B6 Average Shaft Centerline.

qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 97

97

Chapter 6

Average Shaft Centerline Plots

T  , ,   ⁄    dynamic (rap-

idly changing) shaft position data, but they do not show changes in the average
shaft position, which is also an important characteristic of system response.
These changes are caused by changes in the static radial load or changes in the
stiffness characteristics of the rotor system. They routinely occur during start-
ups or shutdowns and during steady state operation of the rotor system, over
relatively short or long time spans. When a rotor system with fluid-film bearings
changes speed, there are changes in the stiffness characteristics of the bearing,
which cause a change in the average position of the shaft. Thus, changes in shaft
position can provide very important diagnostic information.
The average shaft centerline plot provides this information. This plot is
designed to show changes in the average position of the shaft; thus, the plot is
effectively low-pass filtered and does not display rapidly changing (dynamic)
data. However, when the information in the shaft centerline plot is combined
with other information, such as known clearances, orbit dynamic behavior, and
centerline plots from other bearings, we can obtain a more detailed picture of
the motion of the shaft, its relationship to available clearances, and the static
radial loads acting on the machine.
The average shaft centerline plot is most often used to display changes in
shaft position versus speed, but it is also used to display changes in shaft posi-
tion versus time, so the changes can be correlated to changing operating condi-
tions. Because some malfunctions (misalignment, rub, and fluid-induced insta-
bility, to name a few) can produce noticeable changes in the centerline behavior,
the shaft centerline plot is a very important tool for correlation with other plots
when performing diagnostics.
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 98

98 Data Plots

In this chapter, we will discuss the construction of the shaft centerline plot
and the addition of the bearing clearance circle. We will then define the position
angle and the attitude angle and show how to obtain them from the plot. Then,
we will show examples of how the shaft centerline typically behaves in machines
with internally pressurized (hydrodynamic), fluid-film bearings. Finally, we will
show how the combination of the shaft centerline plot, the bearing clearance
circle, and the orbit can produce a very powerful and detailed picture of the
dynamic response of the shaft.

The Construction of the Average Shaft Centerline Plot

In the Chapter 5, we saw how vibration signals from two orthogonal trans-
ducers are combined to produce an orbit. The orbit shows the dynamic motion
of the shaft centerline about an average position and is constructed from the ac
part of the vibration signals. The average shaft centerline plot shows changes in
the average position of the shaft centerline in two dimensions and is construct-
ed from the dc part of the vibration signals.
The dc information is contained in the gap voltage of the transducers. When
the machine is operating, the voltage fluctuates continuously about an average
value. For Bently Nevada 5 mm and 8 mm transducers, this corresponds to a
physical gap in the range of 0.25 mm to 2.0 mm (10 mil to 90 mil). If the gap volt-
ages from two orthogonal transducers are low-pass filtered, the results represent
the average position of the shaft in the plane of the transducers.
This average position information from two, orthogonal, coplanar transduc-
ers is combined to produce a point on an XY (Cartesian) plot. The point repre-
sents the shaft, as if it were spinning without vibration, at a particular location
inside the bearing clearance. When a set of this data is collected versus time or
speed, the plot becomes an average shaft centerline plot.
An example of an average shaft centerline plot (Figure 6-1) shows the out-
board compressor bearing data from the shutdown of a steam turbine compres-
sor train. The plot has equal scaling in both horizontal and vertical directions
and is square in shape. The reference direction (“Up” in the figure) and the direc-
tion of rotation (curved black arrow) are shown to aid the viewer in orienting the
plot to the machine and interpreting the data. The data points (yellow) may be
labeled with the speed of the machine or the sample time. Note that, unlike the
orbit plot, the probe orientations (which in this example are 45° L and R from
vertical) are not shown on the plot.
If the dimensions of a nearby bearing or seal are known, then a clearance cir-
cle (green) can be added to the shaft centerline plot. This is a circle (or an ellipse)
that is the path traced out by the shaft centerline as the shaft walks around the
bearing or seal, and it represents the available clearance. The diameter of the
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 99

