206 English

ACI2602/501/0/2024
Tutorial Letter 501/0/2024

Teaching Language Structures and
Conventions in English First Additional
Language in the Intermediate Phase
ACI2602
Year module
Department of Language Education, Arts and

Culture
This tutorial letter contains the study material for this module.
BARCODE
ACI2602/501
Contents
WELCOME AND ORIENTATION ........................................................................................................... 7
Module purpose and outcomes ......................................................................................... 7
How the study guide is structured ...................................................................................... 7
LEARNING UNIT 1 ................................................................................................................................. 9
INTERPRETING CAPS ENGLISH FAL – LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS .......... 9
CONTENTS....................................................................................................................... 9
OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT ........................................................................................... 9
1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 9
1.2 WHAT ARE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS? ...................... 11
1.3 METALANGUAGE ............................................................................................... 12
1.4 APPROACHES TO TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND
CONVENTIONS .............................................................................................................. 14
1.5 INTEGRATION OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS WITH
OTHER SKILLS .............................................................................................................. 14
1.6 USING ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING IN THE TEACHING OF LSC ............... 16
1.7 USING TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND
CONVENTIONS .............................................................................................................. 17
1.8 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................... 18
1.9 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING .................................................................. 18
LEARNING UNIT 2 ............................................................................................................................... 20
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS .. 20
CONTENTS........................................................................................................................................... 20
OUTCOMES FOR THIS LEARNING UNIT ...................................................................... 20
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 21
2.2 TEXT-BASED APPROACH .................................................................................. 21
2.3 COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH........................................................................... 24
2.3.1 Linguistic (grammatical) competence .................................................................................. 25
2.3.2 Sociolinguistic competence.................................................................................................. 25
2.3.3 Discourse competence ......................................................................................................... 25
2.3.4 Strategic competence .......................................................................................................... 26
2.4 THE PPP APPROACH TO TEACHING AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE ................ 27

2.4.1 The presentation stage ........................................................................................................ 28
2.4.2 The practice stage ................................................................................................................ 28
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2.4.3 The production phase .......................................................................................................... 29
2.5 USING GAMES TO TEACH LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS . 32

2.6 THE THREE CATEGORIES OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS
IN CAPS .......................................................................................................................... 33
2.6.1 Spelling and punctuation ..................................................................................................... 35
2.6.2 Working with words and sentences..................................................................................... 35
2.6.3 Vocabulary ........................................................................................................................... 35
2.7 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 35

2.8 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING................................................................... 36
LEARNING UNIT 3 ............................................................................................................................... 37
STRATEGIES TO BUILD LEARNERS’ VOCABULARY ..................................................................... 37
CONTENTS..................................................................................................................... 37
OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT ......................................................................................... 37
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 37
3.2 TEACHING VOCABULARY .................................................................................. 38
3.2.1 Vocabulary should be taught actively ........................................................................... 41
3.2.2 Vocabulary in context and vocabulary lists................................................................... 42
3.2.3 Make the most of new words in texts to extend the learners' vocabulary .................. 43
3.2.4 Encourage learners to use dictionaries......................................................................... 43
3.2.5 Extend vocabulary by means of word building ............................................................. 43
3.3 A FEW STRATEGIES TO BUILD VOCABULARY................................................. 44

3.4 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................... 51
3.5 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING ....................................................................... 51
LEARNING UNIT 4 ............................................................................................................................... 52
TEACHING SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION .................................................................................... 52
CONTENTS..................................................................................................................... 52
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 53
4.2 EFFECTIVE WAYS TO TEACH SPELLING.......................................................... 53
4.2.1 Ways of making spelling interesting ............................................................................. 56
4.2.2 Look, close, write and check ......................................................................................... 57
4.2.3 Turn the learning of spelling into a game ..................................................................... 58
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4.2.4 Spelling and repetition .................................................................................................. 58
4.2.5 Spelling and reading ............................................................................................................. 58
4.2.6 Assessment and spelling ...................................................................................................... 59
4.3 WHY IT IS SO DIFFICULT TO TEACH ENGLISH SPELLING .............................. 63

4.3.1 Capitalising on the peculiarities of English ................................................................... 64
4.4 TEACHING PUNCTUATION ................................................................................. 66

4.4.1 Teaching punctuation activity .............................................................................................. 66
4.4.2 Teaching the apostrophe .............................................................................................. 67
4.5 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 68

4.6 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING................................................................... 69
LEARNING UNIT 5 ............................................................................................................................... 70
WORKING WITH WORDS AND SENTENCES (GRAMMAR) ............................................................. 70
CONTENTS..................................................................................................................... 70
5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 71
5.2 APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR IN AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE ... 71
5.2.1 Grammatical forms ....................................................................................................... 72
5.2.2 Grammatical markers in additional language learning ................................................. 73
5.3 APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR ........................................................ 74

5.3.1 The deductive approach (rule-driven learning) ............................................................ 74
5.3.2 The inductive approach (rule-discovery learning) ............................................................... 76
1. A newspaper article with examples of the passive voice is given to learners. ..... 78
2. Learners answer questions on the article................................................................... 78
3. Examples of passive verbs are identified; learners find others and work out how
passive sentence constructions are formed........................................................................... 78
4. Learners answer further questions, with the focus on the passive voice and about
the article. .................................................................................................................................... 78
5. Learners look at examples of sentences written in the passive voice and answer
questions focusing on the absence of an agent in many passive sentences. .................. 78
6. A definition is then developed by the learners to explain the passive; the teacher
clarifies the misunderstandings............................................................................................... 78
7. Further examples are provided to test understanding: an exercise in completing

the missing words; write the correct tense or passages with examples of how the
passive voice is used. ................................................................................................................ 78
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5.3.3 The functional-notional approach ....................................................................................... 78
5.3.4 Grammar in a situational context ........................................................................................ 80
5.4 STRUCTURING GRAMMAR LESSONS............................................................... 80

5.4.1 Models for teaching grammar ...................................................................................... 81
5.5 ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR ........................................................... 87

5.5.1 Teaching grammar through stories ............................................................................... 88
5.5.2 Teaching grammar through songs, poems and rhymes................................................ 88
5.5.3 Teaching grammar through games ...................................................................................... 89
5.6 RESOURCES TO USE IN GRAMMAR TEACHING .............................................. 90

