Chapter 1 of paper 1&2

Characteristic of primates (Paper 1, unit 1.5)

1. Primatology: Characterised by advanced development of binocular vision, Specialisation
of appendages for grasping and enlargement of cerebral hemisphere
2. Primates are our non human ancestor
3. Characteristic of primates:
a. according to Le gross Clark The order of primates On basis of structure:
i. Forelimb= Presence of clavicle bone,Radius and ulna,
pentadactylism,Opposable thumb,Friction pad on palm helps in grasping
and to maintain grip
ii. Nose: useless olfactory sense, snout are smaller
iii. Vision: Colour vision, 3D stereoscopic vision
iv. Face: face are flat
Refer to 97.2 and 98.1 PDF
v. Dentition: 32 teeth, incisors canines, molar and premolar
vi. Reproduction: hemochorial placenta i.e. Uterus become a spongy blood
filled mass
vii. Mammary gland in pictorial position, pendulous penis and testis
descended into scrotum
viii. Brain: Size increase=> higher intelligence
4. Primate behaviour:
a. Way of primate adaptation
b. Learnt rather than innate
c.
Chimpanzee Jane goodall

Gorilla George schallar

Baboon Sherwood L. washburn

Gibbon C.R. carpenter

Langur phyllis Dolhinow

d. Behaviour:
i. Group living =Known as Troops, help in defence against Predator,
enhance Food gathering, intensive social learning, rearing offspring,
increase Reproductive opportunity
Example: Baboon= Troops, chimpanzee= over changing Association
ii. Social grouping: In Troops grooming happens through interpersonal
behaviour such as hugging, kissing, cleaning debris like flies and tick from
hair
Example: in chimpanzee, female female relation
iii. Communication: through body movement, vocalisation and facial gesture
iv. Dominance hierarchy and submission: Good physical strength,
confidence, age and aggression= higher social status
 Example: in Gorilla, Mela dominant ,Huge sexual dimorphism like male
Gorilla 220 kg And female 110 kg
v. Physical aggression: chimpanzee expressed by violence
vi. sexual behaviour: Does not follow a single pattern, like Baboon male and
female form consort pair
vii. Mother infant relationship: Strong in anthropoid apps
viii. Division of labour based on sex: Hunting is a male activity and gathering
is a female activities in chimpanzee
5. Primate adaptation:
a. Understanding of locomotion in terms of Terrestrial and arboreal living
i. Vertical clinging
ii. Brachiation
iii. Quadrupedalism
iv. Bipedalism
b. Arboreal=Locomotion on tree:
i. Vertical clinging: found in tarsiers and Lemurs of prosimians.Cling keeping
its body in vertical position. Fore Limbs are extra long.
ii. Brachiation: Feature of lesser apes. Suspensory adaptation Using hands
and arms
iii. Quadrupedalism: Monkey and Apes, Tail is prehensile= catch the
branches, Knuckle walking (Finger bent)
Referred to PDF 98.2
c. Terrestrial
i. Bipedalism: Human being
● Changes due to bipedalism
Flexible skeleton
Grasping big toe and opposable Thumb
Claws evolve into nail
Tactile pad On foot for friction
eyes located on the front of the face For 3D stereoscopic
vision
Pelvis, lumbar curve help for erectness
6. Comparative primate anatomy:
a. Difference in stances

