Design Guide - Piping - Kasa - Fundamentals Training 01,02 - Introduction, Background

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__ Engineers & Technical Trainers
INTRODUCTION
1.1 EDITION & COPYRIGHT DETAILS 1-2
1.2 DISCLAIMER 1-2
1.3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1-2
1.4 BACKGROUND 1-3

1.5 OBJECTIVES 1-3
P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 1-1

Section 1 Introduction
Engh~eers & Technical Trainers
1.1 EDITION & COPYRIGHT DETAILS

¯ Produced by KASA Solution Pty Ltd
¯ First Edition June 2004
¯ Second Edition July 2006
Copyright © 2004 KASA Solutions Pty Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this
assembled document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of KASA
Solutions Pty Ltd.
1.2 DISCLAIMER
Every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and validity of the data,
recommendations and interpretations expressed in this document. However, this
document has been produced by KASA Solutions Pty Ltd and issued to clients
on the condition that KASA Solutions Pty Ltd make no warranties with respect to
the completeness or the accuracy of the contents of this document and do not
accept any liability for any losses or damages arising from the use of this
document. It is further recommended that no person should act on the material
detailed in this document without first obtaining advice from a suitably qualified
and experienced Engineer.
1.3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
KASA Solutions Pty Ltd would like to thank the following companies for
graciously allowing the reproduction of their graphics, photographs and artwork:
Barron GJM
Binder Engineering Group
Burkert Fluid Control Systems
Cadgroup Australia
Crane Australia
Ebro Armaturen Pacific
Endress+Hauser Australia
H20 Rx
Iplex Pipelines
Mack Valves
Macnaught
Measurement Resources
Nalco Australia
Samson Controls
TSG Engineering
Tyco Flow Control Pacific
Unistrut Australia
Yokogawa Australia
-__ Engh~eers & Technical Trainers
1.4 BACKGROUND
As a rule of thumb, "Piping" accounts for (i) 30 percent of the material costs of a
process plant or water treatment facility (ii) 30 percent of the construction labour
and (iii) 40 percent of the total engineering time expended in designing, installing
or commissioning a plant. Despite piping systems accounting for such a large
"chunk" of a overall plant, it is amazing how so many errors are made with regard
to the design of such systems. For example, the incorrect selection of piping
materials, end connections, valves, fittings and support systems are all too
common in industry.
"The Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Training Manual’ is a companion

training aid to the KASA Solutions "Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals" training
seminar. This two day seminar covers: basic hydraulics theory, pipe
manufacturing methods, pipe sizing and selection, valves and instruments,
design and drafting, basic design calculations and installation and maintenance
advice. This training manual contains theory, worked example problems, tables,
charts, illustrations and drawings etc and has been designed to be a valuable
future resource for the office, workshop, factory or plant.
The "Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals" training seminar is the second in a

series of three pump and hydraulics training seminars. It provides a practical
introduction to piping systems. It should be noted that this seminar deals with
liquids only. Other fluids such as gases and vapours are not specifically covered
even though a large majority of the principles outlined still apply.
Please contact KASA Solutions for more information on this series of seminars
as well as others on offer. Alternatively, visit our website for details.
www.kasa.com.au
1.5 OBJECTIVES
After reading this training manual and completing the accompanying training
course, you should be able to:
¯ Select the most appropriate pipe material, type and end connection for a
particular application.
¯ Determine the correct pipe wall thickness or schedule for an application.
¯ Understand cavitation and water hammer and how to design these effects
out of the system.
¯ Select the most appropriate valve type for a particular application.
¯ Understand control valve sizing.
¯ Be competent in sizing pipes for a particular application.
¯ Be competent in reading and understanding drawings such as PFD’s,
P&ID’s, piping isometrics, line lists, spool drawings etc.
¯ Be aware of various fabrication, installation and maintenance issues.

Engineers & Technical Trainers
¯ Understand the operating principles of typical piping instrumentation and

other miscellaneous piping devices.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.1.1 Preview 2-2
2.1.2 Section Objectives 2-2
2.2 COMMON TERMS & DEFINITIONS 2-3

2.3 LIQUID PROPERTIES 2-18
2.3.1 Relative Density (aka "Specific Gravity") 2-18
2.3.2 Vapour Pressure 2-19
2.3.3 Viscosity 2-20
2.4 BASIC HYDRAULICS THEORY 2-25

2.4.1 Pressure-Head Relationships 2-25
2.4.2 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure 2-25
2.4.3 Conservation of Mass - One Dimensional Steady Flow 2-26
2.4.4 Bernoulli’s Theorem 2-28
2.4.5 Friction Losses in Pipes and Fittings 2-29
2.4.5.1 General 2-29
2.4.5.2 Background Information on the Calculation of Friction Losses 2-29
2.4.5.3 Using Published Data for Friction Losses in Pipes and Fittings 2-33
2.5 CAVITATION 2-43
2.6 WATER HAMMER 2-49

2.6.1 General 2-49
2.6.2 Typical Caused of Water Hammer 2-54
2.6.3 When to Conduct a Water Hammer Analysis 2-55
2.6.4 Methods of Minimising the Effects of Water Hammer 2-55
2.7 SCALING 2-58
2.8 PIPE SIZING METHODS 2-61

2.8.1 Background 2-61
2.8.2 The Present Value (PV) Method 2-61
2.8.3 The Allowable Velocity (AV) Method 2-67
2.8.4 The Head Loss Available (HLA) Method 2-69
2.8.5 Pipe Sizing Based on Equipment Nozzle Sizes 2-69

Section 2 Background Information
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Preview
A thorough understanding of liquid piping systems begins with a working

knowledge of basic hydraulic principles. The purpose of this section is to briefly
cover the hydraulic principles and background information relevant to liquid
piping systems. For some, this knowledge may be a simple refresher, for others
it will be completely new. No matter what your previous knowledge, it is
important to establish a baseline before we continue further with the finer detail of
liquid piping systems.
The background information presented in this section shall consist of:
¯ Simple terms and definitions relating to piping systems, ancillary

components, processes and commonly carried liquid types.
¯ Liquid properties.
¯ Basic hydraulics theory and calculations.
¯ Friction (head) losses in pipes and fittings.
¯ Cavitation and water hammer.
¯ Scaling.
¯ Pipe sizing methods.
2.1.2 Section Objectives
After completing this section, you should be able to:
¯ Understand common piping systems and liquids terminology and use such
terminology with confidence in your work.
¯ Realise the importance of the properties of a liquid on the piping system.
¯ Perform basic calculations relating to pressure, pipe flow, head losses and
pipe sizing.
¯ Understand pipeline cavitation and water hammer and how to either

design these issues out of the system or at least minimise their effects.
¯ Be aware of the consequences and the mechanism of pipe scaling and

how to minimise the effects.
¯ Be capable calculating and specifying the most appropriate pipe size for a
given application.
2.2 COMMON TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Absolute Pressure
Is the algebraic sum of the gauge pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
Absolute (aka Dynamic) Viscosity
The flow-ability of a fluid. In the SI system of measurement, the unit is the

Pascal second (Pa.s). The corresponding unit in the CGS system is the poise of
which the submultiple - centipoise (cP) is the most commonly used. Industry
commonly uses the unit of centipoise for expressing the absolute viscosity rather
than the Pascal second and this trend is likely to continue for some time.
1 Pa.s = 1 Ns/m2 = 1 kg/(ms) = 103 cP
1 cP = 10-3 Pa.s
The absolute viscosity of water at 20°C is 1.002 cP (0.001 Pa.s).
Actuator
A device that forces a valve to open or close due to the application of a fluid
pressure or electric power.
Air-to-Close (aka "Fail Open" or "Normally Open")
An increase in air pressure to the valve actuator closes the valve.
Air-to-Open (aka "Fail closed" or "Normally Closed")
A decrease in air pressure to the valve actuator opens the valve.
Annealing
The process of increasing a metal to a temperature above its critical temperature

and holding it there for a prescribed period of time prior to allowing it to cool at
such a rate so that the mechanical properties of the metal are improved.
Typically, annealing is used to reduce hardness which aids in machinability and
cold-working.
ANSI
An abbreviation for the "American National Standards Institute".

Anti-Cavitation Trim
A special component used in valves (typically control valves) to stage the

pressure drop through the valve. This staging either prevents cavitation or
directs the vapour bubbles formed to the centre of the flow stream away from the
valve body or valve trim. Typically, this component consists of a ring with
successively smaller orifices.
API
An abbreviation for the "American Petroleum Institute".
Area Limit
In drafting terminology, this is the boundary identifying the extents of the limit
being drawn.
ASME
An abbreviation for the "American Society of Mechanical Engineers".
ASTM
An abbreviation for the American Society for Testing and Materials". This
industry body is responsible for proposing and drafting many piping related
standards for acceptance by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
as a national standard.
Atmospheric Pressure
Refer to "Barometric Pressure" for details.
Backing Ring (aka "Welding Ring")
A ring, much like a washer, that is placed between the ends of two pipes which
are to be joined by welding. The purpose of the ring is to prevent the build-up of
weld carry-over (i.e. icicles) inside the pipe.
Balanced Trim
A valve trim arrangement found in globe valves that equalises the pressure
above and below the valve plug. This aids in minimising the flow forces acting
along the axis of the valve stem.
Barometric (aka Atmospheric) Pressure
Corresponds to the absolute pressure above perfect vacuum."Standard"

atmospheric pressure is 1.013 bar (101.3 kPa).

Battery Limits
In drafting terminology, these are lines or symbols placed on a drawing which

signify the perimeter of a particular unit of the scope of supply for a particular
vendor or contracting party.
Bingham Plastic Fluids
A classification of Non-Newtonian fluids. The fluid does not flow until a threshold
shear stress is reached. Viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. Heavy
slurries and sewerage sludge are examples.
Block Flow Diagram
A basic graphical representation of a process plant or piping facility etc using

rectangles and single lines. Only a limited amount of detail is shown. The main
purpose is to illustrate where each fluid comes from and goes to.
Bonnet
The pressure portion of the valve which guides the stem and contains the
packing and stem seal. A bonnet may be integral to the valve body or fixed by
bolting or screwing.
Bubble Tight
A term used to describe the ability of a valve to shut-off completely against any
pressure on any fluid. In practice, there is no such thing as zero leakage or
bubble tight. However, standards do exist which classify valves according to the
amount of leakage or "bubbles per minutes" depending on pressure, fluid type
and valve port size.
Bulk Modulus (of a Liquid)
A numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a liquid when it is

under pressure on all surfaces. The applied pressure reduces the volume of the
liquid, which returns to its original volume when the pressure is removed. It is
sometimes referred to as the incompressibility of the fluid.
Where B = Bulk Modulus (Pa); P = Pressure Applied (Pa); AI/" = Change in

Volume (m3); fzo = Original Volume (m3)

Cage
A hollow cylindrical trim element that is sometimes used as a guide to align the
movement of a valve plug with a seat ring.
Capacity (aka Flow Rate)
The volume of liquid that has flowed per unit time.
Cavitation
The rapid formation and subsequent collapse of vapour bubbles in a moving fluid
in regions of low pressure. Vapour bubbles collapsing next to a surface cause
tremendous shock and are capable of removing molecules of metal.
Choked Valve Flow (aka "Critical Flow")
Given a fixed upstream pressure, choked flow is the phenomenon that exists
when the liquid is cavitating due to a high velocity (i.e. high pressure drop
through a valve) and hence the vapour bubbles block the flow of liquid through
the valve and therefore flow rate cannot be increased any further by dropping the
downstream pressure.
Class
In the United States, pipe, flanges and fittings etc are classified according to
"Class" depending on their pressure-temperature rating. Generally speaking, the
"Class" will be equivalent to the working pressure at a particular temperature.
Care should be exercised as sometimes the class is the working pressure at
normal ambient temperature and sometimes it is at elevated temperatures (i.e.
saturated steam).
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
The change in dimension of a particular material due to a change in temperature.

This property is usually expressed in the units of mm/m.°C.
Control Valve
A power operated device used to modify the liquid flow rate in piping system.
Typically, a control valve consists of an Actuator which opens or closes a valve
dependent upon an external control signal which varies with the degree of valve
stem or plug travel.
Control Valve Gain
The relationship between valve travel and the flow rate through the valve
generally shown on a Valve Characteristic Curve.