5.7 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 90
5.8 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING ....................................................................... 90
LEARNING UNIT 6 ............................................................................................................................... 92
METALANGUAGE ............................................................................................................................... 92
CONTENTS..................................................................................................................... 92
6.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 92
6.2 METALANGUAGE AND METACOGNITION ......................................................... 93
6.3 WORKING WITH METALANGUAGE IN THE CLASSROOM ................................ 94
6.3.1 Experimenting with language and building meaning .......................................................... 96
6.3.2 Learners taking conscious control of their use of English FAL ............................................. 97
6.3.3 Teaching learners to critically evaluate texts....................................................................... 99
6.3.4 Metalanguage and feedback................................................................................................ 99
6.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 102

6.5 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING................................................................. 103
LEARNING UNIT 7 ............................................................................................................................. 104
ASSESSMENT OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS ......................................... 104
CONTENTS................................................................................................................... 104
OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT ....................................................................................... 104
7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 104
7.2 POLICY ON ASSESSMENT ............................................................................... 105
7.2.1 CAPS and the assessment of languages ............................................................................. 106
7.3 ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING ........................................................................ 109
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7.3.1 Informal assessment .......................................................................................................... 111
7.3.2 Implementing the programme of assessment ................................................................... 111
7.3.3 The assessment for learning process ................................................................................. 115
7.4 ASSESSMENT TOOLS ...................................................................................... 118

7.5 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 123
7.6 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING (Activity: Checklist) .................................. 123
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 124
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WELCOME AND ORIENTATION

Welcome to Teaching Language Structures and conventions in First Additional
Language in the Intermediate Phase (ACI2602), which is offered by Unisa’s Department of
Language Education, Arts and Culture. You may be a teacher who is already teaching or a
student who has no teaching experience at all. Whatever the case may be, if you have
enrolled for this course, you certainly wish to learn how to become a better language
teacher. Whether you are an aspiring or experienced teacher, I trust that this module will
empower you to become a good teacher or, if you are already a teacher, to improve your
teaching skills.
Please read this study guide (ACI2602 TL501) together with the tutorial letter 101 (ACI2602
TL101). In Tutorial Letter 101 you will find information on how to access assistance and
resources as well as how to use myUnisa. TL101 also explains the study plan and
assessments. Both TL501 and TL101 are essential to your study of this module.
Module purpose and outcomes

The purpose of this module is to empower prospective student teachers to develop a high
level of knowledge and skills in the teaching of language structures and conventions in
English First Additional Language in the intermediate phase (IP). Students who successfully
complete this module will be able to integrate subject content knowledge with relevant
pedagogical knowledge to teach English First Additional Language in the intermediate phase
according to an integrated approach, a communicative approach and a text-based approach.
The specific outcomes are as follows:

• Demonstrate an understanding of the CAPS for English First Additional Language
(FAL) in the IP
• Show clear understanding of language structures and conventions in English FAL
• Demonstrate the ability to incorporate the use of metalanguage skills in language
structures and conventions
• Have knowledge of the teaching of language structures and conventions
• Conduct an appropriate assessment to inform teaching and learning in the English
First Additional Language classroom in the IP
How the study guide is structured

In this module you will be introduced to theory and terminology pertaining to language
teaching, in particular, language structures and conventions. As the Curriculum and
Assessment Policy (CAPS) sets out the official curriculum used in South African schools,
you cannot start learning how to teach language structures and conventions in a FAL in the
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IP unless you have made a thorough study of the CAPS. If you do not have a copy of the
CAPS yet, it would be a good idea to download it now at:
https://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/CurriculumAssessmentPolicyStatements(CAPS).a
spx
There are seven learning units in this study guide.

Learning unit 1 is an introduction to the teaching of language structures and conventions.
The unit also deals with the role of CAPS in teaching and learning.
Learning unit 2 introduces the different approaches to teaching language structures and
conventions. The three categories of language structures and conventions are also
explained.
Learning unit 3 covers the teaching of vocabulary and includes strategies to build
vocabulary.
Learning unit 4 deals with effective ways of teaching spelling and punctuation.
Learning unit 5 explains approaches to teaching grammar and how to structure grammar
lessons. The unit also includes activities and resources to use when teaching grammar.
Learning unit 6 is about metalanguage, which was first introduced in learning unit 1. The role
of metalanguage is explained, as well as how to use feedback in language teaching.
Learning unit 7 describes the assessment of language structures and conventions.
Assessment for learning is explained and the implementation of a programme of assessment
is covered. Lastly assessment tools are discussed.
Work through the learning units carefully and complete each of the activities. The units start
with a breakdown of the outcomes for the particular learning unit. The outcomes are linked
with the section at the end of each unit where you can check your understanding. Complete
the Checking for understanding section and use it as a reflection and self-assessment. If
you find that there are areas you do not feel comfortable with, revise the learning unit
focusing on the areas you do not yet understand.
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LEARNING UNIT 1
INTERPRETING CAPS ENGLISH FAL – LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND

CONVENTIONS
CONTENTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 WHAT ARE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS?
1.3 METALANGUAGE
1.4 APPROACHES TO TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS
1.5 INTEGRATION OF LCS WITH OTHER SKILLS
1.6 USING ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING IN THE TEACHING OF LCM
1.7 USING TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS
1.8 CONCLUSION
1.9 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING
OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT
As the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• understand how CAPS guides the teaching and learning of language
structures and conventions
• discuss the major approaches to teaching language structures and
conventions as set out in CAPS
• explain how language structures and conventions are integrated with the
other language skills
• demonstrate an understanding of assessment for learning
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the second learning unit is to familiarise yourself with the Curriculum
and Assessment Policy (CAPS) for English First Additional Language (FAL) in the
intermediate phase (IP). The table below explains how the curriculum is
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implemented. The intended curriculum is what we want all the learners to learn, as
stated in the curriculum documents; in our case it is CAPS. Implemented by the
teachers and attained by the learners are the focus areas of this module.
Table: 1.1: Forms of curriculum (Source: adapted from Van den Akker et al,
2006:69)
INTENDED Ideal Vision (rationale or basic philosophy
underlying a curriculum)
Formal/Written Intentions as specified in curriculum

documents and/or materials (CAPS)
IMPLEMENTED Perceived Curriculum as interpreted by its users
(especially teachers)
Learning intentions actualised in class
Operational Actual process of teaching and
learning (also: curriculum-in-action)
ATTAINED Experiential Learning experiences as perceived by
learners
Learning intentions achieved
Learned Resulting learning outcomes of learners
Table: 1.2: English First Additional Language skills
1 Listening and speaking conversations, discussions and short oral