Indri vertical clinging and leaping

Macaque Generalised quadrupedalism

Gorilla semi erect knuckle walking

Chimpanzee Knuckle walking and tree climbing

human fully erect bipedalism

7. Major living primates:
a. Referred to page number 87 of paper 1
b. Prosimians: Typical mobile ears, whisker larger snout and fixed facial expression
i. lemuriformes:
● Lemurs=Found in Madagascar. vertical clinging and leaping
,Vegetarian, nocturnal
● Lorises= Southeast Asia, Indonesia and Malaysia. arboreal,
nocturnal,eat fruit, Gum and insects. Brachiation
ii. Tarsiformes
● tarsiers= Philippines and Indonesia. Nocturnal, arboreal, feed on
animal ,Live in family group
c. Anthropoids:
i. Platyrrhines=Flat nose and nostrils facing sideward,Prehensile,Thumb or
not opposable, new world monkey
● cevoids
Cebids
Marmases
ii. catarrhines = Old world monkeys, no prehensile tail, narrow nose and
nostrils facing downward, thumb are opposable
● cercopithecoids :No prehensile tail, medium to large
size,Omnivorous
● Hominoids:
Lesser apes: Gibbon relative of siamangs, Southeast
Asia,Weight 7 kg, Eat fruits, brachiators, Family group, little
sexual dimorphism ,Adult pair advertises their territory by
singing
Larger apes:
i. Orangutan=Indonesia and Malaysia, Males are
heavily beard with and long hair, heaviest of
arboreal, clear sexual dimorphism, fruit eater,
spend time alone
ii. Gorilla=Western equatorial Africa, eats stems and
root,Largest surviving apes, Male 250 kg and
female 140 kg, clear sexual dimorphism, terrestrial
Knuckle walking, Live in groups
iii. Chimpanzee= from west to east Africa, arboreal
and terrestrial, climber and Knuckle Walker ,Male
weight little more than 60 kg of average female,
less sexually dimorphic
Human: Disc shaped pelvis, lumbar curve on
spine,Straight lower limb and curved feet, bipedalism,
opposable thumb, brain is large, cranial capacity 1450
cc,Enlargement of frontal area of head
 Refer to PDF 99.1
8. Comparative anatomy of man and Apes:
Referred to 103 page of paper 1 Book
a. Jane goodall=Expert on chimpanzee, anthropologist,primatologist,Lived with
chimpanzee in Africa, Working to raise awareness about captive and wild
chimpanzee
i. Discovered :
● toolmaking in chimpanzee
● Chimpanzee alter piece of grass or twigs and then poke them into
termite mound
9. Skeletal changes due to erect posture:
a. Pelvis: Larger than ancestor to better support the greater amount of body weight,
vertebral column brought nearer to the hip to give stable base
b. Limbs: Increase in the lower limb. Forelimbs aren’t needed for the locomotion,
only for holding crawling and manipulating
c. Foramen Magnum:Centrally located and well placed, balance skull weight, head
is straight
d. Vertebral column: Forward bend in the lower region and backward in the upper
region=Erect posture
e. Foot: Flat to Arc shaped, no opposable thumb
f. Claws: Substituted by nails
Quadrupedalism to knuckle walking to bipedalism=Increase in Savanna grassland in search of
food

Chap:1.6 of paper 1 Phylogenetic status, Characteristic and geographical distribution of

the following
Plio-pleistocene Hominid in south and East African=Australopithecines:
1. CDawson mislead by claiming pilt down hoax of Eoanthropus(Apes like mandible,
human like cranium and Limbs of chimpanzee) is first spices ,first man is from
British,Ancestors of mankind, first Fossil evidence of man =>Dating method revealed
truth
2. Australopithecines
A. Tuang baby Is ancestors of modern man explained by Raymond dart in tuang in
South Africa 1924=First evidence of australopithecines
B. Classified on their size
Refer to pdf 99.2
○ Gracile variety
i. Short slender: Direct ancestors.
Four varieties :Africanus, Anamensis, Afarensis, Ramidus
○ Robust variety
i. Heavy and long. believed to be extinct.
Two varieties: Paranthropus boisei, Parantropus robustus
ii. Paranthropus aethiopicus (Recently found fossil) believed to the
part of robustus variety.
 ○ Scupin = Robustus and gracile variety have separate evolutionary line
from home-line
Refer to page number 116 of paper 1

gracile robust

Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus aethiopicus

australopithecus Africanus And australopithecus
boisei,Australopithecus
robustus

Lighter build specially in face Jaw, check, teeth and face are
and teeth heavily built