Chapter 6 Average Shaft Centerline Plots 99

clearance circle is not the same as the bearing diameter; it is equal to the bear-
ing diameter minus the shaft journal diameter, the diametral clearance. The
position of the shaft within the clearance circle is often expressed as its eccen-
tricity ratio (see the sidebar).
To the right of the plot are illustrations of the shaft position inside the bear-
ing at speeds of 340 rpm and 6100 rpm (the bearing clearance is greatly exag-
gerated for clarity). The bottom figure shows the average position at the slow roll
speed of 340 rpm, where the shaft rests close to the bottom of the bearing. The
top figure shows the response of the shaft to the static forces and stiffnesses at
operating speed. While the orbit may or may not have changed, there are many
changes in static position which are important to documenting the response of
the system.

Rotation Shaft
Reference direction
direction
Up
8

6 6100 rpm

6100 Bearing
4 Clearance circle
6020 6000

3120
1740
2 1560
1240 1140
860
600
340
0
-4 -2 0 2 4
0.5 mil/div 340 rpm
Speed

Figure 6-1. An average shaft centerline plot of a shutdown of a steam turbine compressor
train (outboard compressor bearing) versus speed. The arrow shows rotation direction, and
the 7.0 mil (180 µm) diameter clearance circle (green) shows the available diametral clear-
ance of this plain, cylindrical bearing. The shaft position at slow roll is at the bottom center
of the plot. The figures to the right show the position of the shaft (greatly reduced in size
for clarity) relative to the bearing wall for the operating and slow roll speeds.
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 100

100 Data Plots

If the measurement plane is close

to the bearing or seal, then the clear- Eccentricity Ratio
The radial position of a shaft is often
ance circle, if it is accurately drawn,
described using the eccentricity ratio, ε
can show when the average shaft (Greek lower case epsilon). The eccentrici-
position is approaching or exceeding ty ratio is defined as the ratio of the dis-
the limit of the available clearance. If tance between the center of the shaft and
the shaft centerline exceeds the avail- the center of the bearing, r, to the available
able clearance, then it is a sign that radial clearance, c:
something could be seriously wrong ε=
r
(6-1)
in the machine, such as a severe bear- c
ing wipe. When the shaft centerline contacts the
However, if the measurement clearance circle (equivalent to the shaft
plane is some distance away from the contacting the bearing or seal), the eccen-
tricity ratio is one. When the centerline is
bearing or seal, shaft deflection can
in the middle of the clearance circle
make the shaft position appear to (equivalent to the shaft being centered in
exceed the limit of the clearance cir- the bearing or seal), the eccentricity ratio
cle under normal operating condi- is zero. Thus, the eccentricity ratio is, the-
tions. oretically, always a number between zero
Figure 6-2 shows another varia- and one.
tion of the shaft centerline plot from
the outboard bearing of a 125 MW
HP/IP turbine. The machine is running at a constant speed of 3600 rpm. The
journal is shifted down and to the right as the applied load on the rotor changes.
This can be the result of relatively high pressure on one side of the rotor due to
unbalanced valve sequencing. It is also possible that this large change was
caused by a change in alignment as the machine reached thermal equilibrium
after the load change. Note that the plot has time labels, so that the data can be
correlated with the operational changes.
No bearing clearance data was available, so no clearance circle has been
drawn on this plot. Typical machines of this type have shaft diameters of about
300 mm (12 in). An approximate rule is that, for plain cylindrical bearings,
bearing diametral clearance is typically between 0.1% to 0.15% of the shaft diam-
eter. Thus, in this case, we would expect a diametral clearance of between 300
µm (12 mil) to 450 µm (18 mil). The shaft centerline plot shows two distinct clus-
ters of positions that are about 20 mil (510 µm) apart. Thus, it is probable that
the shaft is moving from one side of the bearing to the other during this load
change.
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 101