presentations
2 Reading and viewing wide range of literary and non-literary texts,
including visual texts
3 Writing and presenting Frequent writing practice across a variety of
contexts, tasks and subjects enables learners to
communicate functionally and creatively.
4 Language structures and A good knowledge of vocabulary, spelling and
conventions punctuation, and grammar
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As you are working through this module you will focus on the fourth language skill,
namely, language structures and conventions. I encourage you to see CAPS as
an integrated whole and to look for links between the language skills throughout this
module.
1.2 WHAT ARE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS?
The First Additional Language level assumes that learners do not necessarily
have any knowledge of the language when they arrive at school. The focus in the
first few years of school is on developing learners’ ability to understand and speak
the language – basic interpersonal communication skills. In grades 2 and 3 learners
start to build literacy on this oral foundation. They also apply the literacy skills they
have already learnt in their home language (CAPS, 2011: 8). Also keep in mind that
learners are able to use their Home Language skills to acquire a FAL.
A good knowledge of vocabulary and grammar provides the foundation for skills
development (listening, speaking, reading and writing) in the First Additional
Language.
In CAPS you will see how Language Structures and Conventions (LSC) are
presented; you will learn about spelling and punctuation, working with words and
sentences, and vocabulary. The category Language Structures and Conventions in
the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for language teaching
includes what teachers often refer to as “grammar”.
The term “convention” is used where there is a generally accepted usage or practice.
The conventions of written English include such aspects as punctuation, the layout of
a letter or a curriculum vitae, or the format of a book. In oral language, there are
conventions for formal debates or sermons or speeches of welcome.
Language structure: Language is a “nested structure.” For example: letters are

combined to form syllables, syllables are combined to form words, words are
combined to form clauses and sentences.
Language structure and meaning: Words and sentences have parts that combine in
patterns, exhibiting the grammar of the language. Phonology is the study of patterns
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in sound or gesture. Syntax and Semantics involves studying patterns in sentence

structure, from the vantages of form and meaning, respectively.
1.3 METALANGUAGE
Metalanguage is the language used to talk about literature and grammatical terms,
that includes terminology such as “context”, “style”, “plot” and “dialogue”. Learners
will learn how language structures and conventions are used, and they will
develop a shared language for talking about language (a “metalanguage”), so that
they can evaluate their own and other texts critically in terms of meaning,
effectiveness and accuracy. In other words, metalanguage is a way teachers and
learners can talk about learning English. In most cases any learning situation
involves metalanguage. When we learn to cook, we have to understand what the
kitchen is and how it works, what the instruments (stove, fridge, counter tops) are,
and how the tools (kitchen utensils) are used. We have to understand how these are
used to turn ingredients into edible food, and we must be able to talk about it.
The use of metalanguage will enable metacognition; it means that the learners are
thinking about their thinking. They can explain what they are doing and where the
strengths and weaknesses are, and – importantly – make the necessary changes,
which is self-regulated learning.
AN EXAMPLE OF HOW METALANGUAGE IS USED IN LEARNING TO PLAY

SOCCER
Children learn what the structure is through the way the game is played; the skills
such as different passes or dribbling techniques. They learn how dribbling and
passes form strategies and are part of the game plan.
The conventions of soccer are when children learn to understand the field, sides
on the field, the goal and the half circle at the goal. They have to understand the
rules and the role of the referee as well as how they fit into the team.
The coach will use metalanguage to talk to the players or give instructions about
how to play. For example, the coach will give instructions about what to do in
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defensive play (structure) in their own goal area (convention). Words and phrases
unique to soccer such as playing the man or in the zone are used.
The importance of metalanguage becomes evident when the players themselves

use metalanguage to talk about their own game, their skills and techniques, the
game plan, and how to use parts of the field. They will be able to critically evaluate
their soccer skills (metacognition), and adapt their strategies or improve their skills
to play better (self-regulated learning).
Self-assessment activity 1.1:
This is an exercise from the grade 5 DBE Term 1 English FAL book 1, page 1.
1. Identify how metalanguage is used.
2. Using metacognition, how can you get the learners to explain why they have
underlined nouns in blue?
Feedback:
1. On the right of the picture countable nouns are explained in language terminology
and are accompanied by an example.
2. They will explain their reason, for instance, trousers are countable because I have
more than one pair of trousers.
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1.4 APPROACHES TO TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND

CONVENTIONS
Language teaching approaches discussed in CAPS are text-based, communicative
and process-orientated approaches. The text-based approach and the
communicative approach are both dependent on the continuous use and
production of texts.
A text-based approach explores how texts work. The purpose of a text-based

approach is to enable learners to become competent, confident and critical readers,
writers and viewers of texts. It involves listening to, reading, viewing and analysing
texts to understand how they are produced and what their effects are. Through this
critical interaction, learners develop the ability to evaluate texts (this is where the use
of metalanguage about language structures and conventions will become
important).
The text-based approach also involves producing different kinds of text for particular
purposes and audiences. This approach is informed by an understanding of how
texts are constructed. This approach will require quite a lot of modelling, support and
scaffolding in the First Additional Language classroom. Suggestions for these are
built into the teaching plans in CAPS.
A communicative approach suggests that when learning a language, a learner

should have a great deal of exposure to the target language (English) and many
opportunities to practise or produce (use the language in speech and writing) the
language by communicating for social or practical purposes. Language learning
should be a natural, informal process carried over into the classroom where the
literacy skills of reading/viewing and writing/presenting are learnt in a “natural” way –
learners read by doing a great deal of reading and they learn to write by doing a
range of writing.
1.5 INTEGRATION OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS WITH

OTHER SKILLS
Find in the CAPS where the time allocated to each of the language skills are
explained (you would have come across this in the other modules as well).
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Self-assessment activity 1.2
1. What do you notice about the time allocated to the different skills?
2. What does the time allocation indicate about how and when LSC should be
taught?
Feedback
1. The time allocated is limited to 30 minutes or an hour per week.
2. LSC must be integrated with the other language skills. The dedicated time could
be used to teach new language which is then reinforced and practised in the
other language skills.
In CAPS section 3.4 CONTENT AND TEACHING PLANS FOR ENGLISH FIRST
ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE, on page 34, the grade 4 learners are taught how to write
a factual account. Notice how the expected learning of Language Structures and
Conventions are made clear.
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Compare the writing activity with working with words and sentences.
1. Explain why learning of adjectives, use of verbs to describe actions; use of