Coordinates
In drafting terminology, coordinates are intersecting lines running North-South

and East-West which are used to describe the position of items such as
equipment, foundations, supports, buildings etc on a drawing.
C~, (aka "Valve Flow Co-Efficient")
Is the number of US gallons per minute of water at 60 °F that will flow through a
valve at a specified opening with a pressure drop of 1 psi across the valve. The
value of Cv is not the same as the metric equivalent property - Kv.
d50
The average particle size of solids in a given dry sample. This size is equal to
the screen size which would retain exactly 50 percent by weight of the total
sample (mm or ~m).
Density
The mass of a substance per unit of volume.
Dilatant Fluids (aka Shear Thickening)
A classification of Non-Newtonian fluids. The fluid’s viscosity increases as

agitation increases at constant temperatures. Clay slurries are an example.
DN
An abbreviation for "Diameter Nominal6" - the French equivalent of "nominal

diameter". This corresponds to the outside diameter of the pipe. In Australia,
plastic pipes are sized by "DN".
Dual Seating Valve
A valve that uses a resilient material such as PTFE or Buna-N for its primary seal
and a metal-to-metal seat as a secondary seal. The secondary seal becomes
the main seal should the primary seal fail but will not be as effective at higher
pressures (in terms of "bubbles per minute").
Dummy Leg
A stub of pipe or structural steel which is welded to the outside of a pipe for the
purposes of providing support for that pipe when it freely rests on a pipe support.
Electric Resistance Welded Pipe
A pipe which has been manufactured by longitudinal welding of continuous

lengths of coiled skelp prior to be cut in to individual lengths.
End Connection
The joint configuration between pipes, or pipes and ancillary equipment providing
a liquid tight seal.
Equal Percentage
A valve flow characteristic where for equal increments of valve plug travel, the
change in flow rate with respect to travel may be expressed as a constant
percentage of the flow rate at the time of change.
Expansion Joint
A flexible piping component which has the purpose of allowing for pipe
movement and/or expansion due to thermal effects, loading effects or vibration
etc.
Face-to-Face Dimension
The distance between the inlet opening and the face of the outlet opening of a
valve or fitting.
Fail-In-Place
A valve actuator that stays at the last position of operation when it lost its air or
power supply. That is, the valve remains open at the last powered position.
Field Pipe
A run of pipe which is fabricated and assembled at the time of installation.
Fittings
Include such pipe components as branches, reducers, expanders or deflectors.

Tees, crosses, elbows etc are all branched fittings.
Flashing
The boiling (aka "vaporising") of a liquid.
Flow Rate (aka Capacity)
Refer to "Capacity" for details.
Foot Valve
A non-return valve fitted at the opening to the pump suction pipe in order to retain
water in the pipe and therefore prevent loss of prime in a centrifugal pump.

Engineers & Tecl~nical Trainers
Friction Head
The entrance and exit losses due to the velocity of flow in a pipe. These losses
can include: pipe surface friction as well as losses through valves and fittings.
Gain
The sensitivity of a control valve expressed as a ratio of input signal percentage

to output opening percentage.
Gauge Pressure
Using the atmospheric pressure as the datum. Gauge pressure is the difference
between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
Head
Is the vertical height measured from a datum point to the free surface of liquid in
a system.
High Recovery Valve
A valve type that loses only a relatively small amount of fluid energy due to its
streamlined contours and minimal flow disturbance. This type of valve design is
synonymous with the pressure downstream of the vena-contracta recovering to a
high percentage of the inlet value.
Hot Tap
A branch pipe connection made to an existing pipe whilst it is in operation (i.e. it

contains a flowing fluid).
Hydraulics
The study of the behaviour of liquids.
Inherent flow Characteristic
Is the graphical representation of the relationship between a valve’s flow versus

travel. There are four main types of valve characteristics: (i) Linear (ii) Equal
Percentage (iii) Modified Parabolic and (iv) Quick Opening.
liP
The abbreviation for current-to-pneumatic signal conversion. Industry standard

practice is that a current signal of 4-20 mA is converted via a transducer to 3-15
psi for a valve actuator.
Engineers & Tecl~nical Trainers
Kv (aka "Valve Constant")

The ISO definition as apposed to the United States equivalent - "Cv". The valve
"Kv" represents the volume flow rate of water in litres per second which can be
passed by a valve when it is 100% open at a set pressure loss of 100 kPa.
Line
The common name given to any completed piping configuration.
Linear Flow Characteristic
A valve where flow or Cv increases linearly with valve travel. This is the preferred
valve characteristic for a valve used in conjunction with a PLC or DCS.
Low Recovery Valve
A valve type that loses a relatively high amount of fluid energy due to turbulence
created by the flow path through the valve. In other words, the valve has a high
"pressure drop".
Kinematic Viscosity
The ratio of the absolute (dynamic) viscosity to the relative density. In the SI
system, the unit is the metre squared per second (m2/s). In the CGS system, the
unit is the stoke (St) with the sub-multiple - the centistokes (cSt) commonly used.
1 m2/s = 106 cSt
v=A Where: kinematic viscosity (cSt)

P density (tonnes/m3)
absolute viscosity (cP)
Laminar Flow
Laminar flow occurs when theparticles of a flowing liquid follow separate

intersecting paths with little or no eddy currents.When the Reynolds Number (R)
is less than 2000, laminar flow exists.
Linepipe
A generic industry term used to describe pipe that has been designed for
carrying oil and gas commodities as used in the petroleum industry.
Mesh
Used in slurry pipeline work, "mesh" is the number of holes per inch of a screen.
For example, a "200 mesh screen" contains 200 apertures per square inch.

Modified Parabolic Flow Characteristic
A valve characteristic that lies somewhere between Linear and Equal

Percentage. It provides fine throttling at low flow capacity and an approximately
linear characteristic at higher flow capacities.
NB
An abbreviation for "nominal bore" carried on from the days when Australian
industry still employed the Imperial System of measurement. In Australia, steel
pipes are still referenced in terms of size by this abbreviation. It corresponds
approximately to the internal diameter of the pipe.
Newtonian Fluids
If a liquid’s viscosity is unaffected by the type and magnitude of motion or

agitation to which it may be subjected with no change in temperature, then the
liquid is said to be a "Newtonian Fluid". Water and mineral oil are examples of
Newtonian fluids.
Nominal Diameter (DN)

A designator of pipe size in the metric system which approximately corresponds
to the outside diameter of the pipe in millimetres. Strictly speaking, the DN is a
dimensionless designator.
Nominal Pipe Size (NPS)
An industry term formerly used in the United States to be a dimensionless

designator of pipe size. In rough terms, when used it corresponds roughly with
the bore of the pipe expressed in inches. "Schedule" is now commonly used.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
If a liquid’s viscosity is affected by the type and magnitude of motion or agitation

to which it may be subjected with no change in temperature, then the liquid is
said to be a "Non-Newtonian Fluid". There are four classifications of Non-
Newtonian fluids (1) Thixotropic (2) Dilatant (3) Bingham Plastic, and (4) Pseudo-
Plastic.
Nipple
A short length of pipe which is used to connect screwed or socket-welded fittings

to one another.
Nozzle
The point of connection between the end of a line and a vessel

or other
equipment.
O-Let
A type of fitting that is used to make branch connections for welded, screwed or
socket welded pipe. There are several different types.
Orifice Flange
A flange that has a hole drilled in it so that instrumentation such as pressure or

temperature measuring devices can be connected.
Orifice Plate
A plate with a hole of a calibrated size which is inserted between orifice flanges
for the purposes of determining flow rate.
P&ID
An abbreviation for "Piping and Instrumentation Diagram". This diagram is a

schematic representation which shows in great detail the equipment, pipe lines,
contract termination points and connections etc in a particular piping system.
The level of detail is one step up from the Process Flow Diagram.
PN
An abbreviation for "pression nominalS" the French equivalent for "nominal

pressure". The PN designates the approximate pressure rating in bar of a pipe,
valve or fitting etc, generally at ambient temperature. The approximate
equivalent inthe US system is termed "Class". Note that 1 bar = 100 kPa.
Positioner
A device that is used to position a valve with regard to an input signal. The
positioner compares the input signal with a mechanical feedback link from the
actuator. It then produces the force necessary to move the actuator output until
the mechanical output position feedback corresponds with the pneumatic signal
value.
Pressure Head (aka Static Head)
The pressure at any point in a liquid at rest is caused by the atmospheric

pressure exerted on the surface plus the weight of liquid above that point. All
liquid pressures can be visualised as being caused by the weight of a column of
liquid of certain height. This column of liquid is called the "pressure head" and is
expressed in metres of liquid.
Process Flow Diagram
A schematic drawing depicting the main equipment and pipe runs in a system as
well as the properties, flow rates etc of the fluids piped. This diagram shows
more detail than the block flow. The main purpose is to show the reader where
each fluid is coming from and going to and at what rate, temperature,
concentration etc without worrying about finer detail such as valve types and
where reducers are placed etc.
Pseudo-Plastic Fluids (aka Shear Thinning)
A classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids. Similar to Bingham-Plastic fluids

except that there is no definite yield stress. Paper stock and emulsions are
examples.
Quick Opening Flow Characteristic
A valve characteristic that provides a maximum change in flow rate at minimum

valve travel. The first forty percent of valve travel provides a linear characteristic,
then the flow rate increases minimally until the valve is wide open.
Reduced Trim
A valve with an orifice which is smaller than the standard orifice size for that
particular valve body. Reduced trims are typically used for(i) arduous duties
requiring the structural strength of a larger valve body (ii) the elimination of pipe
reduces (iii) valves that have been sized incorrectly and need a higher pressure
drop for adequate operation.
Relative Density (aka Specific Gravity)
The density of the fluid relative to water. That is, the fluid’s density divided by the
density of water at the same temperature and pressure.
Reynolds Number
For any liquid and pipe size, the relationship between the liquid’s velocity,
kinematic viscosity and pipe size can be expressed by a dimensionless number
called the Reynolds Number, R:
R = VD Where: V = average velocity (m/s)

D = pipe internal diameter (m)
v = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
The Reynolds Number is useful when performing pipe friction loss calculations.
Rheology
Is the study of the deformation and flow of substances.

Rolled Pipe
A pipe manufactured from a forged billet which is then (i) pierced by a conical
mandrel between two diametrically opposed rollers, then (ii) subsequently rolled
and expanded over mandrels of increasingly larger diameter.
Root Gap
A spacing of 1.5 to 2.0 mm between two butt-weld fittings prior to welding.
Schedule
A term originating from the United States and found in codes produced by ASME
and endorsed for use as a US National Standard by ANSI. The schedule
number roughly corresponds to the output of the expression 1000P/S where P =
Service Pressure (psi) and S = Allowable Stress (psi). The higher the schedule
number, the thicker the wall of the pipe.
Seamless Pipe
A pipe which has been manufactured without welding. It is manufactured by hot-

working steel and in some instances by subsequent cold-finishing to produced
the required dimensions and properties.
Skelp
A metal plate that has previously been formed and bent to a circular shape so
that its butted longitudinal edges can be welded together.
Sleeper
A horizontal structural pipe support placed at ground level.
Slurry
A mixture of liquid and solid particles.
Specific Gravity (aka Relative Density)
Refer to "Relative Density" for details.
Spiral Weld Pipe
A pipe which has been manufactured by twisting a steel plate in to a spiral shape
and then welding the mating edges of the plates together.

-__ Engineers & Technical Trainers
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR)
A term used with pipes made of thermoplastic materials such as polyethylene. It

is the ratio of the pipe outside diameter to the pipe wall thickness.
Static Head (aka Pressure Head)
Refer to "Pressure Head" for details.
Stress Relieving (aka "Tempering")
Uniform heating of metal to a temperature high enough to relieve residual

stresses which is then followed by uniform cooling.
Swaging
The process of reducing the diameter at the end of a pipe or tube with rotating
dies which are pressed intermittently against the pipe.
Tensile Yield Stress
The maximum stress at which permanent deformation of a thermoplastic material

begins. This property is usually expressed in Mega Pascals (MPa).
Thixotropic Fluids
A classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids. The fluid’s viscosity decreases with

time under conditions of constant shear. Paints and heavy inks are examples.
Throttle
A term used to indicate that the flow of liquid has been reduced or controlled by
means of a valve or regulating device.
Tracing
The installation of either (i) a pipe containing a fluid at a different temperature

alongside and touching the wall of a given pipe or (ii) an electric resistance tape
wrapped around a given pipe, both for the purposes of keeping the pipe at a
certain temperature. The pipe is also insulated to prevent heat loss or gain to the
surrounding atmosphere.
Travel
The distance the plug or stem of a valve moves in order to go from the fully
closed to the fully open position.

Trim
Includes all the parts in a valve that are in contact with the flowing liquid except
the body, bonnet, flanges and gaskets. For example, trim components include:
plug, seat, stem, guides, bushings, cage etc.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow occurs when the particles of a flowing liquid cross each other’s
paths. When the Reynolds Number (R) is greater than 4000 (or greater than
2000 for pressure drop calculations).
Ultimate Tensile Strength
The maximum stress a material can withstand before failure.It is usually

expressed in Mega Pascals (MPa).
Utility Lines
Plant service lines such as air, water, steam, sewerage etc.
Vacuum
The depression of pressure below atmospheric pressure. Reference to vacuum

conditions is often made be expressing the absolute pressure in terms of the
height of a column of water or mercury. Millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) is the
unit most commonly encountered in Australia.
Vapour Lock
Trapped air and/or vapour in a pipe that prevents the flow of a commodity
through a pipe.
Vapour Pressure
The pressure at which a fluid will form vapour bubbles (i.e. boil or flash) at a
given temperature.
Velocity Head
Represents the kinetic energy in a moving liquid at a certain point in the system.
It is equivalent to the vertical distance the mass of the liquid would have to fall (in
a perfect vacuum) to acquire the velocity (V) and is expressed as:
hv = V2 Where: V = average velocity (m/s)

2g g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
hv = velocity head (m)

Vena Contracta
A point in a pipe or fitting where the cross-sectional area of the flow stream is at
a minimum. This usually occurs just downstream of a restriction in the line (i.e.
just after a valve).
Viscosity
An expression of the flow-ability of a fluid. It can also be defined as the

resistance to shear of a fluid. Viscosity can be expressed in two ways: (1)
absolute (dynamic) viscosity, or (2) kinematic viscosity.
Vortex
A vortex occurs when fluid particles are flung by centrifugal force in a whirlpool
like manner such that an area of low pressure occurs at the centre surrounded by
a rotating body of fluid.
Water Hammer
A phenomenon found in pipes which occurs when the flow of fluid is stopped too
abruptly (i.e. fast closing of a valve or tap). The momentum of the moving body
of fluid causes a force to be developed which translates in to a shock wave
causing noise and vibration. Water hammer typically occurs in pipelines that
have high fluid velocities and/or valves that act too quickly.
Young’s Modulus (aka "Tensile Modulus")
The ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit of the material (i.e. prior to the
yield point of the material). This property is usually expressed in Mega Pascals
(MPa).