Chapter 6 Average Shaft Centerline Plots 101

Up
20
Figure 6-2. A shaft centerline plot from the
outboard bearing of a 125 MW steam tur- 15
bine HP/IP unit. The machine is running at a
constant speed of 3600 rpm while the load 10:53:17

is being changed. The journal is being shift- 10 13:33:17

11:28:17
ed down and to the right during the load 14:03:17
change, possibly due to unbalanced valve 10:38:17
sequencing or to thermal growth and 5
changing alignment. The data is plotted ver- 14:18:17
sus time instead of rpm, which allows corre- 0
lation of the shaft position with operational 14:43:17
15:43:17
changes. See the text for more details.
-5
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
1 mil/div

Information Contained in the Average Shaft Centerline Plot

The average shaft centerline plot can be used to infer a great deal about a
machine’s condition. It can be used to measure the shaft position angle and esti-
mate the shaft attitude angle and load direction, and it can be used to monitor
bearing wear, electrostatic erosion, and thermal effects. The startup and shut-
down behavior of a shaft in a fluid-film bearing can be compared to theoretical
and historical behavior; the change in shaft position with respect to the clear-
ance circle is commonly used to deduce whether the shaft position change is
appropriate for the expected operating condition and bearing geometry. Shaft
position can be compared across bearings, couplings, and machines to detect
potential misalignment or coupling problems. Finally, load or operating condi-
tion changes often result in shaft position changes; these can be examined for
signs of abnormal behavior. The average shaft centerline plot is a powerful tool
for machinery diagnostics, especially when used to correlate data from other
plot formats and process data.

The shaft centerline plot can be used to measure the shaft position angle.
This is the angle between the line through the shaft and bearing centers and an
arbitrary reference direction. In horizontal machines, this reference direction is
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 102

102 Data Plots

almost always down. The angle is measured from the reference direction, in the
direction of rotation (Figure 6-3). To measure the shaft position angle,

1) Create a shaft centerline plot with an accurate clearance circle.

2) Verify that the starting point (reference gap voltage) is correct.

This will usually be the low-speed point for a startup and is typ-
ically at the bottom of the plot for a horizontal machine.

3) Draw a line from the center of the clearance circle to the bottom
center of the plot. This is the reference direction.

4) Draw a line from the center of the clearance circle through the
average shaft centerline position for the rpm or time of concern.

5) Measure the angle from the reference direction to the line

between centers, in the direction of rotation.

In the figure, the reference direction is down, and the shaft position angle is 80°.

The attitude angle, Ψ (Greek upper case Psi), is the angle between the applied
load and the system’s response to the load (Figure 6-4). The measurement of the
attitude angle is similar to that of the position angle: from a reference to the line
of centers, in the direction of rotation. The reference, though, is the direction of
the applied static radial load, which can vary with operating condition. The stat-
ic radial load is the vector sum of all radial loads, including gravity, that are act-
ing on the rotor, and it can be in any direction.
Historically, the dominant radial load on a horizontal machine was consid-
ered to be gravity, and the attitude angle was thought to be the same as the posi-
tion angle. However, we know today that large loads can act in other directions
(for example, partial steam admission loads in a steam turbine, fluid-handling
loads, gear mesh loads, or misalignment loads) and that they can be strong
enough to move and even lift the rotor. Thus, the static radial load will include
contributions from gravity and all other loads; the vector sum may point in a dif-
ferent direction than down. Figure 6-2 shows a clear example of how a massive
steam turbine rotor can be moved to an unexpected position by a major change
in load.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to know the exact direction or magnitude of the
static radial load vector acting on the rotor shaft. However, the shape of a start-
up or shutdown average shaft centerline plot, combined with our knowledge of
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 103

Chapter 6 Average Shaft Centerline Plots 103

Position Angle

80

Figure 6-3. Measurement of the position

angle. An operating shaft centerline position 60
is shown (yellow dot) in relation to the clear-
ance circle for the bearing. The reference
direction (down) is identified, and a line is 40
drawn from the bearing center through the
shaft position. The angle is measured from
the reference direction to the shaft position 20
in the direction of rotation. 80˚