Dentally robust Canine teeth are quite small

3. Distribution
○ Refer to page number 117 of paper 1
4. Physical characteristic:
a. South African australopithecines
● australopithecine africanus
i. Dentition, Bipedalism, hand structure= human feature
ii. cranial capacity 450 to 600 cc, Prognathism( Facial part> cranial part)
iii. Foramen Magnum is beneath the head=No erect posture
iv. Receding forehead
○ Paratropus robustus
i. Heavy and long( 8 feet)
ii. Extinct
b. East African australopithecines
○ Australopithecus ramidus, anamensis, afarensis, And paranthropus boisei
○ First Robust variety= paranthropus Boisei at omo=Complete cranium and lower
jaw
○ First gracile variety= afarensis at laetoli
5. Culture Characteristic of australopithecines
○ Osteo-odonto-keratic culture= culture of australopithecus (Bone- horn- teeth-
culture)=Tools were intentionally or naturally
○ Rudimentary form of hand axes, choppers, chopping tools
○ Semi circular wall like structure= habitation=leakey
○ phil Beam=Observing cranium= symbolic language and verbal communication
○ Reason for extinction:
i. Leakey= Over specialisation of diet
ii. Competition for food
iii. predation by non primates
iv. Scupin= didn't extinct but evolve into homoline
6. Phylogenetic status
 ○ 2 branch theory=Refer To page number 125 of paper 1
○ 3 branch theory =Referred to page number 10 of 100 PDF

Homo erectus:Africa( paranthropus), Europe( heidelbergensis),Asia (javanicus and

pekinensis)
1. Phylogenetic status
a. Search on Google for recent phylogenetics by scupins
https://images.app.goo.gl/1TJSQFJ4G6J6eJJK6

2. Homo erectus
a. Present from 1.4 million year ago to 0.8 million year ago
b. Original name= pithecanthropus erectus or ergaster
c. Archaic man or erect ape man
d. Discovered by Eugene dubois
e. Physical feature:
i. More evolved compared to australopithecus but less evolved compared to
neanderthal
ii. Cranial capacity is 1000 cc, evidence of sagittal Keel, Non sloppy Jaws,
occipital torus https://images.app.goo.gl/FKnPDywjNQu9Aiu56
iii. Thicker skull bone
iv. Foramen Magnum is located at centre=>femur bone, broader pelvis
v. ForeLimbs are lesser in length compared to HindLimbs
vi. Less prognation
vii. Unique feature: Taurodontism ( Bull like teeth)
f. Comparative anatomy of australopithecus versus homo erectus
i. https://images.app.goo.gl/oCytHHXzZHXH5rJi7
3. Cultural characteristic
i. Migration: from Africa To Europe and Asia 1 million year ago
ii. Belong to lower palaeolithic age
iii. Acheulian culture =Tools made of Quartz
iv. Tools: African variety( advance), Asian variety( primitive)
v. Tools: hand axes, chopper, scraper and cleaver
vi. Habitation:
1. Zhoukoudian of China= evidence of Cave living, Fire
2. Terra amata France= Primitive homes
3. Ambroma of France =Dead body in specific direction= magico
religious practice
4. Physical characteristic
a.
Africa Europe Asia Asia
( ergaster) ( Heidelbergensis) ( Javanicus) (pekenesis)
 Cranial 800cc 1000cc 800 to 2000 850 to 1000
capacity Cc cc

Eye socket rounded rounded not rounded rounded

Brow ridge thinner thinner Higher than Higher than

apes Java man

Prognathis present Present but less slight Little

m compared to protruding
ergaster then Java
man

Sagittal present Absence present present

keel

Nose broader less broader broader Less broader

than Java
man
5. Conclusion:First cultural phase of human evolution, adopted to environment by using
stone tool and fire

Refer to PDF 101

Neanderthal man- La Chapelle-aux-saint( Classical type), Mt. carnel (progressive type):
1. Neanderthal:
a. Less than 0.2 million year ago
b. Ancestors of Homo Sapiens
c. Marcellene boule =Scarce food=>Conflict between homo neanderthal and homo
Sapiens =>Both present at almost same age
d. Important site of neanderthal:
i. La Chapelle aux Saint=First neanderthal France
ii. engis Belgium= Child Fossil of neanderthal
iii. Le Moustier= Juvenile and adult fossil
iv. Shanidar= Largest site, Evidence of intentional burial
v. Mt. Carmel= Progressive neanderthal
2. Physical characteristic:
a. Classification based on skull feature: Classical and progressive neanderthal
b. Refer to page number 5 of PDF 101
c. Classical Neanderthal become extinct and progressive neanderthal evolved into
homosapiens
3. Cultural characteristic:
a. Middle palaeolithic age=Mousterian culture and post acheulian culture
b. Large core tools like hand axes with small flake tools
c. Flake tools= retouched and unretouched
d. tevellosian technique
e. Germany and France
 f. Evidence of life in rock shelter
g. Wearing animal skin to protect themselves
h. African neanderthal= first time started depending on small hunt
i. Shanidar= Intentional burial,ritualistic material =>Magico religious practice
4. Reason for extinction of neanderthal:
a. Migration of more advanced human
b. Developed into homo Sapiens
c. Wolpoff=Less evidence of coexistence=> evolved
d. Changing environment=> Cannot adapt himself to the changed ecosystem