2.3 LIQUID PROPERTIES

The properties of liquids are dependent on temperature and pressure. It is
important to understand this dependence so that phenomenon such as cavitation
are designed out of a piping system rather than having to be corrected once a
plant or piping system is in operation.
Some of the more common fluid properties are presented here. Note: This
section can be skipped for those that have previously attended KASA’s "Pump
Fundamentals" training seminar.
2.3.1 Relative Density (aka "Specific Gravity")
The ratio of the density of the liquid to that of water at a given temperature and
pressure.
For example, a lm3 volume of liquid with a relative density of 1.2 at 20°C and
standard atmospheric pressure will have a mass of 1198 kg (i.e. the mass of lm3
of water at 20°C and standard atmospheric pressure is 998 kg/m3).
i.e. 998 kg/m3 x 1.2 = 1198 kg/m3
The relative density of a liquid can be easily obtained in a laboratory situation by

measuring the net mass of a 1 litre measuring flask of the liquid. Alternatively, in
a processing plant or factory situation, the relative density can be read directly off
a Marcy Scale.
Fig. 2.3.1.1 A Marcy Scale (As Used in a Coal Preparation Plant)

The Marcy Scale is nothing more than a calibrated spring balanced with a
customised scale from which hangs a 1 litre measuring cup. The cup is filled to
the brim with liquid and the relative density is read directly from the scale. Marcy
Scale’s are generally used for slurries as percent concentrations of slurries can
also be inferred directly from the scale if other basic slurry properties are known.
2.3.2 Vapour Pressure
If the external absolute pressure imposed on a liquid drops to/or below the
vapour pressure of the liquid, spontaneous vaporisation (i.e. boiling or flashing)
will occur. The formation of vapour bubbles and their subsequent collapse (when
the pressure increases above the vapour pressure again) is called cavitation.
Cavitation can cause premature wear and catastrophic damage to valves and
pipes etc in some circumstances.
A liquid such as mercury has a very low vapour pressure which is one of the
reasons it is used in vacuum gauges. More volatile liquids (i.e. liquids with higher
vapour pressures) would not be suitable as vapour bubbles would form.
The vapour pressure of a liquid increases with temperature. That is, the liquid
becomes more volatile as temperature increases and it more readily wants to
change to a gas.
For example, water at 15 °C has a vapour pressure of 1.70 kPa whilst

atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa (under standard laboratory conditions). The
atmosphere exerts 101.3 kPa of pressure on the water whereas the water only
exerts 1.70 kPa on the atmosphere. Therefore, water will stay as a liquid as the
atmospheric pressure is greater thereby preventing the water from vaporising
(i.e. boiling). However, as the temperature of the water is raised, the vapour
pressure increases until it will be greater than the atmospheric pressure and then
the water will vaporise (i.e. boil). This occurs at approximately 100 °C for water.
P
atm
=101.3kPa
P~t~n=101"3kPa
!!!!!!
!!!!!!
Pyap = 1.70 kPa ~o~p = 101.4 kPa~S
% ~vap °~ ~)c~ ~3c~ ~D(~ O°
o° % ~ o o og o o
~
o~ o_ o%~ ~ oO ooo°
~ oO ~
0o~ 0 Oo Oo0 ooOO no
o0 ~o
Oo Oo 0
ooo
0 0 ~o~ Oc
oOoO ~c
Water @ 15 °C Water @ 100 °C
Fig. 2.3.2.1 Example - Vapour Pressure Varies With Temperature

--_ Engineers & Tecl~nical Trainers
In a pipe line, the velocity can be so high at points of reduced flow-stream cross-
sectional area, that the pressure drops below the vapour pressure of the liquid.
Therefore, cavitation will occur. Note: From the Bernoulli Equation, it should be
clear that as velocity in a pipe line increases, the static pressure decreases and
vice-versa.
2.3.3 Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the "flow-ability" of the liquid, or, put in another way - a
measure of the liquid’s resistance to flow which is caused by the application of a
shear force. High viscosity liquids require a greater force to shear them at a
given rate than low viscosity liquids.
A simple way of picturing the liquid’s resistance to flow is to assume that the
liquid is made up of layers of particles. As a force is applied, the layers move in
relation to one another (i.e. shear). How easily they move (i.e. at what velocity)
will be dependent on the resistance (friction) between the layers.
Force (F~ Velocity (V)

Area (A)
Height (X
Fig. 2.3.3.1 Representation of Viscosity (Liquid Layers Model)
Mathematically, it can be shown that the force applied is proportional to the

difference in speed between subsequent layers of the liquid. The proportionality
constant is known as the viscosity.
F = p.d._~v where: F = Force Applied

A dx A = Layer area
p. = Viscosity
dv = Velocity Gradient
dx
The velocity gradient, dv/dx, is a measure of the change in speed at which
intermediate layers move with respect to each other. It describes the shearing
the liquid experiences and is thus called the "shear rate". Its unit of measure is
the "reciprocal second" (sec-1).
The term F/A indicates the force per unit area required to produce shearing
action. It is referred to as the "shear stress". Its unit of measure is "Newtons per
square metre" (N/m2).

Using these simplified terms, viscosity may defined mathematically as:

~1,= -~_ where: -~ = shear stress
y = shear rate
F = viscosity (absolute)
Viscosity can be measured in a number of ways. The more common methods

are: (i) in a laboratory using a spindle-type viscometer (ii) in a process pipeline
using an in-line viscometer, or (iii) taking a "grab sample" in-conjunction with a
Marsh Funnel.
The Marsh Funnel will not give an absolute measure of viscosity but instead
gives a relative measure (i.e. the time taken for a set volume of liquid to be
emptied from the funnel.
Fig. 2.3.3.2 Relative Viscosity Measurement Using a Marsh Funnel
Now, viscosity is expressed in two ways. These are:
Absolute (Dynamic) Viscosity: Expressed in this way, it is the internal

resistance of the liquid. Specifically, it is the resistance offered by the
liquid to the internal motion of its parts. The Centipoise (cP) is the unit of
viscosity most commonly used even though it is a unit of measure from
the CGS system (rather than the SI system).
Kinematic Viscosity: Expressed in this way, it relates the internal

resistance of the fluid to its relative density (specific gravity). The CGS
system unit of the Centistoke (cSt) is the unit most commonly used.. The
convert Centistokes to Centipoise, divide by the liquid’s relative density.
Liquids can be classified in to two main categories - Newtonian and Non-

Newtonian.
Newtonian Liquids: Are liquids where the viscosity is constant at all shear rates
(assuming the temperature is constant). Water and light oils are examples.
Graphically, a Newtonian fluid can be represented by Fig. 2.3.3.2.

Constant Viscosity
Fig. 2.3.3.2 Newtonian Liquids - Shear Stress and Viscosity Versus Shear Rate
The viscosity of Newtonian liquids are easy to measure as the shear rate is not of
importance. Therefore, a single figure of viscosity can be quoted.
Non-Newtonian Liquids: Are liquids where the viscosity is dependent on the

shear rate or the length of time a constant shear rate is applied. Expressed
another way, as the shear rate is varied, the shear stress does not vary in the
same proportion. There are six sub-categories of Non-Newtonian liquids.
Graphically, Non-Newtonian liquids can be represented by Figs. 2.3.3.3 to
2.3.3.6.
Pseudo-Plastic (Shear Thinning) Liquids: Are Non-Newtonian liquids that

show a decrease in viscosity as the shear rate increases. Paints, emulsions and
dispersions are common examples.
~ Decreasing
Fig. 2.3.3.3 Pseudo Plastic (Shear Thinning) Liquids

- Shear Stress and Viscosity Versus Shear Rate

Dilatant (Shear Thickening) Liquids: Are Non-Newtonian liquids that show an

increase in viscosity as shear rate increases. This type of behaviour is observed
in liquids containing high levels of deflocculated solids such as clay slurries and
sand/water mixtures.
Increasing
Fig. 2.3.3.4 Dilatant (Shear Thickening Liquids)

Bingham Plastic Liquids: Are Non-Newtonian liquids that exhibit solid-like

behaviour under static conditions. A level of stress above the "yield stress" must
be applied before the liquid will flow. A common example is tomato sauce -
sometimes it is difficult to pour from the bottle and so the bottle has to be up-
turned or given a sharp whack to allow it to flow freely.
Once the liquid flows, the viscosity can either be constant, increasing or
decreasing with an increasing shear rate (i.e. Newtonian, Dilatant or Pseudo-
Plastic).
Newtonian, Pseudo- Plastic

ur
Yield
Stress
Fig. 2.3.3.5 Bingham Plastic Liquids


Thixotropic Liquids: Are liquids that have a decrease in viscosity with time
under conditions of constant shear. Examples include greases, heavy inks and
paints.
Rheopectic Liquids: Are liquids that have an increase in viscosity with time
under conditions of constant shear. They are rarely encountered in practice.
~
hixotropic
Time Time
Fig. 2.3.3.6 Thixotropic and Rheopectic Liquids - Viscosity Versus Time
Both Thixotropic and Rheopectic behaviour may occur in combination with any of
the previously outlined classifications, or only at certain shear rates. Under
conditions of constant shear, some liquids will reach their final viscosity value in a
few seconds, while others may take several days.

BASIC HYDRAULICS THEORY

Pressure-Head Relationships
The pressure at any point in a liquid can be visualised as being caused by a

vertical column of the liquid which, due to its own weight, exerts a pressure equal
to the pressure at that point. The height of this column is called the "static head"
and is expressed in terms of metres (or millimetres) of liquid.
P = pgh Where: P = Pressure (Pa)

p = Density (kg/m3)
h = Vertical Height of Column (m)
50 rn 50 m
368 kPa 490 kPa
~Petrol (S.G. = 0.75) ~Water (S.G. = 1.0)
Fig. 2.4.1.1. Pressure-Head Relationship
As shown by Fig. 2.4.1.1, petrol, with an SG of 0.75 and a column height of 50

metres will produce a pressure of 368 kPa at the pressure gauge.
P = 750 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 x 50 m

= 367875 Pa
= 368 kPa
2.4.2 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure
The absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the atmospheric (barometric)

pressure and the gauge pressure. That is:
+ Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure
- Vacuum Pressure
2.4.3 Conservation of Mass - One Dimensional Steady Flow
For the purposes of performing basic piping system calculations, the liquid is
assumed to be approximated by one dimensional steady flow. What this means is
that:
The liquid properties (velocity, pressure etc) are virtually constant across the
stream line (i.e. direction of flow).
The liquid properties do not vary with time. That is, the flow is not pulsating or
of an on/off nature.
The principle of the conservation of mass states that the mass entering a control
volume (or stream tube) must be the same as that leaving as matter can neither be
creating nor destroyed only changed in form.
Vl
A
Fig. 2.4.3.1 Stream Tube - Conservation of Mass
From Fig. 2.4.3.1, The mass flow in equals the mass flow out. That is:
plA1V1 = 132A2V2 Where: p = Liquid Density (kg/m3)

A = cross sectional area (m2)
V = Velocity of flow (m/s)
For a liquid of constant density, this equation reduces to the volumetric flow and
therefore:
Q = VA Where: Q = Volumetric Flow (m3/s)

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.1
Given: 12% w/v lime solution at a nominal flow rate of 85 litres/minute and a
line pressure of 500 kPa.
To prevent settling of the lime particles, the line velocity must be greater
than 1.5 m/s.
To Find: A suitable size of polyethylene pipe for the purpose as a first trial
neglecting friction losses and capital cost/installation economics.
Assumptions: One dimensional, steady flow.
Relevant Q=VA
Equations:
Solution: Bore Area = TrD2/4

Converting I/min to
m3/sec
This "D" would be our maximum allowable internal diameter as the

velocity would be reduced below 1.5 m/s as we increase the value of D
thereby causing settling of the lime particles.
From Table 10.19 "Maximum Allowable Pressures for Polyethylene

Pipes Manufactured to AS/NZ 4130..."
PN 6.3 for PE100 has a maximum allowable pressure of 6.3 bar

(630 kPa). This is greater than our nominal pressure of 500 kPa
so is suitable.
Note: PN 4 would be unsuitable as it is only rated to 4 bar

(400 kPa).
DN32 has an internal diameter of 28.7 mm whereas DN40 has an

internal diameter of 36.1 mm. Therefore DN40 is unsuitable as
the internal diameter of 36.1 mm is greater our maximum
diameter of 34.7 mm and so DN32 would be the best choice.
The chosen pipe would be PN 6.3 DN32 PE100 Polyethylene Pipe
Notes: Remember to be consistent with the use of units. For example, we have
converted litres/min to m3/s.
2.4.4 Bernoulli’s Theorem
Bernoulli’s Theorem states that in the absence of friction, when an

incompressible liquid moves from one place to another, the total energy remains
constant but the makeup of that energy may change.
The total energy possessed by the liquid is the sum of its pressure (static), kinetic
and potential energies.
V2, P2, Z2
Point 1~ V1, P1, z~
Fig. 2.4.4.1 Bernoulli Stream Tube
For a liquid flowing between arbitrary points 1 and 2, the Bernoulli Equation can
be developed as follows:
Where: P = Pressure (Pa)

V = Velocity (m/s)
g = Gravity Constant (m/s2)
z = Height above Datum (m)
p = Density (kg/m3)
In practice, the effects of friction cannot be ignoredin a great number of cases.