the past tense and present progressive tense and the connecting words are
relevant to the task.
2. How is this a demonstration of integrating the learning of language skills?
Feedback
1. The learners will use these to write their factual account, describing in the two
tenses and using connecting words.
2. The LSC skills are applied and assessed with the learners’ writing skills.
1.6 USING ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING IN THE TEACHING OF LSC
First think about this question:
WHAT DO YOU WANT YOUR LEARNERS TO LEARN?
Your answer to this question will guide your teaching and assessment. Teachers
often talk a lot about what they are teaching; however, another important question is
what we want the learners to learn through our teaching. Therefore, we have to ask
what the learning intentions are. Learning intentions are descriptions of the intended
learning. It is very important to be clear about the learning intentions and to structure
your teaching to support that. Too often teachers are not clear about what the
learning intention is, with the result that the teaching and the assessment are not
aligned. For example, a section such as proper and common nouns is taught but the
learners’ spelling of these words is assessed.
However, learning involves a change in long-term memory so we cannot know

whether learning has taken place in a lesson. Therefore, assessment to check if
learning intentions have been achieved should be continuous and in different forms.
According to CAPS, assessment is a continuous, planned process of identifying,

gathering and interpreting information about the performance of learners, using
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various forms of assessment. It involves four steps: generating and collecting

evidence of achievement; evaluating this evidence; recording the findings and using
this information to understand and thereby support the learner’s development in
order to improve the process of learning and teaching.
Assessment should be both informal (assessment for learning) and formal

(assessment of learning). In both cases regular feedback should be provided to
learners to enhance their learning experience. Informal assessment takes place in
the classroom and formal assessments comprise tests and examinations.
Assessment in languages is ongoing and supports the growth and development of

learners. It is an integral part of teaching and learning as it provides feedback for
teaching and learning. It should be incorporated in teaching and learning instead of
being dealt with as a separate entity. Furthermore, integrated assessment of various
language aspects should be practised. For example, we could start off with a reading
piece and do a comprehension test and in the process point out the LSC you are
dealing with in the teaching phase.
Continuous assessment in the classroom is important for identifying the gaps in

learning. Therefore, it is important that the assessments are closely aligned with the
learning intentions. LSC may be assessed in the form of a communicative exercise
where the use of the past tense may be assessed. However, LSC may also be
assessed in a writing exercise where LSC is reflected in the rubric. For example, if
the learners are writing a narrative essay then the use of descriptive words and
connectors may be assessed.
1.7 USING TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND

CONVENTIONS
The use of technology in teaching should enhance learning; it should add in addition
to what you as a teacher offer in the classroom. There are obvious factors to
consider before technology is introduced. Some are:
1. Does the school infrastructure support technology? Is there access to data and
equipment?
2. Are the learners capable of using technology to enhance learning?
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3. Will the use of technology result in the exclusion of some learners?
Furthermore, there are applications available to learn English; however, the

applications and search engines should be suitable to the school’s context. For
example, you may ask the learners to look up the meaning and the pronunciation of
a word on Google. However, the spelling and pronunciation may be American or
British English, which may confuse some of the learners.
Therefore, a word of caution: using technology in teaching does not make you a
good teacher. While it is possible to use technology successfully, you have to ask
yourself what the use of technology will help you achieve.
1.8 CONCLUSION
The aim of this learning unit was to introduce you the LSC as presented in CAPS. It
is very important that you as the teacher has a clear understanding of what the
intended curriculum is so that you are able to interpret it and implement is in your
classroom in the form of effective lessons. LSC form the backbone of language
teaching. If we use the soccer analogy again, you must develop a metalanguage
with your learners in order to talk critically about language learning. There are
various approaches to language learning. Through the text-based approach and the
communicative approach LSC can be taught and integrated with the other language
skills. It takes time for learners to learn. Therefore, assessment at different times
should be designed to determine what was learnt. The purpose of assessment for
learning in the classroom is very important. Assessment is a way to determine where
the gaps are.

(Activity: Checklist)
Outcome Yes, I have No, I haven’t Comments OR

reached reached the section in the
the outcome and learning unit that
I can … outcome need to read I need to revisit
again
• explain what CAPS says about
teaching Language Structures
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and Conventions
• discuss the major approaches
to teaching Language
Structures and Conventions as
set out in CAPS
• explain how Language
Structures and Conventions
are integrated with the other
language skills
• demonstrate understanding of
assessment for learning and
how it is used
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LEARNING UNIT 2
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND

CONVENTIONS
CONTENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 TEXT-BASED APPROACH
2.3 COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
3.3.1 Linguistic (grammatical) competence
3.3.2 Sociolinguistic competence
3.3.3 Discourse competence
3.3.4 Strategic competence
2.4 THE PPP APPROACH TO TEACHING AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE
2.4.1 The presentation stage
2.4.2 The practice stage
2.4.3 The production phase
2.5 USING GAMES TO TEACH LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS
2.6 THE THREE CATEGORIES OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS
2.6.1 Spelling and punctuation
2.6.2 Working with words and sentences
2.6.3 Vocabulary
2.7 CONCLUSION
OUTCOMES FOR THIS LEARNING UNIT
At the end of this learning unit, you will be able to:

• explain the difference between the text-based approach and the
communicative approach
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• discuss the presentation, practice and production approach

• differentiate between spelling and punctuation
• discuss working with words and sentences, spelling and punctuation and
vocabulary learning
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In learning unit 2 you were introduced to CAPS, how to talk to your learners about
language learning and the learning structures and conventions. This learning unit
contains theories about the text-based and communicative approaches to teaching
language. I suggest that you read from a teaching point of view, remembering the
question of WHAT DO YOU WANT THEM TO LEARN?
2.2 TEXT-BASED APPROACH
CAPS prescribes that a text-based approach should be followed when teaching FAL.
This implies that learners must understand how texts work so that they themselves
can produce different kinds of text. The text-based approach, however, also implies
that texts should be used to provide the necessary context when teaching
Language Structures and Conventions. This is in line with the whole language
approach, which sees language as a whole entity that advocates that reading,
writing, speaking and listening should be integrated when learnt. When teaching
grammar, one needs to understand that words, phrases or sentences are not
linguistic islands. On the contrary, these linguistic elements only gain meaning when
they are placed in context and when used in conjunction with the whole. Once
learners experience the whole, they are better prepared to deal with the analysis of
the parts. Moghadam and Reza Adel (2011) concur and maintain that linguistic skills
and communicative abilities should be brought into close association with each other
and interwoven during instruction. These skills include knowledge of vocabulary,
spelling, pronunciation, syntax, meaning and usage.
It is important to initiate every lesson with an authentic piece of language. It

