their
school… Teenagers love music, cinema and sport, so singers, film stars and famous
sportsmen influence them a lot. They try to imitate them: their clothes, hairstyle, make-up,
lifestyle and behaviour.
Celebrities influence young people positively, but also negatively.
3.1) Positive influence is:
They use their talent. Some celebrities behave well and politely. They work hard and are
successful. They can teach young people important moral principles, For example: they work
for charity, help poor people and so on...
3.2) Negative influence is:
Many celebrities use drugs and alcohol and become addicted. Some celebrities have bad
behaviour - they are vulgar and rude. They do not respect people around them. They think
that they are better than other people but it isn’t true. They try to make profit in every
situation...

4.) Literary role models.

LITERARY HEROES are found in literary works - (stories, novels). Most literary heroes are
people with high moral standards with whom readers can identify and whose example they
may follow. For example: Božena Nemcová - Babička - about a simple Czech woman, she
comes to help her daughter with raising up her 4 grandchildren and with household works.
She is intelligent, clever, has experiences, always in a good mood, helps with a will, she
loves nature, work, habits and traditions…
5.) Everyday heroes.
EVERYDAY HEROES we can find in our daily life. For example: lifeguards, fire-fighters,
doctors, soldiers and so on. They are brave, do not hesitate to risk life and help the victims
of natural and man-made disasters (earthquakes, floods, droughts or war). They have
courage and high moral standards. It can be an absolutely simple person...
Examples of positive role models: Mother Teresa - she was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Peace in 1972. She looked after poor people and she did it for free...
Bill Gates and his wife Melinda created a foundation to save the poorest people from
illnesses...

It's very important for young people to have role models because childhood and adolescence
is the time when people learn and pick the most of the qualities which they use later in their
lives... If there are positive role models, young people learn how to be polite, tolerant and
helpful. They will become people who will try to make the world a better place...
On the other hand, if young people are influenced by negative role models, they become
rude, selfish, stubborn and there will be more robberies, murders, rapes and crimes in the
streets...

People can have positive and negative personality features.

1.) POSITIVE - Virtues.

Reliable. Grateful. Regardful. Optimistic. Brave. Understanding. Responsible. Fair.
Trust-worthy. Loyal. Warm-hearted. Helpful. Honest. Polite. Kind. To have a sense of
humour. Friendly. Sociable. Hospitable. Generous. Hard-working. Practical. Sensible.
Talkative...

2.) NEGATIVE - Vices.

Be deceitful. Mean. Cheeky. Envious. Envy. To be fond of gossip. Hypocrite. Stubborn.
Suspicious. Quarrelsome. Greedy. Coward. Selfish. Jealous. Rude. Treacherous...

MY ROLE MODEL.
Who? Why? Some info about him or her, his or her positive and negative character
features...
Topic number 24: The Countries Whose Language I am Learning

1.) United States of America.

Official motto is: In God we trust. Traditional motto is: Out of many, one...
The USA is the fourth largest country in the world (after Russia, Canada and China). Its area
is 9.37 million square kilometers.
It has a population of about 250 million people. The USA is a very multicultural country -
there live many different races and religions. For example: African-American, Asian,
American-Indian, Eskimo, Hispanic people and so on...
The currency is the American dollar…
5 cent is called Nickel.
10 cent is called Dime.
50 cent is called half-dollar...

National flag contains 13 stripes (7 of white and 6 of red colour).

In the upper right corner there are 50 white stars representing 50 states. They are on a blue
background...

GEOGRAPHY.
The USA border: On NORTH Canada. On SOUTH Mexico. On EAST the Atlantic ocean. On
WEST the Pacific ocean...
A part of the USA is also Alaska and the Hawaiian Islands...

The highest peak of the USA is in Alaska - Mt. McKinley (6194 meters)...

RIVERS and LAKES.

The USA has many rivers:
the Mississippi - the longest river in the USA (the 3rd longest river in the world)...
the Missouri.
the Hudson - connected with the Great Lakes...
the Colorado.
the Yukon - the biggest river in Alaska...

There are some very important lakes on the US-Canada border. They are the biggest
reservoirs of fresh water in the world. They are called the Great Lakes:
For example: Lake Michigan or Lake Ontario...