Similarly, energy can be added to the fluid througha pump or taken away by a
turbine. Therefore, a more useful expression of the Bernoulli equation that takes
these energy losses or additions into account is:
P~ + V~2 + z~ + Ep = P_2 + V_22 + z2 + hlosses + ET

pg 2g pg 2g
Where: Ep = Pump Energy (J/N)

ET = Turbine Energy (J/N)
hlosses = Friction Losses (m)

2.4.5 Friction Losses in Pipes and Fittings
2.4.5.1 General
Friction always occurs during liquid flow and essentially causes a loss of energy
so that the liquid at the discharge of a pipe always has less energy than at the
pipe inlet.
This loss of energy is shown as a decrease in pressure in the direction of flow

and can be explained with a simple example.
Consider a constant diameter, horizontal pipe with an incompressible liquid

flowing through it.
Fig. 2.4.5.1.1 Pressure Drop in a Pipe
Since the elevation of points 1 and 2 is the same, the potential energy is
constant. Since the pipe has a constant cross sectional area, the velocity and
hence kinetic energy is constant. Therefore, the energy loss due to friction must
be shown as a decrease in pressure energy and so P2 < P1.
For the practicing engineer, friction losses can be determined in three ways:
¯ By calculation from first principles using industry accepted formula.

¯ By referencing published tables of friction loss versus flow (or velocity) for
a given viscosity, specific gravity, pipe diameter, and pipe material.
¯ By using engineering software or spreadsheet programs based on
industry accepted formula.
Generally, it is much easier to reference published tables or use software as

these are readily available via industry groups such as "The Hydraulics Institute"
or via the internet from various sources. Some friction loss tables for water in
common pipe materials are included in this manual.
2.4.5,2 Background Information on the Calculation of Friction Losses
To begin with, it is important to recognise that there are two entirely different flow
patterns in pipes - laminar and turbulent.
Laminar Flow: Occurs when the average velocity in the pipe is small.
The flow pattern is one of straight lines which indicates that the liquid
particles are carried along undisturbed in a flow stream.

Turbulent Flow: As the average velocity in the pipe increases, the

straight line flow pattern will start to "break up" in to diffused patterns. The
velocity at which this occurs is known as the "critical velocity". In practice,
this phenomenon occurs over a velocity range where elements of laminar
flow still exist. This range is known as the transition between laminar and
turbulent flow. As the velocity in the pipe increases further, all traces of
laminar flow are removed and the flow pattern is fully random in nature
indicating a turbulent flow pattern.
Laminar Flow Pattern
Turbulent Flow Pattern

Fig. 2.4.5.2.1 kaminar and Turbulent Flow
The type of flow pattern can be determined by calculating the Reynolds Number
which depends on the: pipe diameter, fluid kinematic viscosity and velocity of flow.
R = VD Where: V = Average Velocity (m/s)

D = Pipe Internal Diameter (m)
v = Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s)
It is generally accepted in industry that pipe flow will be laminar at Reynolds Numbers
less than 2000 and will be turbulent at Reynolds Numbers greater than 4000.
Between 2000 and 4000 is the transition zone where elements of laminar and
turbulent flow exist.

A number of formulas exist for calculating the friction losses in pipes. Some are only
valid across a certain flow range, for laminar flow only or for turbulent flow only. The
two more common formulas used in industry are:
The Darcy Formula (aka Darcy-Weisbach Formula): This is the most
widely used formula as it is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow for
any full flowing liquid in a pipe.
hf = fL.__~V2 Where: f = Friction Factor

2Dg V = Average Velocity (m/s)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter (m)
L = Pipe Length (m)
hf = Head Loss (m)
The Friction Factor, "f", can be determined from either (i) published tables
or charts such as the Moody Friction Chart, or (ii) equations. The Friction
Factor is dependent on Reynolds Number and pipe material (i.e.
roughness of bore).
For Laminar Flow, it is recommended that the following equation be

employed ...
64
For Turbulent Flow, it is recommended that you employ either:
i. The Moody Friction Chart if you just want approximate values, or
ii. The Swamee-Jain equation if you want to be more precise or would

like to set-up friction loss calculations in spreadsheet format.
The Moody Friction Chart can be found in Section 10 of this manual.
The Swamee-Jain Equation is an approximation of the Colebrook

Equation, which is the standard method of obtaining the Friction Factor by
equation. The Colebrook Equation is a hassle to use as it requires an
iterative solution due to the fact that the Friction Factor is found on both
sides of the equation. The Colebrook Equation is presented for reference
as follows:
1 ~/D 2.51 "~
Where: Friction Factor

Specific Roughness (m)
Reynolds Number
Pipe Internal Diameter (m)
The Swamee-Jain equation is an approximation of the Colebrook equation

and is claimed to have less than one percent error when:
1x10-6 _< ~. _< lxl0-2 and 5000_< R_< lxl08
The Swamee-Jain equation, as recommended by KASA Solutions is

presented as follows:
Where: Friction Factor

Specific Roughness (m)
Reynolds Number
Pipe Internal Diameter (m)
The only disadvantage of the Darcy Formula over other methods is that an
iterative solution is necessary for problems where the pipe size is
unknown. This is because the Friction Factor is dependent on velocity.
The Darcy Formula can also be modified so as to be applicable for fittings

and valves and becomes:.
Where: K Valve Friction Coefficient

V = Average Velocity (m/s)
hf = Head Loss (m)
The Valve (or Fitting) Friction Coefficient, K, is determined from published

tables or obtained from the valve and fitting manufacturer. As stated
previously, typical values are readily available and easy to find.
The Hazen-Williams Formula: This formula is one of the preferred

formulas used by civil engineers and is ~pi~!~ai The advantage of using
this formula is that it lends itself to solving by computer programs because
the head loss is given by an explicit expression for any given pipe. Values
of this coefficient are readily available from handbooks etc. Values are
also tabulated in this manual. This formula should only be used for water
or sewerage with turbulent flow.
Some sources report that the Hazen Williams formula should not be used
when:
¯ Pipe internal diameters are less than 50mm

¯ Average fluid velocities are greater than 3m/s
¯ The Hazen-Williams Roughness Coefficient, C, is less than 70

There are two forms, one with the Reynolds Number and one without:
hf = I v°’15 C131
i’85 D°’°i5 R°’i5
I LV2
2Dg
hf -’
(VD)°’~5 D°’°~5 2Dg
131 I LV2
Where: hf - Head Loss (m)

Average Velocity (m/s)
g= Gravity Constant (m/s")
D= Pipe Internal Diameterm)
g= Gravity Constant (m/s2
L= Pipe Length (m)
V --" Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s)
2.4.5.3 Using Published Data For Friction Losses in Pipes and Fittings
Friction losses for water and other common fluids flowing through commercially
available pipe (i.e. steel, copper, polyethylene, PVC etc) are readily available
through many sources such as "The Hydraulics Institute", "The Australian
Institute of Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning and Heating", pipe and fitting
manufacturers and various internet sites. When using this type of published
data, the following issues should be considered:
¯ Such tables are unable to compensate for the effects of fluid temperature
and different pipe roughness (i.e. aged, rusted or scaled pipe).
¯ Values are only presented to a few significant figures.
Therefore, it is best to assume that this friction loss data is only accurate to + 20
percent. Typical values for water flowing in various pipe materials are given in
this manual.
Friction losses arising from valves and fittings are commonly known as "minor
losses" since they are usually much smaller in magnitude than the pipe friction
losses. Two methods are used to determine these minor losses:
¯ The modified Darcy Formula (using the Valve Friction Coefficient, K).
¯ Calculating an equivalent length of straight pipe.
The modified Darcy Formula has already been outlined. The "equivalent length
method" works on the assumption that each valve or fitting produces a frictional
loss equal to that of a certain length of straight run of pipe. For example a 50NB
butterfly valve may produce the same frictional loss (i.e. pressure drop) as 18
metres of commercial grade steel pipe. This method can be used with all liquids
but is generally limited to turbulent flow. Published values of equivalent lengths
are readily available from various sources.
.__ Engineers & Technical Trainers
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.2
Given: 20m3/hr of water flow through an 80mm, PN12 PVC pipe (to AS1477) at
20°C.
To Find.: Calculate the head loss over 1000 metres.
Assumptions: Turbulent Flow (this can be confirmed by calculating "R").
Relevant Q =VA
Equations:
hf =
Solution: Method 1: From Published Data
Flow Rate (I/s) = 20000 litres x 1 hr x 1 min = 5.6 I/sec

hr 60 min 60 sec
From Table 10.4, at 5.5 I/sec, Head Loss = 1.57m per 100m
At 6.0 I/sec, Head Loss = 1.83m per 100m
Linear Interpolation from this data gives:
1.83 - 1.57 = Head Loss- 1.57

6.0 - 5.5 5.6 - 5.5
~ Head Loss = 1.62 m per 100 m = 16.2 metres per 1000 m
Method 2: Hazen-Williams Formula
From Table 10.18, the internal diameter (D) is 79 mm.
Q = VA ~ 20 = V x ~ x 0.0792
60 x 60 4
1.13 m/s
From Table 10.10, The Design Hazen-Williams C Value = 130.
Now, using the Hazen-Williams formula with V = 1.13m/s, D = 0.079 m,

C = 130, L = 1000m, g = 9.81 m/s2
::> hf= Head Loss = 19.8m per 1000 metres
Notes: The Hazen-Williams Method should only be used for pipes

carrying water or sewerage. The flow must be turbulent.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3
Given: The pumping system shown delivers 12m3/hr from a reservoir to a

raised storage tank. The fluid is water at 15°C. The pipe is medium
steel to AS1074.
To Find: The head loss due to friction in the suction and discharge lines using the
Equivalent Length Method
Assumptions: Steady state, steady flow conditions.
Notes:
Suction Line, 50NB
Discharge Line, 40NB
V1 = Foot Valve & Strainer, 50NB
V2 = Non-Return Valve, 40NB
V3 = Gate Valve, 40NB
L1 = 3.2m; L2 = 2.0m; L3 = 5.0m, L4 = 12m
All elbows are 900 standard
L4
L3
V2 V3
L1
Relevant Q = VA
Equations:
Solution: (i) Equivalent Length Method
Using the "Equivalent Length Method" and Table 10.7,
Suction Line: Elbow 90°, 50NB x 1 off 1.52m +

Foot Valve & Strainer x 1 off 0.73m
Total Equivalent Length 2.25m
Now, Total Suction Line Length 2.25m +

3.20m
2.00m
7.45m

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3 CONTINUED
Solution: Discharge Line: Elbow 90°, 40NB x 1 off = 1.13m +

Non-Return Valve, 40NB x 1 off = 0.49m
Gate Valve, 40NB x 1 off = 0.37m
Total Equivalent Line Length = 1.99m
Now, Total Discharge Line Length= 1.99m +

5.00m
12.0m
19.0m
Using Published Pipe Friction Data from Table 10.6,
Suction Line: hr = Friction Loss = 19.33m per 100m of pipe

=> hf = 19.33m x 7.45m = 1.44m
100m
Discharge Line: hf = Friction Loss = 6.16m per lOOm of pipe

~ hf= 6.16m x 19.0m = 1.17m
100m
Note: These friction loss values have been interpolated from

Table 10.6.
The preceding example problems demonstrated (i) the empirical method of

Hazen-Williams (ii) the convenience of using published data in the form of head
loss tables and charts, and (iii) the ease of the ,Equivalent Length" method.
However, these methods are generally only used for water and sewerage as (i)
Hazen-Williams is only applicable to these liquids (ii) published data is not as
readily available for fluids of viscosities different to water (iii) the "Equivalent
Length" method also relies on published data. For these reasons, the Darcy
Formula is generally used by mechanical and chemical engineers in industry as it
is applicable across a wide flow range for all liquid viscosities. The following
examples demonstrate the use of this formula in-conjunction with the Moody
Friction Chart or the Swamee-Jain equation.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.4
Given: 300 m3/hr of 50% (NaOH) Caustic Solution @ 20 °C flows through a

DN200 PN12 PVC pressure pipe as shown.
L5 P2
L3 EL 10.5m
V2 L6 L7
Notes:
L2 Pipe NB = 200
Vl = Non Return Vave, 150NB
Vl V2 = Globe Valve, Fully Open, 150NB
V3 = Gate Valve, 150NB
L1 = 0.5m; L2 = 0.5m; L3 = 10.0m; L4 = 50m;
L1 L5 = 5.0m; L6 = 8.0m; L7 = 0.Sm
P1 EL 4.5m All elbows are 90° standard
50 % Caustic Solution
Density = 1.52 kg/litre
Viscosity = 100 cSt = 100 x 10.6 m2/s
To Find: The reading on gauge P2 if P1 = 800 kPa
Assumptions: Negligible head-loss due to reduction in pipe diameter when entering

and leaving valves. We cannot determine these losses as no data is
given on the fitting types. Note: This may not be the case in actual
practice.
Relevant
Equations:
VD
R-
v
0.25
f_-
fs/D 5.74")~~
l°glo[,-~ + ~.~-.9 )J
Solution: Step 1 -Determine Velocity
From Table 10.18.1, the internal diameter of DN200 PN12 PVC pipe is
203.1 mm.