Homo habilis:
1. Developed in olduvai gorge by leakey In 1961
2. Earliest known species of genus homo
3. Intermediary between homo erectus and homo Sapiens
4. Fossil was cranium (700cc) and femur bone
5. Time period is 1.4 million year ago
6. Sites are are:omo, hadar, east turkana, koobi fora, olduvai, stark fonten, swartkrans
7. Physical feature:
a. Less protruding face than australopithecine and equal to homo erectus
b. Believed to be originated from gracile =>mandible and jaw are thinner
c. < 3 feet and disproportionately long arms
d. Teeth is similar to modern man, dental arch parabolic
8. Cultural feature:
a. Tool maker and trace at olduvai gorge
b. Olduvation culture=pebble tools, flake not used
c. lived in tropical savanna climate near stream and lakes
d. Apart from meat, gathering of vegetable food
9. Conclusion:
a. Coexisted with bipedal primate such as ergaster and paranthropus boisei
b. Cannot adopt to environment=extinct
c. Entered into or evolved into homo sapiens

Refer to 101.2 pdf

Rhodesian man
1. Broken Hill man
2. Time period= early pleistocene and late pliocene (1 To 0.8 million a year ago)
3. Discovered by zwiggelaar
4. Physical features:
a. Skull is very long and narrow
b. cranial capacity 1250 to 1400 cc
c. Keith=Similar to apes
d. Brow ridge are prominent
e. Teeth similar to homo Sapiens
f. Foramen Magnum is centrally placed
 5. Cultural features:
a. Started using microliths and geometrical tools, Advanced Flake tools and scraper
6. Conclusion
a. Remarkable similarities with homo sapiens
b. Unable to conclude whether rhodesian man evolved in two homo sapiens or not

H*** Sapiens- Cro Magnon, grimaldi and chancelade

1. 40 thousand year ago
2. Fossils= mostly in Europe, Asia and Africa
3. Cro magnon
a. Physical features:
i. Fossils found at France
ii. Discovered by Louis lartet
iii. Similar to caucasoid
iv. Cranial capacity= 1600cc ,
v. Dolichocephaly( Long headed)
vi. Vertical and broad forehead, pentagonal cranium, Bulging occipital
vii. Strong and prominent cheek bone
viii. Femur with well established linea aspera
b. Cultural features:
i. AuriGnacian culture=Bone and stone tools, cave painting, sculpture,
stone And female figurines
ii. Ivory is used
iii. hunting and fishing
iv. Habitat cave and rock shelter
v. Upper palaeolithic age
4. Grimaldi
a. Link between neanderthal and homo Sapiens, Where age Louis lartet= Variety of
homo Sapiens
b. Physical features:
i. Similar to negroid
ii. cranial capacity= 1250 to 1450 cc
iii. Hyper dolichocephaly
iv. White and short face with poorly developed chin
v. Bulbous forehead, feeble supraorbital ridges
vi. Broad and short nose
vii. Alveolar prognathism( Teeth and jaw protruding)
c. Cultural feature:
i. aurignacian culture, Cave painting
ii. Advanced tools
iii. Upper palaeolithic age
5. Chancelade
a. Found at chancelade and dordogne (France)
b. Unique feature= Buried with arms folded on chest and knee touching the chin=
intentional burial
c. Physical features:
i. Cranial capacity 1500cc
ii. similar to eskimo
iii. height is short, large and high brachycephaly head
iv. Wide and long face( Harmonic face)
v. Strong and massive Limb bone
d. Cultural features:
i. Magdalenian culture =Tools made of ivory, bone and antler
ii. Use blood and harpoon for fishing
iii. Cave painting