Climate.
Because of the USA being a big country, there are big variations of climate. The
temperatures change from the arctic cold in northern Alaska to subtropical warmth in Hawaii
and in some other states. For example: California, Florida… Florida has subtropical climate
which often brings hurricanes...
Industry and agriculture.
The US economy is the biggest in the world. The country is rich in raw materials. For
example: natural petrol, kaolin, salt, natural gas...
Philadelphia is the centre of the machinery and chemical industry. Detroit is the centre of the
US car industry - there are companies such as Pontiac or Chrysler...
The USA is the leading country in agriculture. The American agricultural system is very
effective. There are about 2 million farms in the USA and only about 2.4 % of the population
work on them. A lot of agricultural production is exported. The most important production is
the production of soya, maize/corn and wheat...

The history of the USA.

The American continent was discovered by Vikings around the year 1000. People in Europe
didn’t know about the existence of the American continent until 1492, when Columbus made
his historical voyage from Spain...

GOVERNMENT.
The USA is a federal republic consisting of 50 states, the largest state is Alaska, the smallest
one is Rhode Island. Each state has its own government, laws, education and taxes. The US
political system is based on 2 strongest opposed parties - the Republicans (more
conservative) and the Democrats (the party of reform). Both sides have their own symbol.
The Republicans have the Elephant, and the Democrats have the Donkey... The power of
the Government is divided into 3 branches - the executive, legislative and judicial branch.
First president was George Washington. Presidential elections are held every four years...

Places of interest in the USA:

Washington, D.C.
The capital city of the USA - D.C. means “District of Columbia”. Washington is the seat of the
White House - the seat of the President... Some interesting places in Washington:
The Jefferson Memorial. The White House. The Arlington National Cemetery. The Museum
of Natural History...

New York.
The largest city in the USA. The nicknames of New York are:
Melting Pot - because it is a very multicultural city and people of many different races,
religions and origins live there...
Big Apple - because when the first people came, there were Apple Orchards...

In New York we can visit:

1. Manhattan. The real centre of New York. It's famous for its Manhattan skyline - a large
number of skyscrapers in a small area... One of the highest skyscrapers is called the Empire
State Building...
2. Brooklyn - has a famous beach - Coney Beach...
3. The Bronx - there are many parks and the Bronx ZOO - one of the largest in the USA...
4. The Statue of Liberty. It was a gift of friendship from the people of France to the people of
the United States, and is a universal symbol of freedom and democracy...
5. Wall Street...
6. Madison Square garden...
Las Vegas.
Las Vegas lies in Nevada. It's built on sand. More than 12 million people visit Las Vegas
every year. There are many nightclubs and casinos where people can gamble and get rich or
lose a lot of money. In Las Vegas people can also see many famous singers, comedians,
dancers or musicians...

Los Angeles, California.

It's a beautiful country with warm weather. There is the Disneyland...

Dallas.
The financial and commercial centre. John F. Kennedy was assassinated there in 1963...

Other cities: San Francisco, Pittsburgh, Miami, Seattle, Chicago and so on...

The National parks.

The USA has many national parks with beautiful nature. For example in the Rocky
Mountains Region...
The famous parks are in Utah, Texas, Arizona, Nevada and so on... The famous national
parks are for example: The Grand Canyon National Park, Yellowstone National Park, Death
Valley National Park, Yosemite Valley National Park and so on... In Yellowstone are beautiful
mountains and waterfalls...

People and their customs and traditions.

In the USA people celebrate these national holidays:
New Year’s Day... 4th of July is The Independence Day... 4th Thursday in November is
Thanksgiving Day... Christmas day...

Sports.
Americans play hockey, tennis, basketball and rugby. American football is very different from
the football we play in Europe...
People sometimes say that the USA is the place where all your dreams can come true. If
you want to work, you can easily find a job and earn money. Therefore many young people
want to work and live in the USA. If you want to travel, there are many interesting places that
you can see. People are friendly and talk-active. It is also a very multicultural country, so you
can meet people of different origins...
2.) Canada.

Motto is: From Sea to Sea...