0
-40 -20 20 40
5 µm/div Reference
(down)

Attitude Angle

80

Figure 6-4. Measurement of the attitude

angle, Ψ. The average shaft centerline plot 60
shows the same shaft position (yellow dot)
as in Figure 6-3. The assumed direction of the
load vector has been identified. A line is 40
drawn from the bearing center through the
Ψ
shaft position, and the angle is measured Assumed 30˚
from the load vector to the shaft position in 20
load
the direction of rotation. vector

0
-40 -20 0 20 40
5 µm/div
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 104

104 Data Plots

how the shaft should move for the type of bearing installed, can give us a clue as
to the load direction. Once the load direction is assumed, the attitude angle can
be estimated.
In practice, an abnormal position angle provides an indication that the radi-
al load has a different magnitude or direction than expected, or that the stiffness
of the system has changed. When a direction for the load is assumed, it can lead
to identifying the potential source of the change in the load.
In a machine with internally pressurized (hydrodynamic), fluid-film bear-
ings and a static radial load, changes in rotor speed will usually produce a
change in average shaft position. This happens because the stiffness of the bear-
ing changes with rotor speed. Different bearing types and different static loads
produce different behaviors over speed. The shaft centerline plot can be used to
check on this behavior and to assess the changes in the magnitude and direction
of the load.
Figure 6-5 shows average shaft centerline shutdown data from the outboard
bearing of a horizontal compressor train. Note that the machine rotates in a Y
to X (clockwise) direction. The large position angle and low eccentricity ratio at
running speed are not normal for this type of bearing (plain cylindrical) in this
service, and imply that the load may be pointed as shown (red) and have lower
than normal magnitude. As the machine slows down, the shaft centerline shifts
to a position that indicates that gravity (blue) is the dominant load on the shaft.
The shaft position near the end of the shutdown is quite normal for a plain,
cylindrical bearing (the hydrodynamic fluid wedge produces a force that moves
the rotor up and to the left of center for this rotation direction).

Up
8
Assumed
Figure 6-5. Shutdown behavior at slow roll speed
Assumed
a compressor outboard bearing. 6
load direction
operating speed
The machine is equipped with load direction
plain cylindrical bearings and
rotates in a Y to X (clockwise) 6100
direction. The assumed load vec- 4
6020 6000
tors for high speed (red) and slow
3120
roll (blue) operation show a dra- 1740
2 1560
matic change in loading of the
1240 1140
bearing. See the text for details. 860
600
340
0
-4 -2 0 2 4
0.5 mil/div
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 105

Chapter 6 Average Shaft Centerline Plots 105

Calibrating the Clearance Circle action of fluid-film bearings will not be

When the clearance circle is included on strong enough to push the rotor significantly
the plot, it implies that the plot provides an away from the bottom center of the bearings.
absolute measurement of shaft position. We Figure 6-1 uses this method.
now want to know the shaft centerline posi-
3) Perform a lift test. The stopped rotor is
tion relative to the clearance circle. What
physically moved around the bearing clear-
was a plot showing relative changes in posi-
ance. During this process, the maximum and
tion now becomes a plot of absolute position.
minimum gap voltages for each transducer
Although we know the position of the shaft
are recorded and related to the bearing clear-
relative to the probe tip, we do not know the
ance. When the rotor is released and returns
position of the probe tip relative to the bear-
to the equilibrium position, the equilibrium
ing wall, so we must somehow calibrate our
position gap voltages can be used with the
measurement. Calibration involves deter-
clearance circle to define the actual rest posi-
mining the gap reference voltage (dc) for both
tion. A lift test is not suitable for tilting pad
measurement transducers when the shaft is
bearings, because measurements between
in contact with the bearing wall for at least
pads, combined with pad movement, can
one location (usually the bottom for horizon-
give the false impression of greater diametral
tal machines). Once one point is known, the
clearance.
bearing clearance circle can be established,
at least in theory. Instead of showing the Remember that machines may not have
position of the shaft relative to the probes, reached proper alignment until they are up
the plot will now show the correct position of and running and have reached equilibrium
the shaft relative to the clearance circle. temperature. Ideally, these gap reference
There are three ways to do this in practice. measurements should be taken while the
Each of these methods determines the values machine is hot, because thermal growth may
of the gap reference voltages for the meas- change the clearances. In practice, however,
urement transducers. that cannot always be done; obviously, per-
forming a lift test on a hot machine would
1) Measure the location of the shaft with the
take unusual talent.
machine stopped. In horizontal machines,
Vertical machines are a special problem.
the assumption is made that the shaft sits in
Because there is no gravity available to move
the bottom center of the bearings when the
the shaft into a repeatable rest position, the
machine is stopped. The gap voltages can be
shaft in these machines can stop in a differ-
measured by data acquisition software, if it
ent position every time the machine is
has that capability, or by hand with a volt-
stopped. If a vertical machine is critical to
meter. Either way, the voltage values define
the process, the shaft can be moved to each
the starting point of the shaft centerline plot.
side to define the range of gap voltages, the
2) Measure the gap voltages while a horizon- clearance circle, and one or more reference
tal machine is at slow roll speed. The voltages.
assumption is made that the hydrodynamic
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 106