300 n" × 0.20312

Q=VA ~ -V× ~ V= 2.57 m/s
60 × 60 4
Step 2: Determine Reynolds Number
VD 2.57 x 0.2031
R- ~ ~ R = 5220
100xl0-6
Note: As R > 4000, the flow is fully turbulent and the Swamee-Jain
Equation can be used for determining the pipe friction factor.
Step 3: Determine Minor Head Losses (i.e. Valves and Fittings)
From Table 10.11 "Typical Valve and Fitting Friction Loss

Coefficients..."
Vl = 150NB Non Return Valve K = 2.3 (assuming swing type)

V2 = Globe Valve, 150NB K = 10 (fully open)
V3 = Gate Valve, 150NB K = 0.2 (fully open)
150NB, Elbow, 90° Standard K=0.9
Now, hfl
KV2 (2"3+10+0"2+(0"9x3))x2"572 hi1 = 5.12 metres
2g 2x9.81
Therefore, the minor head loss due to fittings and valves is equal to 5.12
metres of 50% Caustic Solution.
Step 4: Determine Major Head Losses (i.e. Pipe Friction)
From Table 10.21 "Design Specific Roughness (~) Values for Common
Pipe Materials"...
s = 1.5 x 106 metres for PVC pipe,
Therefore, s- 1"5x10-6 =:> --= 7.4 x lS 0-6

D 0.2031 D
If we use Chart 10.20 "Moody Friction Factor Chart’, we find that the
relative roughness of 7.4 x 106 is off-scale below the origin. This is OK,
it just means that our pipe is very smooth and so we must use the
bottom curve titled "smooth pipes".

..... Engineers & Technical Trainers
With R = 5220 and--s = "smooth pipes" f = 0.035 approx.

D
We could also use the Swamee-Jain Equation as our "s" of 1.5 x 10-6
and our "R" of 5220 falls inside the recommended ranges.
0.25 0.25
(~/D 5.74"~]2
~.ff t- 52200.9
=0.037
We shall use f = 0.037 for all further calculations as it should be slightly

more accurate than values obtained from the chart "by eye".
Now, h.f2 - fLV2 - 0"037x(0"5+0’5+10"0+50"0+5"0+8"0+0"5)x2"57~-

2Dg 2x 0.2031x9.81
4.57 m
Therefore, the major head loss due to pipe friction is equal to 4.57
metres of 50% Caustic Solution. Note: This value is actually less than
the "minor losses" due to the valves and fittings. This "quirk" is due to
the fact that liquid is passing through the globe valve (which is a high
pressure-drop valve) at a high velocity which is causing a relatively large
head loss when compared to friction head loss due to a smooth pipe
material such as PVC.
Step 5: Determine the Pressure at P2 Using the Bernoulli Equation
pg 2 g pg 2 g
800x103 2.572 ~ 2.572

+4.5+0- +10.5+(5.12+4.57)
//1520x 9.81 2x9.81 1520x9.81 2x9.81
d~ ~ P~ = 566 kPa

Engineers & Tecl}nical Trainers
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.5
Given: 1.2% w/v flocculant solution @ 15 °C is to be pumped in a 200 metre

long pipe. The Client Specification specifically states that the velocity in
the pipe cannot exceed 1.0 m/s as the Client is worried about flocculant
degradation. The relevant data is as follows:
Liquid Density: 1050 kg/m3

Viscosity at Design Flow Range: 1000 cP
Design Flow Rate: 15 m3/hr
Preferred Pipe Material: PE100 Polyethylene
Required Outlet Pressure: 100 kPa
The pipeline is relatively level (i.e. within + 2 metres throughout the

entire length).
To Find: (i) A preliminary pipe sizing (ii) An initial estimate of the pressure drop in
the pipeline neglecting any valves and fittings at this preliminary stage
(iii) An initial estimate of the required inlet pressure.
Relevant,
Equations:
P=pxgxh
fL V2
2gD
VD
64 (for laminar flow)
Solution: Step 1 -Determine Minimum Pipe Internal Diameter
15 arxD2
Q = VA ~ - 1.0x-- ~ D = 72.8 mm
60 x 60 4
Therefore, we must choose a pipe that has an internal diameter no less

than 72.8 mm otherwise our maximum design velocity will be exceeded.

Step 2: Trial a Pressure Rating and Diameter of Polyethylene Pipe
As we do not know what the pressure drop in the pipeline will be at this
stage, we do not know what the maximum allowable working pressure
will be and so we do not know what Class (PN) of pipe to choose. We
have to start by making an educated guess.
From Table 10.19.1 "Maximum Allowable Pressures for Polyethylene

Pipes..."
Choosing DN90 PE100 PN10 Polyethylene Pipe to AS/NZ4130, the

internal diameter is 78.8 mm and the maximum allowable pressure is 10
bar (1000 kPa) at temperatures up to and including 20 °C.
Step 3: Determine Actual Velocity for the Trial Pipe
15 ~rx0.07882
Q = VA ~ - Vx ~ V= 0.85 m/s
60 x 60 4
Step 4: Determine the Reynolds Number for the Trial Pipe
As a rule, whenever the liquid is viscous, the flow will probably be

laminar as the viscosity term (denominator) will reduce the Reynolds
Number to values below 2000. The viscosity has been supplied in
Centipoise. We must convert this to m2/s so we can use it in our
standard Reynolds Number Equation.
The first step is to convert to Centistokes. All we have to do is divide by

the Relative Density.
From Table 10.8 "Physical Properties of Water’, the density of water at

15 oC is 999 kg/m.3 Therefore, the Relative Density of Flocculant
Solution is simply 1050 kg/m3 divided by 999 kg/m3 which equals 1.05.
Therefore, 1000 cP - 1000 _ 952 cSt = 952 x 10.6 m2/s

1.05
VD 0.85x 0.0788
R =- ~ ~ R = 70.7
v 952x10-6
As R < 2000, the flow is laminar.

For laminar flow, we can use the formula f = 6_~4 to determine the friction
factor.

Step 5: Determine the Pressure Drop for the Trial Pipe
64 64
f =- ~ f- ~ f = 0.905
R 70.7
_ fLV2 _ 0.905x200x0.852
Now, hy 2Dg 2x0.0788x9.81
85.5 m of Flocculant Solution
Note: This is not an error. We have 85.5 metres of head loss in a line that is only
200 metres long due to the viscosity of the liquid!
Converting 85.5 metres of head loss to pressure...
~ P=,oxgxh = 1050 x 9.81 x 85.5 = 880 kPa = 8.8 bar
Therefore, the pressure drop in 200 metres of DN90 PN10

polyethylene pipe is 880 kPa.
The required outlet pressure is 100 kPa. Therefore, the required inlet pressure is
886 + 100 = 980 kPa. As the pipeline is relatively level, there is no need to refine
this calculation using the Bernoulli Equation.
As the maximum pressure in the pipe is 980 kPa, our initial "guesstimate" of PN10
polyethylene pipe has proven to be "close to the mark". However, once fittings,
valves, strainers etc are scoped for this project, the pressure drop will increase.
Also, the design needs to be optimised to find the best balance between (i) capital
cost of pump and piping, and (ii) the ongoing operating cost which will be
dominated by pumping power. So we should also try other sizes such as DN110
PN10, DN125 PN10 etc. The results of these trials are tabulated as follows:
980
493
109.8
334
292
424
O.54 452
From these results, we would probably look further at
Note: This example problem is continued as Example Problem 2.8.

2.5 CAVITATION
If the external absolute pressure imposed on a liquid drops to/or below the
vapour pressure of the liquid, spontaneous vaporisation (i.e. boiling or flashing)
will occur. The formation of vapour bubbles and their subsequent collapse (when
the pressure increases above the vapour pressure again) is called cavitation.
For a piping system, the areas of low absolute pressure occur at restrictions such
as (i) valves and (ii) reductions in pipe diameter. If these restrictions cause the
absolute pressure to drop below the liquid’s vapour pressure, vapour bubbles
form. These vapour bubbles continue to travel downstream and then implode
when the pressure rises above the liquid’s vapour pressure again. These
implosions cause excessive noise, surface erosion and unsteady flows. Fig.
2.5.1 depicts a typical control valve pressure profile. Note that all valves will
exhibit some degree of pressure recovery (i.e. the minimum pressure at the valve
will increase to become the downstream pressure).
Fig. 2.5.1 Typical Control Valve Pressure Profile

(Reproduced with the Permission of Samson Controls Pry Ltd)
The following situations should be checked for cavitation:
¯ Valves with high pressure drops (e.g. globe valves and control valves).
¯ High velocity pipelines
¯ Areas of restriction in pipelines such as orifice plates, reducers, flow-

meters etc

Remember from the Bernoulli Equation, when you have a high velocity, you have
a low pressure. Therefore, any area of high velocity should be checked!
There are a number of ways in which cavitation can be reduced or its effects
minimised. These are:
¯ Select harder materials for valves. This will reduced the effects of pitting.
¯ Select valves with "anti-cavitation trim" for critical, high pressure drop
valves. These trims help to stage the pressure recovery across the valve.
Refer to Fig. 2.5.2 for a photograph of a typical trim.
¯ Pay careful attention to the placement of valves. Design the system such
that valves are placed in areas of higher pressure.
¯ Pay careful attention to the type of valve required. Look at using a lower
recovery valve.
Cavitation can also result in a phenomenon known as "choked flow". This is

when the vapour bubbles are so numerous that they block the flow of liquid
through the restriction or valve to such an extent that any further decrease in
downstream pressure will not cause an increase in flow.
Fig. 2.5.2 Typical Control Valve Anti-Cavitation Trim

(Reproduced With the Permission of Mack Valves)
Fig. 2.5.2 shows a typical anti-cavitation trim for a control valve. The trim
consists of a pair of double-sliding cages with proportioned orifices. The cages
control the point at which the cavitation recovery occurs thereby allowing it to
dissipate harmlessly. It is general practice for anti-cavitation trims to be selected
by the valve supplier if it has been determined that the pressure at the valve will
drop below the vapour pressure of the liquid. The valve supplier will use
previous experience as well as sophisticated sizing software to determine the
correct valve-trim combination for the application. If you are concerned about
cavitation, it is best to consult your valve supplier.
Engineers & TeclTnical Trainers
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6
Given: 20% w/w Hydrochloric Acid at 10°C is flowing in a carbon steel pipe at a
flowrate of 20 m3/hr. The gauge pressure at P1 is 100 kPa and the
barometric pressure is 101.3 kPa.
20 % Hydrochloric Acid
Density = 1100 kg/ma
Viscosity = 1.5 cP
Vapour Pressure = 6mm Hg
P2 EL 15.0m
Notes:
Pipe ID = 79mm; Restriction ID = 51mm
V1 = Globe Valve, Fully Open, 75NB
V2 = Swing Check Valve, 75NB
L1 = 10.0m; L2 = 14.5m
Elbow is 90° standard
EL 0.0m ~
V1 L1 V2
To Find: (i) The Pressure at P2.

(ii) Whether cavitation is likely at P2
Relevant Q=VA
Equations:
P=pxgxh
KV2 _ fLV~
h.f- 2g 2gD
pg 2 g ,og 2 g
VD
0.25
(’~ID 5.74"~~

.... Engh~eers & Technical Trainers
Solution: Step 1 : Determine the Average Velocities in Both Pipe Sections
20
(60x60)
1.13 m/s (i.e. in main pipe)
~: = ~A: ~ (60 × 60) -
~ V2 = 2.72 m/s (i.e. in pipe restriction at EL 15.0 m)
Step 2: Determine the Reynolds Number
The viscosity of the liquid has been given to us in Centipoise. We must

therefore convert this value to m2/s by dividing by the relative density
and then multiplying by 1 x 106 as follows...
v -/z 1.5- ~ 1.36 x 10.6 m2/s

RD 1.1
Now, the Reynolds Number can be determined and once we have this
value, we can determine the major head loss due to pipe friction.
VD 1.13 x 0.079
R =- ~ ~ R = 65640
v 1.36x10-6
As R > 4000, the flow is fully turbulent.
Step 3: Determine the Major Head Losses Due to Pipe Friction
From Table 10.21 "Design Specific Roughness (~) Values for Common
Pipe Materials"...
s = 45 x 10-6 metres for carbon steel pipe,
g 45x10-6 g
Therefore, - ~ -- = 0.00057
D 0.079 D
If we use Chart 10.20 "Moody Friction Factor Chart’, we find that
f = 0.022

.... Engh~eers & Tecl~nical Trainers
Solution.’. We could also use the Swamee-Jain Equation...
0.25 0.25
(’~/O 5.74"~-]2 [- f0.00057 5.74
. -J 656400’9
0.022
Now, h~.1 - fLV2 - 0"022x(10"0+14"5)xl’132

2Dg 2x0.079x 9.81
0.44 m
Therefore, the major head loss due to pipe friction is equal to 0.44
metres of 20% Hydrochloric Acid.
Step 4: Determine the Minor Head Losses in Valves & Fittings
From Table 10.11 "Typical Valve and Fitting Friction Loss