National symbol is a maple leaf...
National flag contains three stripes - two red and one is white. In the middle there is white
stripe and red maple...
Canada is the 2nd largest country in the world. Its area is around 10 million square
kilometers...
It has a population of about 32 million people. The majority is of European origin, the North
American Indians, Eskimos... Canada is less crowded than the USA...
The name Canada is of Indian origin and means village or settlement...
The currency is 1 Canadian dollar which is divided into 100 cents...
The official languages are English and French. The capital city is Ottawa. The largest city is
Toronto.
Canada is an independent federation within the Commonwealth. Canada is divided into 10
provinces and 3 territories...

GEOGRAPHY.
Canada borders: On NORTH the Arctic ocean. On SOUTH the USA. On EAST the Atlantic
ocean. On WEST the Pacific ocean and Alaska...

MOUNTAINS and LOWLANDS.

Western part of Canada, which is called the Cordillera, is very mountainous and rocky. There
are the Rocky Mountains, the Coast Mountains and other ranges. The highest peak of
Canada is Mount Logan (5959 meters). It's in Yukon. In the east there are the Appalachian
mountains but there are also many lowlands. In Canada, there are also large prairies
suitable for agriculture...

RIVERS and LAKES.

The most important RIVERS are:
The Winnipeg River...
The St. Lawrence River...
The Columbia River...
The Mackenzie River - the longest river in Canada...

The biggest LAKES:

Great Bear Lake...
Great Slave Lake...
Lake Winnipeg...
There are also other great lakes which Canada shares with the USA - Lake Huron, Lake
Erie, Lake Ontario, Lake Superior...

NIAGARA FALLS are the most famous waterfalls in the world. They lie on the Niagara river,
which connects lake Erie and lake Ontario. They are made of American falls (which belong
to the USA) and the Horseshoe Falls (which belong to Canada)...
Climate.
The most inhabited parts of Canada have continental climate - summers are hot and winters
are cold. In the north, the climate is arctic...

Industry and agriculture.

Canada is rich in raw materials. For example: uranium, gold, zinc, silver, nickel and so on...
Mining industry is developed...
Canada has many forests. 1/3 of the country is covered with forest, and the wood industry is
very important for them. Canada is a great exporter of wood and wood products...
Canada also belongs to the countries leading in agriculture - wheat, maple syrup is a typical
Canadian product...

Political system.
Canada is a constitutional monarchy, a federal state and parliamentary democracy within the
British Commonwealth. The head of the state is King Charles the third and the head of the
government is the Canadian Prime Minister...
Canada has 2 official languages and 2 systems of law:
1. Civil law.
2. Common law...
Parliament is responsible for national defense, international trade, immigration, criminal law
and so on...
The regional or provincial legislatures are responsible for education, civil rights, the hospital
system, health care and social security within their boundaries...

The Canadian system of education.

Public education is free until the children finish secondary education. Further
(post-secondary) education is usually paid - the students pay a tuition... School attendance
is compulsory from the age of 6 or 7 until they are 15 or 16 years old...
In general, high school programs are divided into 2 parts:
1. Preparation for university
2. Post-secondary education - at a college or an institute of technology, preparation for a
workplace...
Places of interest in Canada.

1.) Ottawa - the capital city.

The capital city is a business and technological centre of Canada. Many big technological
companies have their residence there. For example Alcatel. You can visit about 30
museums, 50 galleries, many night clubs and theatres. For example The National Gallery of
Canada, Ottawa Little Theatre, Canadian Museum of Civilization, or Ottawa International
Jazz festival...

2.) Toronto.
Toronto is the biggest city in Canada. It is a city of ethnic minorities. We can find there the
Canadian National Tower (CN Tower). It's visited by about 2 million people every year,
because it is an excellent place for observation and it offers a beautiful view. There is a
revolving restaurant in it...
The Toronto ZOO. The ZOO is divided into geographical regions and you can see there
more than 5000 animals in their natural environment...

3.) Quebec - Montreal.

Montreal is the second biggest city in Canada, the biggest city in the province Quebec. It's a
French speaking city. La Ronde is the biggest amusement park in Montreal. The Montreal
Fireworks Festival is held there every summer... Tourists also often visit Old Montreal, which
is the historical part of the city - there is the Old port...

Canadian National Parks.