106 Data Plots

At constant speed, changes in load will also produce a change in the attitude
angle and, therefore, the position angle. Thus, changes in the position angle in a
shaft centerline plot indicate changing loads. Some of these loads may be due to
process changes, but misalignment can also produce significant load changes in
a bearing.

The average shaft centerline plot is a powerful tool for detecting changes in
alignment in machine trains. In a horizontal machine where the primary radial
load is gravity with no gearing loads, normally loaded, plain cylindrical, hydro-
dynamic bearings will have a position angle of between 30° and 45°, and the shaft
will normally operate at an eccentricity ratio of 0.6 to 0.8. Horizontal machines
with tilting pad bearings will normally have a position angle of between 5° and

3 4

1
2

Figure 6-6. Shaft position plots for a misaligned machine train. The plots show the
average shaft positions and position angles for the four bearings. Bearing 2 is low,
bearing 3 is high, and the shafts are rigidly coupled. This particular combination of par-
allel and angular misalignment produces a load transfer from bearings 2 and 4 to bear-
ings 1 and 3, where the shaft operates at a high eccentricity ratio. Bearing 2 is very
lightly loaded, and the shaft position is in the upper half of the bearing. Note that the
shaft position across the coupling is in opposite quadrants.
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 107

Chapter 6 Average Shaft Centerline Plots 107

15° and an eccentricity ratio close to zero. Misaligned machines can cause a load
transfer between bearings, and one or more bearings will carry more than their
share of the radial load. This leaves other bearings relatively unloaded or, possi-
bly, loaded in opposite directions (Figure 6-6).
When such misalignment exists, loads transmitted by the shaft can add to
or subtract from the gravity load at each bearing, and the radial load vectors can
change dramatically in magnitude and direction. Thus, as shown in the figure,
the shaft position angle at operating speed can be very different for two adjacent
bearings in a misaligned machine. See Chapter 20 for more information.

Other malfunctions can produce dramatic changes in shaft centerline posi-

tion. Because a rub acts as a new bearing in the system, a rotor-to-stator rub can

Power turbine Compressor

4 5 6 7

Bearing 4 Bearing 5
Up Up
2 4

4280
5391
0 4360 2 2356
5191
3380 1590
3280 3287 1320
2370 5180 5391 3378 1080
-2 1410 0 900
4360 750
750 540
270 480 390
270
-4 120 -2
120 180

-6 -4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 -2 0 2 4 6
0.5 mil/div 0.5 mil/div

Figure 6-7. Shutdown of a gas turbine compressor with a locked gear coupling and a
rub. The plots from bearings 4 and 5 on the power turbine show a dramatic shift in
centerline position at about 4000 rpm. This occurs when the coupling unlocks and
the rub ceases. The centerline behavior below 2300 rpm is normal. The coupling is
between bearing 5 and 6.
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 108