should be a written text that forms a whole and not merely a number of separate
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sentences taken out of context. This text may be a story, poem, review or an article
from a newspaper or magazine – as long as it forms a logical whole. It may even be
something to which the learners have to listen, such as a movie, a play, a taped
radio advertisement, or a videoed TV advertisement or conversation. The language
structure which is to be discussed should preferably be introduced in your lead-up so
that learners have some idea of what they will be dealing with (without it being
spelled out).
By starting the lesson with a complete text (e.g., a story, song, poem, fairy tale or
magazine or newspaper article), the teacher initiates the explanation of the language
structure by introducing the learners to it in the discourse. This is to their advantage
because it gives the learners a "feeling” of what is to come. In this way, the functional
meaning of the grammatical structures is highlighted even before the learners'
attention is drawn to them. Starting with the whole instead of the parts (words or
sentences)give learners the opportunity to use language in a functional and focused
manner in integrated discourse. Therefore, from the very start of the lesson, the
teacher and learners are using language authentically. Once the text or other
feedback is provided to the learners, the teacher explains the text with the aid of
pictures, the total physical response method (TPR) or role-playing to help them
understand the text. The learners are drawn into the text by questions and other
activities. At this stage the emphasis is on the meaning of the text.
Once the learners understand the text (whether it is a reading or listening piece),
their attention can be drawn to the various linguistic elements and language
structures in the text. Here the teacher may use a wide variety of methods such as
giving explanations, asking questions about language structures in the text and using
the total physical response method, the writing board and the data projector. Once
the specific language structure has been explained in enough detail, and the
learners have internalised it, they must be given the opportunity to practise using it in
a communicative situation. At this point the emphasis is on the transfer of meaning
and not on a demonstration of their knowledge of language rules.
Remember, if you fill the learners' heads with grammar rules, they will come to think
in terms of grammar rules. However, if you confront them with language use in real-
life situations, their thinking will be focused on using language in real life.
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Although the teaching of language structure and the teaching of conventions are
listed separately in the curriculum, it does not mean that they should be taught and
assessed separately in the classroom. They must be seen as guidelines for the
teacher on what the learners should be able to apply throughout the speaking,
writing and reading programmes.
Here I would like to reiterate that you should not be under the impression that
explaining language and spelling rules, purposeful vocabulary building and so forth
are completely taboo. I am merely trying to show you that they should not be taught
in such a formal manner as almost a "subject” on their own. For example, one should
not devote an entire lesson to nouns or a specific spelling rule. The old days of
walking into the classroom and announcing "Today we are going to learn about
verbs”, are over. Language teaching must be derived from reading (or even
listening). When you are reading a piece of writing or dealing with a report, an
advertisement, an article, a short story, a novel or any other document, and you
come across several good examples of punctuation for example, you should use the
opportunity to discuss them in context. By "context” I mean that you should deal with
the punctuation as it appears in the text. Do not try to cover all the punctuation marks
at once. If a specific punctuation mark does not come up, leave it until you find it
somewhere else, at which time you can then explain it to the learners.
Punctuation is not something you can cover in a single lesson – it needs to be

reinforced over and over again. Sawyer, Watson and Adams (1989) conducted an
experiment in which they taught one group of learners (Group A) drills and similar
exercises while another group (Group B) had to complete various writing tasks three
times a week in hour-long sessions. On the average, Group B could identify
8,66 types of punctuation, while Group A could only define 3,85 types of punctuation.
What was more, Group B, the writing group, was often able to cite what punctuation
sign had been used, even if they could not give the reasons why it had been used.
Revision must be done regularly. When, for example, you do a poem which contains
certain language structures that you have already covered, you could briefly revise
them by asking a few questions about the language structures – even if your main
focus is a poetry lesson.
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2.3 COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Remember that one does not only have to create the wish to communicate but also
the need to use various language structures. Shrum and Glisan (1994:91) have the
following to say in this regard: “However, we need to remember that grammatical
structures by themselves are rather useless. Like road signs, grammatical
structures take on meaning only if they are situated in a context and in connected
discourse.”. Furthermore, Krashen (1982) reminds us that grammatical structures
will become internalised only if the learners are placed in a situation in which they
need to use the structures for communicative purposes. Consequently, an
important role of the teacher is to create learning situations in which the students
feel a need to exploit the grammar in order to comprehend and communicate in the
target language.
Communicative competence is a term that was initially coined by the sociolinguist

Dell Hymes as an alternative for Chomsky’s “linguistic competence”. According to
Brandl (2008:278), communicative competence proposes that proficiency in a target
language entails more than knowledge of grammar and vocabulary (i.e., Chomsky’s
“linguistic competence”).
Communicative competence implies (Saville-Troike 1996:363):
Knowledge and expectations of who may or may not speak in certain settings,
when to remain silent, whom one may speak to, how one may talk to persons of
different status and roles, what nonverbal behaviours are appropriate in various
contexts, what the routines for turn-taking are in conversations, how to ask for and
give information, how to request, how to offer or decline assistance or
cooperation, how to give commands, how to enforce discipline, and the like – in
short, everything involving the use of language and other communicative
dimensions in particular social settings.
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Canale and Swain (1980) identified four areas of communicative competence,

namely, grammatical competence (also referred to as linguistic competence),
sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence.
Each of these concepts that teachers should apply in the classroom is explained
below.
2.3.1 Linguistic (grammatical) competence
In order to use the target language, learners must have knowledge of grammar and
vocabulary – in other words, they must know how to correctly apply grammar rules.
The teacher’s task is to do pre-communicative accuracy exercises and to provide
remedial feedback after communicative activities.
2.3.2 Sociolinguistic competence
An understanding of the social context in which communication takes place is

important as it assists with the appropriate use of language in different contexts.
Sociolinguistic competence thus refers to knowing what to say in what context and
what not to say, or how to speak in one context as opposed to another. What a first
language speaker would regard as rude or impolite, when to use formal language
and when informal language is acceptable, and what tone to use when speaking to
others are all examples of sociolinguistic competence.
2.3.3 Discourse competence
In formal as well as informal communication there are certain rules of cohesion and
coherence that apply. These rules help to hold the communication together in a
meaningful way. Discourse competence will, for example, assist learners to manage
turn taking.
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2.3.4 Strategic competence
The ability to manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals refers to a

learner’s strategic competence. It is the ability to convey meaning in a variety of
ways. If someone is, for example, unable to produce the exact word, he/she can
employ certain coping strategies such as rephrasing, literal translation or miming to
compensate. Teachers should actively teach strategic competence by encouraging
learners to use alternative ways of saying something. Strategies that learners can
use include compensatory strategies such as guessing based on the knowledge the
learner already has or on the context in which the communication is taking place;
social strategies such as asking for help; or metacognition.
It is important for learners to increasingly develop competency in all four areas as