Canada is famous for its beautiful nature, especially the forests. Parks are located across
the entire Canada and there are many protected plants and species of animals. There are
many parks that are a big attraction for tourists. For example Jasper National Park, Glacier
National Park, Fundy National Park, Terra Nova National Park, St. Lawrence Islands
National Park, Greenwich, Prince Albert National Park...

People and their customs and traditions.

In the Canada people celebrate these national holidays:
Christmas. Easter. Thanksgiving Day - 2nd Monday in October…
Remembrance Day - dedicated to the soldiers killed in World War I and World War II...

Canadian people are very good at playing hockey - they have won many national
competitions and cups. Other sports played in Canada are for example basketball, golf and
so on. In Canada they have a national sport called Lacrosse...
Canadian people are friendly and Canada is a good country for newcomers. It is a
multicultural country - it's home to a large number of aboriginal people, called First Nations.
Over the past century and a half, Canada has welcomed 15 million immigrants. Every year
about 200,000 new immigrants arrive here. Canada has a national policy for multiculturalism
and people's customs and traditions here are preserved and respected...
3.) The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The UK is a country, which is situated on two main islands:

Great Britain, and Ireland...
The highest peak is Ben Nevis...
British national flag is the Union Jack...

Great Britain consists of these countries:

England - the capital city is London.
Scotland - the capital city is Edinburgh.
Wales - the capital city is Cardiff.
Northern Ireland - the capital city is Belfast.

The UK area is 244 thousand square kilometers and the population is about 60 million
inhabitants... The capital city is London and the currency is 1 British pound... The United
Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and the head of the state is King Charles the third.
The head of the government is the Prime minister - it is Rishi Sunak now...
The country has a mild and rainy climate. The most important river is the Thames, and the
longest river is the Severn...

INDUSTRY and AGRICULTURE.

The UK is a very industrialized country. Services - for example finance, banking, computing,
advertising and so on, are now a very important part of the British industry... Other important
industries are also the iron and the steel industry, textil, plastics and food industry...
The main agricultural products are potatoes, sugar beet, milk, meat, wheat and so on...

Interesting places in Britain.

1.) England.
Stonehenge. It is a historical place made of big stones in the south of England. Scientists are
still trying to discover why it was built. Some of them think that it was a religious place for
funerals, others think that it was used as a calendar. Scientists still don’t know how it was
built...
Liverpool - is the home of the famous band called the Beatles...
Oxford, Cambridge - these are the famous university towns...
Stratford upon Avon - it is the birthplace of William Shakespeare. He was a famous English
writer and dramatist. He wrote Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet and so on...
London - the capital city of England...

2.) Scotland.
Lake Loch Ness. Lakes are in Scotland called Loch. One of the biggest lakes is the lake
Loch Ness. People believe that a monster called Nessie lives in this lake. Many people say
they have seen this monster. Scientists are trying to find out if it really exists. They think it
could be an animal that lived in prehistoric times and it survived in the lake, because it had
good conditions for life there...
Glasgow - it is the biggest city in Scotland. It's an important economic and tourist centre of
Scotland...
3) LONDON.
London is the capital city of England and one of the world’s largest cities. It is situated in the
south of England and it has a population of about 7.5 million people... London is a very
multicultural city - people of different origins, races and religions live there... London is
crossed by the river Thames...
London is today one of the world's leading business, financial and cultural centres. There are
5 airports and a large port in London - the most important airport is called Heathrow...

These are the London’s most important sightseeing places:

1. The Houses of Parliament (also called The Westminster Palace). They stand on the shore
of the river Thames. They are buildings in Gothic style. The Houses of parliament consist of
2 houses: The House of Lords and The House of Commons...
2. Big Ben. It is the clock tower which belongs to the Houses of Parliament. The clock has
the name of Sir Benjamin Hall. He was very tall and so his friends called him Big Ben. The
clock is 7 meters in diameter and it weighs 13 tons. It is the biggest bell in England...
4. The London Eye is the world’s largest observation wheel and London's most popular
tourist attraction...
5. The Tower Bridge is a bridge which is near the Tower of London. It's low over the river and
it must be opened for the big ships. Signals for ships and cars are sent by traffic lights...
6. The Tower of London. It is near the Tower Bridge. It was a prison, a fortress, a palace in
the past. Visitors can see the crown jewels there...
7. Buckingham Palace. It is the residence of the King. He lives here with his family. The first
queen who lived in Buckingham Palace was Queen Victoria... In summer tourists can visit
Buckingham Palace because it's opened to public and they can also see the changing of the
guards...
8. St. Paul’s Cathedral...
9. Madame Tussaud’s Wax Museum. There are figurines of famous people made of wax...