108 Data Plots

result in a radial load transfer that can load or unload nearby bearings, depend-
ing on the orientation of the rub. This causes a change in position angle, which
can be detected with the shaft centerline plot.
Also, as we have seen, the journal in a normally loaded, hydrodynamic bear-
ing will operate at a high eccentricity ratio. Fluid-induced instability whirl or
whip can cause a change in average shaft position, at the source of the instabil-
ity, to a lower eccentricity ratio.
Thus, the average shaft centerline plot can reveal or help confirm serious
machine problems. Figure 6-7 shows an example of the shaft centerline response
due to a locked gear coupling between a low-pressure gas turbine and a com-
pressor. The shaft centerline plots of the two turbine bearings, 4 and 5, are
shown during shutdown of the machine. The high-speed operating position in
bearing 5 is abnormal. As the machine slows to about 4000 rpm, the coupling
unlocks, causing the shaft position to suddenly move to the right. The path of
the shaft centerline appears normal from about 2300 rpm on down to slow roll.
Note that bearing 4 also shows an abnormal path at the beginning of this shut-
down. The shaft position was so extreme that it caused a rub in the machine
until the coupling unlocked at about 4000 rpm.

The Complete Picture: Orbit Plus Average Shaft Centerline Position

A vibrating shaft has an average position and dynamic motion about that
average position. The average shaft centerline plot displays only the average
position; the orbit plot displays only the dynamic motion. Both pieces of infor-
mation are needed to completely define the dynamic position of the shaft rela-
tive to the bearing in the measurement plane.
Figure 6-8 shows a sequence of shaft centerline plots from the shutdown of
a steam turbine generator set. Each plot includes an orbit captured at the same
speed as the position data (yellow dot) and displayed at the same scale. The
clearance circle has been estimated.
The orbit begins a large amplitude, ½X vibration at 2580 rpm. From the
shape of the orbit, it appears to contact the bearing boundary in two places: the
lower right quadrant and the upper left quadrant. This was a violent, 18 mil pp
(460 µm pp) vibration that was actually heard by nearby personnel. At 1727 rpm,
the orbit has returned to a flattened, mostly 1X shape, which still shows some
evidence of rub in the lower right quadrant. The combination of the orbit plus
shaft centerline has produced a striking set of data that greatly clarifies what is
happening to the machine, and the reason why!
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 109

Chapter 6 Average Shaft Centerline Plots 109

3600 rpm 3270 rpm 2580 rpm 1727 rpm

15

10

0
-5 0 5
1 mil/div

Figure 6-8. Orbits superimposed on shaft position plots taken during the shutdown of a
steam turbine generator. The data from the HP/IP outboard bearing shows a violent 1/2X
vibration at 2580 rpm, which causes contact with the bearing in the lower right and upper
left quadrants.

Summary
The average shaft centerline plot is an XY plot of the average position of the
shaft in the measurement plane. The circle drawn on the plot represents the
diametral clearance of a nearby bearing or seal. The combination allows us to
visualize the average position of the shaft relative to the available clearance dur-
ing startup, shutdown, or over time.
The position angle on horizontal machines is measured from a vertical ref-
erence (usually down) to the line between centers of the bearing and shaft, in the
direction of rotation.
The attitude angle is the angle between the applied load and the system’s
response to the load and is a key characteristic of the operating condition of the
machine. Typically, the load is not known, and the attitude angle is estimated
and used to work back from the average shaft position to the direction and mag-
nitude of the load.
The average shaft centerline plot is useful for detecting and confirming the
existence of many machine malfunctions, such as rub, fluid-induced instability,
bearing wear or erosion, and misalignment.
The combination of the shaft centerline plot, the bearing clearance circle,
and the orbit can produce a very powerful and complete picture of the static and
dynamic response of the shaft relative to the bearing.
B6 Average Shaft Centerline.qxd 9/10/2002 10:37 AM Page 110