Coefficients..."
V1 = 75NB Globe Valve, K = 10 (fully open)

V2 = 75NB Swing-Check Valve K=2.3
Elbow, 90° Standard K=0.9
KV2 (10+2.3+0.9)x1.13~-
Now, hf2- 2g h~ = 0.86 metres
2x9.81
Therefore, the minor head loss due to fittings and valves is equal to 0.86
metres of 20% Hydrochloric Acid.
Step 5: Determine the Pressure at P2 Using the Bernoulli Equation
100x103 1.132 P2 2.722

+ }-0.0+0 - 4- 4-15.0+(0.44+0.86)
1100x9.81 2x9.81 1100x9.81 2x9.81
~ P2 = -79.3 kPa (gauge)

Solution: Step 6: Determine the Absolute Pressure at P2
The Absolute Pressure at P2 = Gauge Pressure + Barometric Pressure
~ -79.3 + 101.3 ~ Pabs = 22 kPa

Step 7: Determine the Vapour Pressure of Hydrochloric Acid
From Table 10.1 "Common Measurement Conversions Used in the

Piping Industry"
1 mm Hg = 133.3 x 10-3 kPa
The Vapour Pressure of 20% Hydrochloric Acid has been given to us as

6 mm Hg. Therefore, we must convert this value to units of kPa...
~ Pvp = (133.3 x 10-3) x 6 = 0.8 kPa
Step 8: Compare Vapour Pressure to Absolute Liquid Pressure
As Pvp (0.8 kPa) < Pabs (22 kPa),
Cavitation will not occur at the restriction. ~

2.6 WATER HAMMER

2.6.1 General
When a pipe experiences a rapid change in flow (i.e. either a rapid stop, rapid
start or rapid change in flow rate), a pressure wave (aka "pressure surge") results
in the liquid which in-turn is transmitted to the pipe. This pressure wave travels in
both the upstream and downstream directions from the point of origin. The
pressure in the pipe behind these pressure waves very rapidly increases or
decreases. These waves continue back and forth until dissipated by friction.
This phenomenon is known as "water hamme¢’.
A noise akin to loud knocking is generally present with water hammer. If the
pressure rise is excessive, pipes may fracture, joints may leak, or valves,
instruments, pumps or fittings may be damaged.
Water hammer pressure waves are not transmitted instantaneously but do travel
at finite speeds. The pressure wave velocity is a function of (i) pipe material (ii)
pipe wall thickness (iii) pipe diameter (iv) liquid specific gravity, and (v) the bulk
modulus of the liquid.
For short pipes and/or sudden velocity changes, water hammer problems are
complex and are usually solved by experienced Engineers with the aid of
specialised computer programs. However, for longer pipelines or for pipe
systems where the flow change is relatively fast, approximate solutions are
available which will allow the Engineer to determine if water hammer is likely to
be a problem. These cases should still be analysed by an experience water
hammer expert.
The approximate solutions employed determine a theoretical pressure rise which

is then added to the pressure in the pipe so as to determine the maximum
pressure which will occur in the system. This maximum pressure is often
referred to as the "peak surge pressure".
Interestingly, in flexible pipes the pipe can expand and then contract as the
pressure wave passes through. This attenuates the magnitude of the surge
pressure. Therefore, the peak surge pressures caused by water hammer are
lower in magnitude for flexible pipes compared to rigid pipes.
An equation known as "Joukousky’s Equation" is most commonly used for simple

water hammer analysis (i.e. long pipes or sudden flow changes):
= Change in Flow Velocity (m/s)
= Gravitational Accel. (m/s2)

Joukousky’s Equation is a simplification and is only valid Wh~8 :~he Change in

V~lo~ity takes place Within a time of 2E]a; where L = the length of the pipe. In
other words, Joukousky’s Equation is only valid for conditions where say the
closing time of a shut-off valve is less than the return time of the pressure wave.
This is the worst case condition. If the valve closing time is longer than the return
time of the pressure wave, the magnitude of the water hammer will be reduced.
For short pipes, it will be difficult to close the valve before the pressure wave
returns to the valve. This also holds true for slow closing valves. However, the
pressure build-up may not be less than that predicted by Joukousky’s Equation
as waves may interact in a cumulative effect. For short pipes, no simple,
accurate method exists for calculating the pressure build-up.
Fig. 2.6.1.1 provides a graphical representation of water hammer. From this

figure, it should be clear that the period of the water hammer wave (i.e. time
taken for one complete cycle) is:
4L
/’ = -- where: T = Wave Period (s)
L = Pipe Length (m)
a = Wave Velocity (m/s)
The wave velocity "a" is also known in some texts as the "celerity". This is equal
to the speed of sound in the liquid for the size and type of pipe employed. The
following equation can be used to determine the wave velocity:
a= 1d
Where: a wave velocity (m/s)

Liquid Density (kg/m3)
Pipe ID (mm)
Pipe Wall Thickness (mm)
Liquid Bulk Modulus (Pa)
Pipe - Modulus of Elasticity (Pa)

Initital Conditions:
Steady flow at velod ly "V" and a negligible head of
Valve is open.
h=O
At lime t =0:
Tl~e valve is instantaneously and completely closed, Therefore:
Flow velociiy, V = 0 at the valve and pressure head, h = aV/g.
This head vail move to the left at a speed of"a" until t = L/a.
~ h = aV/g
0<t<L/a
At time t = L/a:
The wave moving at a speed "a", now has the pressure head drop to zero, Le. h = O.
This is due to the condition imposed by the reservalr, The sudden pressure drop
creates a reflected wave which now moves back towards the valve at a speed of
The I~quid flow now moves towards Ihe reservoir at a speed
h = aV/g
L/a < t < 21Ja
At time t = 2Ua:
The reflected wave ardves back at the valve and ts then, in-turn, reflected back
towards the reservoir again. The condilions mirror those of lime t = 0,
h=O
~--- V
a~_~
h = - aV/g
V=0~
2L/a < t < 3L/a

At time t = 3L/a:
The wave moves once again to the dght and cardes behind it the odginal steady flow
speed of’V" and a head ~h" = 0,
At time t = 4Ua:
The condilions become identical to that of t = 0 and the process repeats itself
thereafter.
h=0
h = -aV/g
3L/a < t < 4L/a
Fig. 2.6.1.1 A Graphical Representation of Water Hammer

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.7
Given: A 100 mm Schedule 40 carbon steel pipe of length L = 1200 metres is

carrying 120 m3/hr of water. A valve at the end of the pipe closes in 1.5
seconds.
To Find: The magnitude of the pressure surge when the valve closes.
Relevant Q= VA
Equations:
P=pxgxh
1
a=
i 1 d
Solution: Step 1: Determine the Average Velocity of Liquid Flow
From published tables, 100 mm Schedule 40 Carbon Steel Pipe has the
following dimensional properties...
ID = 102 mm, Wall Thickness = 6.02 mm
120
Now, Q = VA
~ (60 x 60) = V x
~ V= 4.1 m/s
Step 2: Determine the Wave Velocity (aka "Celerity")
From Table 10.8 "Physica/ Properties of Water’...
p = 998 kg/ma @ 20 °C (Note: We have assumed this temperature)
From Table 10.22 "Usefu/ Properties for Water Hammer Ana/ysis"...
k = 2.18 x 109 Pa for water and E = 200 x 109 Pa for steel pipe.

Solution:
a= - l+d ~ 1 0.102
998 2.18x109 ~ 200 x109 x 0.00602
358 m/s
Step 3: Determine if Joukousky’s Equation can be Used
A simplified water hammer analysis using Joukousky’s Equation can

only be carried out if the average liquid velocity change occurs within a
time of t < 2L/a.
The velocity change is equal to the valve closing time of 1.5 seconds.
2L 2x1200 2L
- -- ~ - 1.8 seconds
a 1358 a
Therefore, as the valve closes in a shorter time than what it takes for the
first positive wave to return (i.e. 2L/a), Joukousky’s Equation can be
used.
Step 4: Determine the Pressure Surge
aAV 1358x4.1
AH- ~
g 9.81
AH = 568 m
This surge head of 568 metres can be converted to a surge pressure in

kilopascals.
P=pxgxh 998 x9.81x568
~ AP = 5,561 kPa ~
Notes:
The value of 5,561 kPa should now be added to the maximum static
head in the pipe to determine whether or not pipe rupture will occur.
Table 10.16 shows a Maximum Allowable Pressure of 13,187 kPa for

100 mm Schedule 40 Carbon Steel Pipe, Seamless Grade B, Plain
Ends. Despite not knowing the pipe material and end connection
details, as 5,561 kPa < 13,187 kPa, we are probably going to be OK.

2.6.2 Typical Causes of Water Hammer
There are four main operational causes for water hammer in piping systems.
These are outlined as follows with the aid of Fig. 2.6.2.1:
Fig. 2.6.2.1 Surges in a Typical Pumped Pipeline

(Reproduced with the Permission of Iplex Pipelines)
Case 1 - Valve Closure or Pump Stop (At B in line AB): A sudden

closure at B or a sudden pump stop at B will result in water hammer.
Some texts recommend that detrimental water hammer effects will be
mitigated if the last ten percent of valve travel when closing takes at least
a time of t = 20L/a.
Case 2 - Valve Opening or Pump Start (At B in line AB): A sudden

opening of a valve will generate a negative surge pressure which could
result in water column separation. Water column separation can have
detrimental effects if the subsequent rejoining impact of the separated
column to the main body of liquid is of such a magnitude which damages
pipe and other system components. Such circumstances are generally
alleviated by employing a one-way surge tank.
Case 3 - Pump Start Up (At B in line BC): The pressure rise associated
with the starting of a pump in a fully charged pipeline is a function of the
rate of acceleration of the pumping unit and the characteristics of the
pump. The surge pressure will not exceed the selected pump’s shut-off
head and does not generally cause a problem. When the pipeline is
empty prior to start-up, the flow should be restricted by a control valve at
the pump. Some texts recommend a safe filling velocity in the order of
0.05 m/s in such circumstances.

Case 4 - Pump Shut-Down (At B in line BC): Sudden pump shut-down

is usually because of power failure. This can be alleviated by pump fly-
wheels. As for Case 2, sub-atmospheric pressures can occur as can
column separation. A one-way surge tank could be employed to alleviate
this condition.
2.6.3 When to Conduct a Water Hammer Analysis
Because of the specialist nature of water hammer, it should be conducted by

experienced engineers or consulting engineers who specialise in this area. A
detailed pipeline surge analysis will be required should any of the following
design conditions apply:
¯ If the operational interaction between pumps, valves and system control is

complex following a power failure or during start-up conditions.
If pump power failure could result in significant reverse flow which could
slam check valves or cause column separation. (Note: Pipelines with
relative small changes in elevation have reverse flow surges that are
generally insignificant. However, where pumps are working against a
significant static discharge head, the surge pressure encountered can be
many times the maximum steady state operating pressure).
If the pipeline has multiple and significant changes in elevation which may
cause the liquid to separate at high points following pump power failure
(i.e. column separation).
Pump suction lines of lengths in excess of 50 metres may result in high

pressure heads in the event of a power failure. (Note: For pumps located
immediately adjacent to storage tanks, the suction line surges are usually
insignificant).
If the pumping system is equipped with discharge non-return valves and

air vessels, the non-return valves may be slammed closed by the air
vessel or parallel connected pumps following a pump power failure.
2.6.4 Methods of Minimising the Effects of Water Hammer
The following methods are commonly employed to minimise the harmful effects
of water hammer:
Pipe Selection: An increase in pipe diameter will reduce the velocity

thereby decreasing the surge pressure; An increase in wall thickness
for the same nominal diameter may prevent pipe rupture; Pipe
materials of lower Moduli of Elasticity will reduce the wave velocity and
hence decrease the surge pressure. However, care must be taken to
ensure that any smoother bore pipe does not reduce pipe friction
significantly otherwise the number of wave oscillations may increase
(i.e. reduced damping due to lower pipe friction).
--_ Engineers & Technical Trainers
Pipeline Route: Wherever practical, the pipeline should be routed so

that the pressure profile (i.e. "Hydraulic Grade Line") is always above
the pipeline profile (i.e. pipeline elevation at an particular point). This
will minimise the chances of column separation occurring.
Pipe Supports: Additional pipe supports allow the movement of pipes

arising from pressure transients to be controlled. Therefore, an
individual support has less likelihood of failure. However, the method
of fixing the pipe changes the wave velocity of the liquid. Most water
hammer software packages take this in to account.
Flow Control Valves: Can provide a means of changing the hydraulic

grade line so that it is always above the pipeline profile thereby greatly
reducing the chances of column separation occurring. This is generally
achieved by providing the flow control valve at the end of the pipeline.
Intermediate Check Valves: Are used in long pipelines with an aim of

reducing the damaging reverse velocity of the liquid from reaching the
pump. If such valves are used, they must be of the "Non Slam" type.
Non-Slam Check Valves: These valve come in two main types - (i)
The single spindle, single spring, or (ii) The annulus multiple spring
type.. They close in a controlled manner. Under no circumstances
should swing check valves be used as they will slam closed (i.e.
instantaneous closing).
Gas Accumulators: These are effective when there is a loss of pump

power and a negative pressure wave develops immediately
downstream of the pump check valve. The residual pressure in the
gas accumulator reduced the deceleration of the liquid column thereby
preventing column separation.
One-Way Surge Tanks: These are principally used on water

transmission lines to overcome sub-atmospheric pressures. Under
transient conditions, the pipeline locations where sub-atmospheric
conditions will occur will be at significant reductions in upward slope
and at pipeline peaks. These tanks prevent the pipeline from
collapsing due to external pressure buckling. The tank is sized so that
it fills the pipe cavity which is formed when vapour column separation
occurs. A check valve is normally fitted to the tank discharge pipe to
prevent positive pressures from overflowing the surge tank.Note:
Surge tanks do not provide protection from positive pressures.
Surge Anticipation Valves: These are designed to provide a

diversionary flow of liquid in the event of a pressure transient occurring.
They work by releasing energy in a system before damaging pressures
can occur. The valve needs to be deployed as close to the point where
the transient event is occurring as possible. These valves are complex
and high maintenance.
Variable Speed Drives: These only work when power is available and
are therefore used for pump start-up conditions. By ramping up the
pump speed by employing a variable speed drive, pipeline component
fatigue damage is reduced and slow line filling is achieved which
allows all air to be expelled more effectively.
Slow Actinq Valves: The slower the valve closing time, the less
chance of excessive water hammer magnitudes. Some piping systems
employ a two stage closing process whereby the valve is closed to the
final 15 - 20% rather rapidly and then the remainder is closed over an
extended period. In high pressure systems, dual valves in parallel of
different sizes are sometimes employed with the smallest valve
opening first. The smallest valve closes whilst the bigger valve closes
and then reopens to obtain maximum flow rates.