STREETS AND SQUARES.

1. Trafalgar Square. It is famous for its pigeons. Every year, people from London celebrate
the New Year there. The square is located on the place where the French were defeated by
the English under Admiral Lord Nelson. There is Nelson’s memorial...
2. Piccadilly Circus. It's the biggest and oldest square in London. It is the heart of London’s
entertainment world. There are many shops, restaurants, small theatres and nightclubs. In
the middle of Piccadilly there is a statue of EROS - the god of Love...
3. Oxford Street is the biggest shopping street in London. There are many shopping centres
and also many small shops...
PARKS IN LONDON.
1. Hyde Park. The biggest park in London. In Hyde Park there is a place called the
Speaker’s corner where people can say their opinions on public, religious and political
issues...
2. St. James’ Park. It is the oldest of the Royal Parks in the city of Westminster. It is east of
the Buckingham Palace.
3. Kensington Gardens. It's now a park, but in the past it was a private garden, which
belonged to the Kensington Palace. We can see there the Albert Memorial, Peter Pan Statue
and other buildings and monuments...
4. Greenwich Park...

Famous people in Britain.

The Royal Family. It consists of King Charles the third, his wife, his children William and
Harry and so on... King Charles was married to Princess Diana who died in a car crash in
1997. The Royal family lives in Buckingham palace which is the residence of the King...
The Prime Minister. The Prime Minister lives and has his office in London. The Prime
Minister is Rishi Sunak now...
Pop singers. The Beatles, Robbie Williams and so on... The Beatles come from Liverpool
and their songs are very popular and still played on the radios. They consisted of 4
members: John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Star. They were very
popular in the 60’s. John Lennon was killed by a fan...

Customs and traditions.

British people are considered conservative. People celebrate these holidays:
1. Easter holiday. In England children often boil chicken’s eggs and paint them with bright
colors. Then they all get together on top of a hill and have an egg race. They roll the eggs
down the hill...
2. Mother’s Day. 2nd Sunday in May. Children give flowers and presents to their mothers...
3. Halloween. The 31st of October. Children dress up in Halloween costumes with masks on
their faces. They carry baskets and they go to their friends and neighbours houses and they
knock at the door. People give them sweets, fruit or money...
4. Bonfire Night. The 5th of November. People remember the day in 1605 when a group of
people tried to blow up the House of Lords with gunpowder. They were all executed and Guy
Fawkes is the most famous of the conspirators...
5. Christmas...
4.) Commonwealth of Australia.

AUSTRALIA

Australia is the smallest continent on the Earth. It has a population of about 18 million
people. The capital city is Canberra. The currency is 1 Australian dollar and the official
language spoken is English...
Australia is situated between the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. The island of Tasmania and
some other islands belong to Australia. It's a federal state and it consists of:
6 states and 2 territories...
The largest cities in Australia are:
Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide...
The neighbouring countries:
Indonesia. Papua New Guinea. The Solomon Islands. Vanuatu. New Zealand...

In central Australia there are 3 deserts:

Sandy Desert. Gibson Desert. Great Victoria Desert...

Interesting places in Australia.

1. Sydney. A place where in 2000 the Olympic Games were held. It's a popular tourist place.
There is the famous Opera House. There are many cultural events held - concerts, theatre
performance, modern dance and so on. Some people go to Sydney to climb the Sydney
Harbour Bridge. It’s a very adrenalin experience...
2. Canberra. The capital city of Australia and the biggest city in Australia. People can see the
Australian National Gallery, the Canberra Theatre and Playhouse, the Australian War
Memorial and other places...
The National Library of Australia is also famous - a copy of every book which is published in
Australia, must be held by the National Library of Australia. It is given by Australian law...
3. Melbourne. visitors go to Melbourne to see the Carlton Gardens, the Melbourne Museum
and other sightseeing places...