they increase their proficiency skills. When dealing with learners at the beginning
stages of learning a second language, however, more attention should be given to
the development of linguistic competence (Brandl 2008:278).
When you think about the different language structures and conventions, remember
to also bear in mind the various teaching approaches.
Study the section The aliens have landed in the DBE Grade 6 English FAL Book 1,
page 45 (DBE, 2019c) and explain why you think it is an example of the
communicative approach.
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Feedback
The game on page 45 is a fun way to involve learners in the language in a natural
manner. The role play and description give learners the opportunity to apply linguistic
and strategic competence.
2.4 THE PPP APPROACH TO TEACHING AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE
The PPP approach is the acronym for presentation, practice and production. It is an
approach followed when presenting a new language, practising it and then applying
or using it in communicative situations. Cajkler and Addelman (2000:33) explain it
thus:
1. The presentation stage: getting the language in.
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2. The practice stage: keeping it there.
3. The communication stage: getting the language out.
A fourth stage, namely that of revision and recycling can be added. "Revision may
occur when an initial introduction fails to offer a guiding model to learners, while a
presentation may be a re-cycling of old language. Inadequate performance by pupils
at the communication stage suggests the need for revision” (Cajkler & Addelman
2000:33).
2.4.1 The presentation stage
The presentation stage is phase 1 of the PPP approach and comprises the
presentation of new language material or the recycling of “old” language. It also
involves the building of a situation (e.g. reading a story or being in a doctor’s
consulting rooms, or having to call for a dentist appointment) requiring natural or
logical use of the new language. When the “situation” is recognised and understood
by learners, they will start instinctively to build a conceptual understanding of the
meaning behind the new language. This could be in the form of pictures, flash cards,
body language, a dialogue or longer text. It is followed by an instance where the
teacher uses clear examples to enable the learners to observe correct usage. Lastly,
the teacher needs to confirm that the presentation is successful and that the learners
understand the new words.
2.4.2 The practice stage
This stage is also called drilling as it fully reinforces the new language. This is where
teachers are likely to insert worksheets or games. Once the new language material
has been presented to the learners, they must be given every opportunity possible to
practise what they have learnt. It is important that practice activities are appropriate
to the language being learnt as well as the level and competence of the learners.
The more opportunities they have to practise what they have learnt and to make it
their own (a habit), the more they will develop their self-confidence. During this
stage, the teacher gives them a lot of guidance and ensures that every learner gets
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the opportunity to practise the new language structure with his or her help and
guidance. The teacher should, however, be careful not to give too much help and to
correct mistakes too frequently because, in some cases, this may be
counterproductive (learners may become too scared to open their mouths in case
they make a mistake). Games are always a fun option when it comes to practice and
they are the preferred drills in FAL and SAL classes.
Cajkler and Addelman (2000:34) explain that the practice stage can be divided into
two parts, namely, controlled exercise and guided practice.
a. Controlled-practice activities seek a near-perfect rendering of the language

presented and the teacher monitors and corrects. Sufficient practice is
included to allow learners to get it right. Perhaps the simplest form of
controlled practice is repetition – learning by saying what a teacher or tape
has said, for example.
b. During guided practice, the teacher control or support is being relaxed as
activities begin to move towards the communicative end of the spectrum by
offering greater opportunities for learning by doing. The emphasis begins to
change from getting the form right to getting a message across.
At this stage, the teacher monitors the situation carefully and decides which stage to
introduce next, that is, revision/repetition or communication.
2.4.3 The production phase
The third and final phase of the PPP approach is production. During this phase the
learners engage in meaningful, interactive tasks, the success of which depends on
the need that has been created to communicate. Successful production is a clear
indication that the learners have made the transition from “learners” of the language
to “users” of the language. The emphasis is on the reception and transmission of
language, and on effective communication irrespective of sporadic language errors.
At this point, the teacher's input should be minimal and he or she should intervene
only if communication (oral or written) comes to a complete standstill. This is done to
ensure that learners overcome their fear of using the language.
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The principle of gradually giving less support applies to all the stages of the process.
Cajkler and Addelman (2000:33) point out that the stages create a framework to
work within but that they may often run together. Therefore, there is not always a
clear distinction between guided practice and communication.
Although the PPP approach has been criticised because the PPP model considers
language as a sum of smaller bits that can be taught separately, and because it
limits learners’ encounters with learning opportunities by presenting small chunks of
language to learners, the approach is very useful during the initial stages of
additional language learning. It is, however, important that the production phase of
this approach gets the necessary emphasis and that learners do get the opportunity
to use the knowledge which they have gained by practising the language to produce
new language.
Above and beyond the PPP approach as discussed above, Pachler and Field
(1997:147–160) suggest four stages, namely, the input stage during which a new
theme is introduced, the explanation stage during which the learners' attention is
focused on a new language structure, the habit-forming stage during which the new
language structure is practised, and the communicative application stage during
which the learners use the language in authentic communicative situations. The
names of the various stages speak for themselves, so there is no need to discuss
each of them in detail here.
I would, however, like to focus briefly on one interesting observation made by