2.7 SCALING
Pipe scaling is a major problem in various industries as it can cause the following
detrimental effects:
¯ Reduced pipe carrying capacity

¯ Reduced heat transfer effects
¯ Blocked filters, strainers and heating coils etc
¯ Increased maintenance time
¯ Reduced plant availability
Metal pipes that carry water with sufficient quantities of impurities (i.e. salts,
mineral compounds etc) are prone to scaling. These impurities are contained as
either suspended solids or are dissolved in the water. When these impurities
precipitate out of the water under certain conditions, scale is formed on the pipe
walls. If this scale is left untreated, it will build up continually over time until it
completely blocks the passage of liquid flow through the pipe. Fig. 2.7.1 shows
scaled pipe spool samples taken from a minerals processing plant.
Fig. 2.7.1 Examples of Pipe Scale

(Reproduced with the Permission of Nalco Australia Pry Ltd)
Scale can be defined as a hard, tightly adhering deposit formed in place by the
precipitation of impurities in water. These impurities precipitate when
combinations of scale forming cations and anions exceed their solubility
concentrations.
Common types of scale include: Calcium Carbonate (Calcite), Calcium Sulphate

(Gypsum), iron compounds and silicate compounds.
There are a number of factors that affect the likelihood and speed of scale
formation. These are:
Impurities: The quantity of impurities has a major affect. These

impurities can come in the form of (i) dissolved solids such as Ca, Na,
Mn, Mg and K (ii) dissolved gases such as CO2, or (iii) ionics such as
sulphates, carbonates and bicarbonates.
Alkalinity: The higher the pH, the more chance of scale formation. For
example lime or gypsum pipelines would be problematic.
¯ Temperature: Calcite and gypsum scale become less soluble at higher

temperatures. Therefore, the probability of scale formation increases at
higher temperatures. For example, heating coils and boiler feed water.
¯ Accelerated Kinetics: Areas of pipeline ~urDu~ence, snear-or excessive

pressure drop can cause suspended solids to deposit on pipe walls,
filters and strainers etc.
Evaporation: When a liquid evaporates, the concentration of suspended

solids will increase. If the concentration of ions increases to the point
where solubility is exceeded, scale will form. L!\~.t}.~T~,~
Rou.qh Pipe Surfaces: Non-uniform surfaces allow solid impurities to

get caught which in-turn create a nucleation site for further scale build-
up.
Fig. 2.7.2 Example of Scaling in a Pipe Bend - Gold Processing Plant
Scale can be predicted by conducting periodic (i) water analyses which

determine the type and quantity of impurities (ii) temperature monitoring and (iii)
pH monitoring.
Sites with serious scaling problems such as minerals processing sites employ the
use of scale probes. These devices reside in the pipeline and collect scale.
They are periodically removed and inspected and the amount of scale build-up is
measured to determine whether or not the anti-scaling methods employed are

being effective. Fig. 2.7.3 shows such a probe.
Fig. 2.7.3 A Typical Scale Probe

(Reproduced with the Permission of Nalco Australia Pty Ltd)
There are four methods commonly employed to reduce the likelihood of scale
formation. These are:
¯ Limit the concentration of critical ions. For example up-stream water

treatment for the removal of suspended solids.
¯ Reduce the alkalinity (i.e. pH). For example, the addition of lower pH
chemicals or the reduction in the addition of alkaline chemicals.
¯ Alter the system design or metallurgy. For example, change pipeline

velocity or pipe material.
Employ chemical scale inhibitors which either (i) inhibit the formation of
scale nuclei (ii) distort the scale crystal structure so that round crystals
are formed which have less surface area for contact with other surfaces
(iii) change the electric charge on scale particles causing repulsion, or
(iv) "wrap up" any free scale forming ions so they are unavailable for
precipitation.
It should be noted that each method is not mutually exclusive and in many
instances more than one method is employed at the same time.

PIPE SIZING METHODS

Background
Everywhere in industry, pipes are employed that are either oversized or

undersized, generally because "rules of thumb" are used without any other
attention being paid to the fundamentals of fluid dynamics or engineering
economics. Sure, "rules of thumb" have their place but the designer must
understand what these rules are based on before he or she decides to employ
them. The recommended approach is to use one of the three methods
(depending on the situation) described here. Once these methods are
understood then it should be an easy decision to size pipes either from "rules of
thumb" or these more formal methods. The whole goal is to size pipes so that
the intended function is achieved whilst obtaining the cost effective solution. The
only exception is when pipes are sized for strength without any concern for cost
or efficiency.
2.8.2 The Present Value (PV) Method
This method is employed for pipes containing liquid which is caused to flow by
the action of pumping equipment. The goal is to balance the cost of
construction against the operating costs over the life of the pipeline so that the
selected pipe size results in the lowest total present value of costs for the pipe
system. It should be clear that smaller pipe diameters are cheaper to purchase
but increase the friction head losses thereby increasing operating costs due to
higher pump power requirements. The reverse is true for pipes of larger
diameters. Therefore, at some point, there is an optimum pipe diameter that
gives "the best of both worlds".
This method is generally used for sizing pump discharge lines. Ironically, it
relies on a general range of acceptable velocities as the first step in the method.
Some basic equations are required for this method. The first equation should
be somewhat familiar to those who have previously attended one of KASA’s
"Pump Fundamentals" training seminars. It gives a value for the annual cost of
pumping for a particular pipeline. For the purposes of the PV Method, it can be
assumed that pumping costs make up virtually all the annual cost of operation.
Where: Y = Annual Pumping Costs ($)

3
Volumetric Flow Rate (m/s)
= Liquid Density (kg/m3)
= Gravitational Acceleration (m/s2)
= Head added by the Pump (m)
= Cost of Power (S/kWh)
= Total Hours Pumped per Year (h)
= Combined Efficiency of Pump & Drive

Engineers & Tecl~nica/ Trainers
The second equation deals with the issue of trying to find the total current
equivalent worth of future annual operating costs for the life of the pipeline. In
the finance and accounting world, this is known as the "Present Value of
Ordinary Annuities". For our purposes, an annuity can be defined as a series of
equal payments that occur in equally spaced intervals (i.e. annual operating
costs for the pipeline). If we can put a current figure on these future costs and
then add them to the capital cost of the pipeline, the optimum pipe size will be
the one with the lowest total current cost.
The equation for the present value of an annuity is as follows:
PVA = Yx (1-(l + i)-")

i
Where: PVA = Present Value of an Annuity ($)

Y = Annual Pumping Cost ($)
i = Annual Interest Rate (as a decimal)
= Number of Years
It should be noted that "i" can also be taken to be the return on investment
(ROI) required.
FV- IV FV
ROI - - 1
IV IV
Where: FV = Final Value of Investment ($)

IV = Initial Value of Investment ($)
This equations presented above rely on two large assumptions - (i) the annual
interest rate remains unchanged over the life of the pipeline, and (ii) the cost of
pumping power does not escalate. It can be shown that the PV Method for
sizing pipes is not particularly sensitive to changes in interest rate so there is no
cause for concern if we haven’t taken fluctuating interest rates in to account.
However, the method is sensitive to the value of annual pumping costs.
Therefore, it is important that we determine the cost per hour as accurately as
possible and have some appreciation for the escalation in power costs over
time. We can improve the "Present Value Equation for an Annuity" to take in to
account escalations in power costs as follows:
j 1+ m
Where m = Rate of Escalation of Annual Power Costs

(as a decimal)

.._ Engineers & Technical Trainers
Now armed with these equations, we can provide you with an outline of the PV
Method prior to conducting a pipe sizing example.
Collect and/or determine the required design inputs such as (i) the
required Return on Investment or applicable interest rate (ii) the
design flow rate (iii) the expected pipe length (iv) the cost of power
for the particular plant (v) the expected pump-drive combined
efficiency (vi) total annual hours of pump operation (vii) total static
head (vii) pipeline design life, and (viii) expected power cost
increase per year.
If the pipe length cannot be determined to a reasonable degree of

accuracy then calculate the required values based on a fixed
length (i.e. cost per 100 metres or cost per kilometre).
Select a typical, industry accepted velocity for the application.

This velocity may be based on a "rule of thumb" but it does not
matter at this stage as the economic calculations will determine
the final velocity and pipe size. Refer to Section 2.8.3 for
recommended velocities for various applications.
Determine the Total Dynamic Head. This is equal to the sum of

the Total Static Head and the Total Friction Head. This is the
head added by the pump -
Determine the annual pumping cost.
Step 5: Determine the "Pipeline Capital Cost". That is - material supply,

installation, labour etc and is the amount of money required if you
installed the pipeline today.
Convert the total annual pumping costs for the design life of the
pipeline back to a total equivalent current value (aka "Present
Value of Annual Pumping Cost").
Add the "Present Value of Annual Pumping Cost" to the "Pipeline

Capital Cost". This will provide a "Total Present Value".
The pipeline with the lowest "Total Present Value" should be

selected as it provides the best balance between initial capital cost
and total pipeline life operating costs.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.8
Given: Following on from Example Problem 2.5...
1.2% w/v flocculant solution (p = 1050 kg/m3) is to be pumped 200 metres

at l_~_m3/hr. Previous analysis resulted in the conclusion that the following
PE100 polyethylene pipe sizes and types should be further analysed to
determine the most economical solution:
125 10 109.8 0,44. 50.8 1.261 22.7 334

125 6.3 115.3 0.40 48.3 1.324 18,6 292
110 6,3 101.2 0.52 55,1 1.162 31.4 424
The following data is also relevant:
Cost of Power: $ 0.12/kWh

Combined Pump-Drive Efficiency: 65%
Pump Duty: 24 h/day; 7 days/wk
Relevant Interest Rate: 10% per annum
Pipeline Design Life: 15 years
Power Cost Escalation Rate: 2.0% per annum
Installed Cost- DN125 PN10: $150/metre
Installed Cost- DN125 PN6.3: $135/metre
Installed Cost - DN110 PN6.3 $121/metre
To Find: The most economical pipe selection by balancing capital cost against future
operating costs for the life of the pipeline (i.e. the PV Cost method).
Relevant
y= QxpxgxEp.xCxT
Equations: r/pro x 1000
Solution: A spreadsheet is usually employed for a design problem such as this one
where multiple options are available. However, for the purposes of better
teaching and brevity, detailed calculations will only be provided for
DN125 PN 10 polyethylene pipe. The results for the other two pipe
choices are calculated in exactly the same fashion.