Famous is hill Uluru. Ayers Rock (600 million years old, the largest of this kind in the world, it
changes colour from yellow to gold, red, purple)...
Mount Kosciuszko - the Snowy Mountain... the Great Barrier Reef (the world's largest coral
reef system, located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of northeast Australia)...
NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand is an island state in Oceania. It is situated in the Pacific ocean. It has a
population of about 4 million people. It consists of 2 main islands:
The North Island, and the South Island.
There are also other smaller islands...

The nearest neighbours are:

New Caledonia. Fiji. Tonga...

The capital city is Wellington. The official head of New Zealand is King Charles the third. The
official languages are English and Maori...
Other big cities in New Zealand are Auckland, Christchurch, Hamilton...

1. Auckland. It is in the North Island. Visitors can see many beautiful parks in Auckland. For
example: Auckland Domain, Albert Park, Victoria Park...
2. Christchurch. It is in the South Island. It was named after the Christ Church Cathedral...
3. Wellington. It is the capital city of New Zealand. The seat of the parliament. It's the political
centre of New Zealand but also the centre of theatre and film industry. Visitors can visit the
Museum of New Zealand and the Royal New Zealand Ballet... There are also many night
clubs, art and cultural events. People living in Wellington have a very good quality of life
according to statistics...
Topic number 25: Slovakia - My Homeland

General information.
The official name of our country is The Slovak Republic...

1.) LOCATION. Slovakia is situated in Central Europe. We can say that it is in the heart of
Europe... Slovakia is a small country. Its area is 49036 square kilometers. It has a population
of about 5 and a half million people.
It borders with: Czech republic, Poland, Ukraine, Hungary and Austria...

2.) MOUNTAINS. Slovakia is a very mountainous country.

In the north there are the High Tatras with the highest peak the Gerlach Peak.
There are also other peaks, for example Kriváň Peak and tarns, for example Popradské
pleso...
The Low Tatras. They are not as high as the High Tatras but the nature there is beautiful and
it is an ideal place for hiking. The most popular peaks in the Low Tatras are Ďumbier, Zvolen,
Chopok and Kráľova Hoľa...
In the west there are the Big Fatra, the Small Fatra, the White Carpathian Mountains, the
Small Carpathian Mountains...
In the east part of central Slovakia there are mountains called the Slovak Paradise and the
Slovak Karst...

3.) RIVERS and LAKES. The biggest rivers are the river Danube, Váh, Hron, Ipeľ and
Ondava...
The most important river is the river Danube. In Bratislava, Komárno and Štúrovo there are
also ports. The longest river is the river Váh. Slovakia doesn’t have many lakes. The most
important lakes are in the High Tatras - they are called tarns. For example: Popradské pleso
and so on...
The biggest dams are Domaša Dam, Liptov Dam, Orava Water Dam, Zemplínska Šírava
and the biggest water power station is Gabčíkovo...

4.) CLIMATE in Slovakia is mild. The warmest part of Slovakia is the south...

5.) INDUSTRY and AGRICULTURE. The biggest and for our economy the most important
factories are the US Steel Košice, Volkswagen Bratislava and Slovnaft...
Woodworking industry is based in Zvolen and Banská Bystrica. We can find the food industry
in every town in Slovakia. The most important factories are in Bratislava, Banská Bystrica
and Martin...
The most of the industry is situated in the west of Slovakia, which is bad for people living in
other parts of Slovakia - many people are unemployed. For example: in the east or in the
north - Kysuce region…
Agriculture is very important for Slovakia. People in Slovakia grow potatoes, sugar beets and
corn...
In Pezinok and Modra people usually grow grapevine... People in Slovakia also grow fruit
and vegetables... Animal production is important too. People keep cows, goats, hens in hen
farms, pigs, sheep...
The history of Slovakia.
The area of modern Slovakia was settled by Slavs at the end of the 5th century. They
belonged to Samo’s Empire. Later the Samo’s Empire was broken and Slavs became a part
of 2 princedoms: Pribina’s Princedom and Mojmir’s Princedom... These two princedoms
were united and they became the Great Moravian Empire... In 863 Cyril and Methodius
came and they brought the Christian religion to this region. They were also the founders of
the Slavic script... At the beginning of the 10th century the Great Moravia ended, and the
area of Slovakia became part of the early feudal Hungarian state. The following centuries
were hard for Slavs - there were Tatar and Turkish invasions. They lasted for about 150
years... After that, in the 19th century we became a part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy...
Personalities such as Štúr, Hurban, Hodža fought for our independence... After World War 1
in 1918 the Czechoslovak republic was established. Later in 1938 the Slovak State. And in
1948 the communists came to power and then we had Czechoslovakia again... In 1989 there
was a revolution in Czechoslovakia and the communists lost power. From 1st January 1993
Slovakia became an independent state...