Pachler and Field (1997:61–62). As can be seen from the lists below, they hold that
not all of the activities used in practising an additional language (in the habit-forming
phase) are equally valuable:
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Table 2.1: Practising activities in an additional language
Learner activities of low value Learner activities of mixed value Learner activities of high value
Choral/individual repetition Doing drill-like activities Listening to the target language
Reading aloud from textbook Pupil–pupil dialogue Replying to questions in the target
language
Reading out dialogues/role-plays Receiving grammatical Engaging in dramatic activities
explanations
Translating Increasing active/passive
vocabulary
Copying from board/book Reading silently
Word searches Relating language to social/cultural
context
Doing written work of an error-
avoiding nature
If learners feel as if the teacher is keeping them busy with meaningless activities that
they will not be able to apply in their real lives, they will not have any desire to
communicate. To create the desire to communicate in a learner, he or she must feel
the need to give or acquire information. One can establish this need artificially in the
classroom by creating an information gap. One person has information that another
person wants. For example, if one asks for someone else's opinion, and one does
not know what their answer is going to be, there is an information gap.
Mention in detail two of the activities in table 3.1 that your own language teachers
used.
Identify which of these activities you might have used in any teaching you have done.
Do you agree with their classification as low value, mixed value and high value? Are
there some activities you would classify differently and why?
Feedback
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Own answers.
If you have internet access, you can watch the first five minutes of the following video
clip for more background on PPP, ESA (engage, study and activate) and TBL (task-
based learning): Methodology PPP ESA TBL by Pierce Wang at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tdjnRNi-n6Q.
Feedback
You can also do your own internet search for examples of PPP lessons, both on
www.youtube.com and on the internet in general.
2.5 USING GAMES TO TEACH LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS
Games are effective ways to teach and practise language structures and
conventions. If the language structure that must be applied is how to ask questions,
the teacher can play the "alibi” game with the learners. Firstly, make sure all the
learners understand what an alibi means. Explain it to your learners and ask them to
give you examples of an alibi.
This game works as follows: The teacher sketches a scenario, such as the following:
“Yesterday two learners bunked the English lesson; however; they were found
during breaktime.”
The teacher then chooses two of the learners to play the role of the bunkers. (The
teacher may also choose to divide more learners into pairs.) The two learners must
then be given the chance to get together to come up with an alibi, while the rest of
the class draws up a list of questions to ask. The one learner then leaves the
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classroom while the class questions the other. The aim is to get information that
proves that the two learners' answers are inconsistent. The class takes down the
answers. The second learner then comes in and is also questioned. The learners
compare the answers and point out inconsistencies. The class then has to draw up a
report based on the information they have gathered and determine whether the two
learners bunked class.
By introducing an activity based on an authentic situation the learners are given the
opportunity to gather information, to use it and to apply a specific language structure
repeatedly, without getting bored and without turning the lesson into a drill session.
We might find that learners also generate their own form of language use.
There are thus many different approaches that one may follow in presenting
language structures and conventions. You will have to decide for yourself which one
you prefer, whether you are going to combine approaches or even whether you are
going to use one in some circumstances and another in others. Perhaps, for
example, use the PPP approach for learners’ very first acquaintance with an
additional language. Thereafter, as they become more familiar with the language,
gradually begin applying the whole language approach and other communicative
language teaching principles. You may test the different approaches in practice and
decide which work/s the best for you.
2.6 THE THREE CATEGORIES OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS IN CAPS
You have had the chance to engage with the teaching methods in the previous
section. Let us now look at the language structures and conventions in CAPS. Then,
in the subsequent units we will deal with each one separately.
The following picture is an example of how language structures and conventions are
presented in CAPS (CAPS Intermediate Phase grade 4–6, page 33):
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Figure 2.1: Language structures and conventions in CAPS
It should be noted that we do not always use the term “language structures and
conventions” as we generally talk about grammar. The difference in terminology is
not important here; however, we need to be clear about the terms we use with the
learners. Grammar will refer to working with words and sentences, while spelling,
punctuation and vocabulary are not part of grammar. This is important to understand
as you will use terminology to develop a metalanguage with your learners.
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2.6.1 Spelling and punctuation
The correct spelling of words is important as learners learn to identify sounds and
proper pronunciation. Similarly, the function of punctuation is important as it is vital to
the meaning of the sentence or phrase.
2.6.2 Working with words and sentences
Working with words and sentences will then include everything we would regard as
grammar. Grammar encompasses a lot; therefore, it is important to follow the
curriculum closely as the learning is cumulative.
2.6.3 Vocabulary
In the foundation phase, teachers teach their learners to:
KNOW YOUR SOUNDS, KNOW YOUR LETTERS, KNOW MANY, MANY WORDS.
In the intermediate phase you will build on the vocabulary the learners have acquired
in the foundation phase. If learners do not know the vocabulary in a section of the
curriculum they are learning, their learning will be fractured. The importance of
acquiring vocabulary and using it in the correct context cannot be overemphasised.
Learning vocabulary leads naturally to spelling, but as mentioned before, be very
clear as to what the learning intentions are. Do no teach vocabulary and assess it in
the form of a spelling test as these are two different outcomes.
Remember to ask yourself the question: WHAT DO I WANT THEM TO LEARN?
2.7 CONCLUSION
In this unit the focus moved to the teaching approaches used in the teaching of
language. You were reminded that language skills are not taught as separate
sections but are integrated with one another. The text-based and communicative
approaches introduced you to ways of teaching language and how they may be
applied. Sections 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 introduced you to theories and the
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language structures and conventions. These were your first steps to developing a
metalanguage about the teaching of English FAL.
In the next three units each of the language structures and conventions as they
appear in CAPS will be dealt with separately.

Outcome Yes, I have No, I have not Comments OR

reached reached the Section in the
I can explain
outcome need to read I need to revisit
again
• the text-based approach
• the communicative approach
• the PPP approach to teaching an

additional language
I know the difference between

spelling and punctuation,
working with words and
sentences, and vocabulary.
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LEARNING UNIT 3
STRATEGIES TO BUILD LEARNERS’ VOCABULARY

CONTENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 TEACHING VOCABULARY
3.2.1 Vocabulary should be taught actively
3.2.2 Vocabulary in context and vocabulary lists
3.2.3 Make the most of new words in texts to extend the learners’ vocabulary
3.2.4 Encourage learners to use dictionaries
3.2.5 Extend vocabulary by means of word building
3.3 A FEW STRATEGIES TO BUILD VOCABULARY
3.4 CONCLUSION

At the end of this learning unit, you will:
• know what the best strategies for teaching and learning vocabulary are
• describe the different strategies that are available for teaching vocabulary
• recognise the importance of vocabulary learning
• be able to evaluate the suitability of strategies such as games to your
school’s context
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In learning units 1 and 2 you learnt about language structures and conventions and
now you should have a clear understanding of what they are. In this unit we will
focus on vocabulary. While you are working through the unit, refer back to what you
have learned about the teaching approaches and metalanguage in the previous
learning units. I have chosen to start with vocabulary because, as I have mentioned
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before, if learners do not have words that they know, understand and can use, their
learning will be fractured. They will become frustrated in their efforts to learn and
this, more often than not, leads to negative behaviour issues. Vocabulary learning is
also critical to the development of a metalanguage with your learners. As you
introduce new concepts and terminology you will make sure that the learners build
the words into the vocabulary they will actively use in class. You will notice that
CAPS does not provide firm direction regarding vocabulary teaching in the annual
teaching plan. It will be up to you as the teacher to use the textbook and teaching
plan in deciding which vocabulary to teach.
3.2 TEACHING VOCABULARY