Solution: Steps 1 and 2 have already been illustrated in Example Problem 2.5 as well
as the given data. Therefore, for DN125 PN10 PE100 polyethylene pipe, we
can move straight to...
Step 3: Determine the Total Dynamic Head
We do not know the suction conditions for the pump. However, we should be
able to safely assume that the flocculant supply tank (on suction side of
pump) is an above ground tank with a working height of no more than 5
metres (as this is typical in industry). We should also be able to safely
assume that:
¯ The suction side velocity head and the discharge side velocity head
are similar and are negligible (i.e. V2/2g = 0.442/(2 x 9.81)) = 0.01
metres
¯ The friction head losses in the suction pipe are negligible when
compared to the discharge side friction head losses.
Now, if we were to employ the Bernoulli Equation for such an assumed

system, we would find that pressure increase due to the pump = Pump
Discharge Pressure. This is because we have assumed that Psuction iS
negligible, Vsuction = Vdischarge and negligible, hf across the pump is negligible
and Zsuction ~ Zdischarge across the pump.
So,
P = 334 kPa = p x flx Ep = 1050 x 9.81 x Ep
~ Ep= 32.4metres
Step 4: Determine the Annual Pumping Cost
15
xlO50x9.81x32.4
Y= Q×p×g×Ep xCxT - (60x60) ×0.12×(24×365)
rip,,, x 1000 0.65 x 1000
~ Y= $2,250 per annum
Step 5: Determine the Pipeline Capital Cost
The installed cost of this pipe has been given to us as $150/metre. This
value could be obtained from contractor quotations or industry estimating
organisations such as those that publish quarterly data on engineering and
building costs.
P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page2-65

Therefore, the total capital cost of the pipeline if it were completed today
would be:
~ 200 metres x $150/metre = $30,000

Step 6: Determine the Present Value of Annual Pumping Costs
i-m 0.10-0.02
j- - - 0.078
l+m 1+0.02
0-o+ ;/-")__ (1-(1 +

0.078
~ PV,4 = $19,450
That is, the present value of an annual payment of $2,250 at 10% interest per
annum and 2% power cost escalatior~ per annum over 15 years is $19,450.
Step 7: Total Present Value
The Total Present Value is equal to the sum of the Capital Cost and the
PVA...
Total Present Value = 30,000 + 19,450 = $49,450
Step 8: Compare Total Present Values for Each Pipe Option
The calculations for the other two pipe sizing options have been tabulated
with the calculation results of the DN125 PN10 polyethylene pipe:
32.4 28.3 41.2

$ 2,25O.65 $ 1,967.63 $ 2,857.11
The lowest "Total Present Value" is Option 2 - DN125 PN6.3 polyethylene

pipe. This pipe selection provides the best balance between initial capital
cost and annual operating costs.
Note: In the "real world" situation, DN110 PN6.3 would probably be chosen
by a sub-contractor (if given the opportunity) as it has the lowest capital cost.
2.8.3 The Allowable Velocity (AV) Method

Engineers & Tecl;nical Trainers
Some pipe sizing "rules of thumb" are based on this method. The workings of
the method are straight forward - the velocity in the pipe cannot exceed some
maximum velocity and/or the velocity in the pipe cannot be lower than some
minimum velocity otherwise a detrimental effect will occur.Examples of
detrimental effects include:
¯ Excessive noise due to high velocity

¯ Water hammer due to high velocity
¯ Cavitation due to high velocity
¯ Vortices at the outlet of vessel due to high velocity
¯ Excessive head loss which increases pumping power due to high velocity
¯ Solids settling in slurry lines due to low velocity
¯ Insufficient mixing of dosed chemicals due to low velocity
¯ High capital costs due to pipes sized at too low a velocity
When defining the "velocity", we mean the average velocity (aka "bulk velocity")
of the flowing liquid given by the previously described relationship of Q = VA.
The AV Method should be used for:
Pump Suction Lines: If designed properly, these lines should be as

short as possible. Therefore, an economic analysis involving the Present
Value (PV) Method is "overkill". For example - The cost difference
between 2 to 5 metres of 100NB or 200NB suction pipe is negligible in
comparison to the total project cost.
Domestic and Commercial Plumbinq: No pumping equipment or very

low powered pumping equipment is involved and therefore the annual
operating costs are low to negligible. Therefore, this situation does not
warrant the use of the PV Method either. Another advantage is the fact
that these lines can be sized by plumbing contractors with a minimum of
fuss as the actual length of installed pipe does not need to be known.
The AV Method on its own should not be used for pump dischar.qe lines as it is
important to provide a design that has the best balance between capital costs
and ongoing operating costs. The AV Method should only be used as a starting
point or to provide an acceptable velocity range prior to employing the PV
Method. For example, to provide a minimum settling velocity for a slurry pipeline
from which various pipe sizes can be analysed by the PV Method.
Guidelines exist for maximum velocities for various liquids. These are listed in
Tables 2.8.3.1 and 2.8.3.2. Remember that despite these velocities being
recommended, further analysis may be required such as cavitation or water
hammer analysis which may result in the actual design velocity being lower than
that shown in the tables for a particular application. Table 2.8.3.3 lists other
(typical) miscellaneous applications and velocities.
Table 2.8.3.1 Maximum Recommended Suction Line Velocities

Nominal Bore
(mm)
0.50 0.50 0.30 0.30

0.50 0.50 0.30 0.33
0.50 0.50 0.30 0.38
0.55 0.55 0.30 0.40
0.60 0.60 0.35 0.43
0.75 0.70 0.38 0.45
250 0.90 0.90 0.45 0.50
300 1.40 0.90 0.45 0.50
Table 2.8.3.2 Maximum Recommended Delivery Line Velocities
Nominal Bore
(ram)
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10
75 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.10
1.25 1.25 1.25 1.15
1.50 1.50 1.50 1.20
1.75 1.75 1.75 1.20
2.00 2.00 2.00 1.30
2.65 2.00 2.00 1.40
Table 2.8.3.3 Typical Line Velocities - Various Applications
Settling Slurries 1.5 - 2.0 m/s

Lime Slurry Minimum Velocity > 1.5 m/s
Water Mains 0.6- 1.0
Boiler Feedwater Lines 1.3 - 4.3
Economiser Tubes (Water) 0.7- 1.5
Crude Oil Pipelines (150 - 800NB) 0.25- 1.75
No example problem will be given to illustrate the AV method as it is

straightforward case of using the previously described equation:
If the flow "Q" and the recommended velocity "V" are known, then solve the
equation to find the cross-sectional area ".~" and hence the pipe internal
diameter.
2.8.4 The Head Loss Available (HLA) Method

This method is employed when a head loss may be (or must be) absorbed by a
length of pipe including fittings and valves etc. With liquids, this is typically a
gravity flow pipe system.
This method should not be used for a pump discharge line (the PV or AV
methods should be used for such a situation) unless unusual hydraulic gradients
are encountered.
The HLA method is outlined as follows:
Determine the required pressure at the end (i.e. discharge) of the

pipe so as to arrive at a total allowable head loss.
Determine the total length of pipe as well as the quantity and type
of any fittings and valves.
Choose trial pipe diameters that provide a total head loss equal to
that found from Step 2. This may require numerous iterations.
Example Problem 2.9 serves to illustrate the HLA method for a gravity flow
system. It should be noted that due to the "trial and error" nature of this method,
a spreadsheet should be employed to make the calculations less time
consuming.
2.8.5 Pipe Sizing Based on Equipment Nozzle Sizes
It is important to realise that the nozzle or equipment connection size on pumps,

valves and flow-meters etc may not necessarily match the pipe size that has
been selected. The reason for this is simple - such equipment is generally
designed to operate over a much wider flow range than that of the selected pipe.
Therefore, the equipment manufacturer supplies this equipment with the nominal
or median size to cater for this large flow range.
A typical example is the case of a centrifugal pump. Each pump housing can
have maybe four or five standard impellers which give unique head versus flow
characteristics. Therefore, the flanges on the pump housing are sized to cater
for the median head versus flow curve as the manufacturer does not want to
increase costs by providing a unique housing complete with unique flanges sizes
for each impeller size. If you are operating the pump with one of the largest
recommended impellers, it is likely that your suction and discharge pipes will be
one, two or three pipe sizes larger than the pump end connections.
It should also be noted that if your nominal pipe size is less than the nominal size
of your flow meter, valve or pump etc, then there is a fairly high probability that
either the pipe is too small or the valve or flow meter is too large for the
application.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2.9
Given: A design flow of 15 I/s of water at 20 °C is to flow via gravity from a storage
tank to a cooling tower basin. The difference in elevation (z/z) is 4.9
metres. The pipe length is 38 metres. There are 3 x 90° bends and a
single control valve. The control valve has a pressure drop (z!P) of 30 kPa.
To Find: A suitable pipe size if Medium Steel Pipe to AS1074 is to be used.
Relevant P=pxgxh
Equations:
pg 2 g pg 2 g
Solution: Step 1: Determine Total Available Head Loss for the Pipe
The lowest discharge pressure will be atmospheric pressure (i.e. zero

gauge pressure) as the pipe will be discharging in to a cooling tower
basin.
The available pressure drop for the pipe will be equal to the available
static head of water in the tank less the head loss absorbed by the
control valve.
If we convert all pressure drops to head loss in metres, then the head
loss at the control valve can be found as follows:
P=pxgxh ~ 30 x 103 = 998 x 9.81
~ z!h~ = 3.1 metres

Therefore, the total available head loss due to pipe and fittings is equal to
the difference in elevation less the head loss due to the control valve.
~ z!z - z!h~, = 4.9 - 3.1 = 1.8 metres
That is, the total available head loss for the selected pipe (and fittings) is
1.8 metres.
The goal is to select a pipe and fittings combination that will provide a
head loss equal to 1.8 metres. In reality, there are only a finite number of
discrete pipe sizes so we will have to settle for a pipe and fittings
combination with a head loss as close as possible to 1.8 metres. Once
the system is constructed, any slight variation in flow can be corrected by
adjusting the control valve (i.e. adjusting the z!hc,,).

Step 2: Determine the Total Equivalent Length of Pipe
The pipe length has been given as 38 metres and there are 3 x 90o
bends.
Step 3: Trial Pipe Diameters and Calculate Total Head Loss
We shall try 75mm and 100mm and shall use the "Tota/ Equiva/en~
Length Methoc£ (outlined in Section 2.4.5.3) to determine friction head
losses in the pipe and fittings.
From Table 10.7 "Approximate Head Losses in Fittings and Va/ves...",
3 x 75mm Bends ~ 3 x 2.44 = 7.32 metres of equivalent pipe

3 x 100mm Bends ~ 3 x 3.26 = 9.78 metres of equivalent pipe
Now the total equivalent length can be determined...
75ram Pipe ~ Total Equivalent Length = 38 + 7.32 = 45.32 metres

100mm Pipe ~ Total Equivalent Length = 38 + 9.78 = 47.78 metres
From Table 10.6 "Head Losses in Medium Stee/ Pipe ...",
13.06
75mm Pipe ~ Head Loss = 45.32x - 5.9 metres
100
100mm Pipe 3.61

~ Head Loss = 47.78x-- = 1.7 metres
100
Therefore, we should select the 100mm pipe as the head loss in pipe
and fittings (1.7 metres) is closest to the available head loss (1.8
metres). ~,
Check: Use the Bernoulli Equation to Check the Result
It can be shown that because (i) both the top of the tank and the basin
are at atmospheric pressure, and (ii) the velocity at the top of the tank is
negligible, the Bernoulli Equation will simplify to:
~ 1-" +z,+Ep=P~ +V22+z2+hf

pg 2 g ,og 2 g
0+0+4.9+0 = 04 V22 ~-0+(3.1+1.7)

2x9.81

V = 1.4 m/s
ID of 100mm Pipe
From Table 10.15
=12.2 l/s
The calculated flow rate of 12.2 I/s is less than our design flow rate of 16
I/s. This is OK as we can easily adjust the control valve once the
system is running.


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__ Engineers & Technical Trainers

1.2 DISCLAIMER 1-2

1.3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1-2

1.4 BACKGROUND 1-3

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 1-1

1.1 EDITION & COPYRIGHT DETAILS

"The Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Training Manual’ is a companion

The "Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals" training seminar is the second in a

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 1-3

¯ Understand the operating principles of typical piping instrumentation and

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 1-4

2.2 COMMON TERMS & DEFINITIONS 2-3

2.4 BASIC HYDRAULICS THEORY 2-25

2.6 WATER HAMMER 2-49

2.8 PIPE SIZING METHODS 2-61

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 2-1

A thorough understanding of liquid piping systems begins with a working

The background information presented in this section shall consist of:

¯ Simple terms and definitions relating to piping systems, ancillary

¯ Basic hydraulics theory and calculations.

¯ Friction (head) losses in pipes and fittings.

¯ Cavitation and water hammer.

¯ Pipe sizing methods.

2.1.2 Section Objectives

After completing this section, you should be able to:

¯ Realise the importance of the properties of a liquid on the piping system.

¯ Understand pipeline cavitation and water hammer and how to either

¯ Be aware of the consequences and the mechanism of pipe scaling and

2.2 COMMON TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Absolute (aka Dynamic) Viscosity

The flow-ability of a fluid. In the SI system of measurement, the unit is the

1 Pa.s = 1 Ns/m2 = 1 kg/(ms) = 103 cP

The absolute viscosity of water at 20°C is 1.002 cP (0.001 Pa.s).

Air-to-Close (aka "Fail Open" or "Normally Open")

An increase in air pressure to the valve actuator closes the valve.

Air-to-Open (aka "Fail closed" or "Normally Closed")

A decrease in air pressure to the valve actuator opens the valve.

The process of increasing a metal to a temperature above its critical temperature

An abbreviation for the "American National Standards Institute".

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 2-3

A special component used in valves (typically control valves) to stage the

An abbreviation for the "American Petroleum Institute".

An abbreviation for the "American Society of Mechanical Engineers".

Refer to "Barometric Pressure" for details.

Backing Ring (aka "Welding Ring")

Barometric (aka Atmospheric) Pressure

Corresponds to the absolute pressure above perfect vacuum."Standard"

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 2-4

In drafting terminology, these are lines or symbols placed on a drawing which

Bingham Plastic Fluids

Block Flow Diagram

A basic graphical representation of a process plant or piping facility etc using

Bulk Modulus (of a Liquid)

A numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a liquid when it is

Where B = Bulk Modulus (Pa); P = Pressure Applied (Pa); AI/" = Change in

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 2-5

Capacity (aka Flow Rate)

The volume of liquid that has flowed per unit time.

Choked Valve Flow (aka "Critical Flow")

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The change in dimension of a particular material due to a change in temperature.

Control Valve Gain

P603 Liquid Piping Systems Fundamentals Page 2-6