Places of interest.
There are many interesting places in Slovakia. These are:
Mountains - The High Tatras, The Low Tatras...
Old towns/villages - Vlkolínec, Čičmany, Vychylovka, Rajecká Lesná...
Caves - The Dobšinská Ice Cave, Belianska Cave, Domanica...
Castles - Devín Castle, Bratislava Castle...
Spa baths - Piešťany, Bardejov, Rajecké Teplice...

The nature in Slovakia is very beautiful. In summer we can go hiking. And in winter, we can
go skiing in our mountains. We have The High Tatras and The Low Tatras - the nature there
is protected by law (TANAP)...
You can also visit old towns and villages. For example: Vlkolínec, Vychylovka where you can
see how people in Slovakia lived in the past - there are old wooden houses. Vlkolínec is
protected by UNESCO. In Rajecká Lesná there is an old wooden Bethlehem...
In Slovakia there are many caves - The Dobšinská Ice Cave is the largest ice cave in
Europe. Other caves are the Cave of Freedom, Belianska Cave, Gombasecká...
There are also some very nice castles in our country. For example:
Bojnice castle - every year there is a ghost festival...
Čachtice - a home of a bloody countess Alžbeta Báthoryová who killed young women and
bathed in their blood...
Other castles are Beckov ruins, Trenčín Castle, Bratislava Castle, Spish Castle, Orava
Castle, Strečno, Krásna Hôrka and so on...
In Slovakia we have spa baths in Piešťany, Bardejov, Rajecká Lesná...
People who come to Slovakia should also visit a historical town called Kremnica. There was
a mine for gold and this town is famous for the production of golden coins...
People and their customs and traditions.
Slovak people are very friendly and hospitable, but they are not very rich. They like
traditional music and dancing and therefore there are many folk festivals in Slovakia every
year. For example in Detva or Východná... At these festivals you can hear folk music and
see many beautiful folk costumes and folk dances. These festivals are also visited by foreign
tourists... We also have typical food. Our national dish is Bryndzové halušky which is a meal
made of potatoes and cheese called bryndza... We have very good cheese in Slovakia - for
example oštiepok and parenica... Slovak national hero is George Jánošík...
Slovak people are Christians and because of this the most important holidays are Christmas
and Easter. For Christmas and Easter the Slovak families usually get together - they visit
each other, bake cakes and cook traditional meals...

Bratislava.
Bratislava is the capital city of Slovakia. It is situated on the bank of the river Danube and
therefore it has a very good position. It is also an important industrial city and it's important
for our economy. There are many factories. For example: Slovnaft, Volkswagen, Palma and
so on... The city has an unemployment rate of only about 3 %... People who like shopping
can shop in popular shopping centres Aupark, Eurovea and so on...
In Bratislava there are many historical buildings and sightseeing places:
The Slovak National Theatre - on the Hviezdoslav Square. There is a statue of Hviezdoslav
who was an important Slovak writer.
The Slovak National Theatre new building - near to Shopping centre Eurovea, and Apollo
bridge...
The Slovak National Gallery.
Slovak Philharmonic Orchestra - REDUTA. It is often used for many social and cultural
events.
Grassalkovich Palace - the President’s Palace - it's the residence of our president...
Primate’s Palace - there is the famous Mirror hall...
Bratislava Castle...
St. Michael’s Gate...
The St. Martin’s Cathedral. In the past kings and queens were crowned there - 11 kings and
8 queens...
Academia Istropolitana - the building of the first university in the Hungarian Kingdom...
Statue of Čumil. A statue of a man who is sticking his head out of a hole in the road. It is a
popular attraction for tourists…