A paper by Sa’d, SHT & Rajabi, F. (2018) discusses what learners perceived as
effective ways to learn vocabulary.
The three pie charts (figures 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3) are a visual representation of the
most effective vocabulary learning and teaching strategies, and lastly the most
ineffective learning strategies. Study the charts and summarise what you have
learnt about the most effective vocabulary learning strategies.
In the pie charts FL is foreign language and L1 is first language.
Share on myUnisa or use as a self-reflection activity.
Feedback
The most effective vocabulary learning strategies are reading, repetition and
listening to the words and using the words. The most effective teaching strategies
are explanation of the words with examples, synonyms and antonyms as well as
repetition of words. The most ineffective vocabulary learning strategies are
superficial and hasty teaching of words and inadequate explanation of words.
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Figure 3.1: Most effective vocabulary learning strategies (Sa’d, SHT & Rajabi, F.
2018: 150)
Figure 3.2: Most effective vocabulary teaching strategies (Sa’d, SHT & Rajabi,
F. 2018: 154)
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Figure 3.3: Most ineffective vocabulary learning strategies (Sa’d, SHT & Rajabi,
F. 2018: 154)
Vocabulary growth is of the utmost importance in language learning. In addition to

language teaching, it is imperative that learners comprehend the new words and
concepts that are encountered in the various texts and that they are able to use the
new words meaningfully. It is your task as the teacher to immerse learners in words
so that they can expand their vocabulary and interact with and in the language they
are learning. You also have to provide support to help your learners understand new
vocabulary and concepts. Here are a few examples of the support you can use to
help your learners understand new words that they can use in their daily utterances.
• Use shorter sentences, speak in the present tense and do not use idiomatic
expressions.
• Ensure that learners understand when words are explained.
• Ask learners to complete sentences or definitions.
• Use pictures or visual aids to explain new words and concepts.
It is difficult for additional language learners to assimilate new words in their frame of
reference when the words have no relevance to their current understanding.
However, learning should be facilitated in a situation where vocabulary expansion is
aimed at lexical (word) and oral proficiency.
The strategies for vocabulary expansion are explicit vocabulary learning and
implicit vocabulary learning:
1. In explicit vocabulary learning, unfamiliar words in a text selected for reading

are explained and learners consolidate a new understanding. Explicit
vocabulary learning is intentional and mind-mapping, finding synonyms and
clarifying definitions are some of the means used to enhance it.
2. Implicit vocabulary learning means that learners acquire the meaning of a
word unintentionally and incidentally. Learners learn vocabulary by reading a
lot and form memory representations of words. Although implicit vocabulary
learning is important, one needs to keep in mind that some learners do not
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read outside of the classroom. Explicit teaching of vocabulary is therefore

important.
3.2.1 Vocabulary should be taught actively

Although teaching of vocabulary is not the only key to using language successfully, it
is essential to teach vocabulary actively. In the case of learners of an additional
language, vocabulary is especially important. Even if the learner has the recipe (the
language structure), without the ingredients (vocabulary) he or she will not be able to
“cook” anything! The teacher therefore needs to create a balance between language
structure and vocabulary.
It is easy to become bored with learning vocabulary. Think of interesting ways in

which to extend vocabulary. Learners enjoy crossword puzzles, quizzes and
competitions. The best thing to do is to integrate vocabulary with the rest of the
lesson and to teach new words as they come up in the work the learners are doing.
The Intermediate Phase English FAL DBE books encourage the learners to build
vocabulary by creating opportunities to write the words down. Below is an example
of how it is done:
On the question of the words that learners should be learning, keep the following
recommendations made by Kilfoil and Van der Walt (1997:187) in mind:
Relevant factors in learning new vocabulary are:
• how frequently the word occurs
• whether the word relates to a concept or a group of concepts the learners are
already familiar with
• how important it is for the learners to understand and use the word
• whether they have a real need to use a word in order to communicate or to

understand communication
Words that fall into these categories are most easily learnt.
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3.2.2 Vocabulary in context and vocabulary lists
Refrain from giving learners long lists of vocabulary to learn. Rather teach
vocabulary in context and let them build their own vocabulary lists.
Research has shown that learners must come across a new word several times
before it becomes part of their vocabulary to such an extent that they will use it
themselves. Therefore, one does not achieve much by introducing new words every
day – probably, one will rather overwhelm the learners by doing this.
In the real world, one does not learn new words from a long alphabetical list. One
learns new vocabulary by reading, talking to people or using new words in a specific
writing exercise. Long lists of vocabulary put learners off – such lists are artificial and
seem unrelated to real language usage. Words mean different things in different
contexts, and these meanings cannot be conveyed in vocabulary lists. New words
must be dealt with in context. If you are busy with a specific theme, you can give the
learners a list of words related to that theme and ask them to use at least five of
these words in a writing exercise on that theme. However, the message that the
learner is trying to convey in the writing task may be lost if it becomes more
important for him or her to use the five words than to put across the actual message.
In the Grades 4 to 6 English FAL Book there is space on most of the pages where
the learners may write down new words they have learnt (two examples are shown
below). Reflect on how you as the teacher will make use of this. What is your
expectation of your learners to use this for learning vocabulary?
Feedback
The teacher can decide whether he or she wants to be prescriptive and tell the
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learners which words to write down. Using what we have learnt about the most
effective strategies for vocabulary learning, the words will be relevant to the theme
they are working on and will be used in their learning going forward. Writing the
words down is a way to explain the words; to make sure they are used and referred
to – thus building vocabulary through repetition.
3.2.3 Make the most of new words in texts to extend the learners' vocabulary
We have already discussed "context”. The learner can understand the true meaning
of a word only if it is given in context. The most practical way to extend vocabulary is
therefore to use vocabulary in a specific text. One must, however, be careful not to
consider the vocabulary to be more important than the text as a whole.
One of the best times to extend vocabulary is when teaching reading. It is sometimes
advisable to teach the new words before the learners actually come across the
words in the text, but at other times words may be clarified when learners come
across them in a text.
3.2.4 Encourage learners to use dictionaries

The dictionary is a critical element of any language class. By training learners to use
the dictionary, you are developing their independence and establishing the habit of
looking up new words. If one uses the correct dictionary, learners will also get
information on when, where and how a particular word should be used. Refer to the
unit on teaching spelling and punctuation for more information about dictionary use.
3.2.5 Extend vocabulary by means of word building

Knowing how words are formed (e.g. compounds, the use of affixes, etc) and
exploring the relationships between words (e.g. synonyms and antonyms) can help
learners to work out the meaning of new words, providing that they know the
meaning of the root word (or part of the word). If, for example, learners know that the
prefix “mis” means wrong, the chances are good that they will be able to work out the
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meaning of words like misinform, misjudge or misinterpret from the context of the
text.
The same applies to the relationships between words. Some learners find it easier to
learn a word if they can associate it with another word (an antonym or a synonym).
In these instances, as you can see, the use of metalanguage with your learners
becomes critical. They must be in a position to understand your use of the
terminology and in turn participate in a meaningful discussion. Learning unit 6 deals
with metalanguage in more detail.
3.3 A FEW STRATEGIES TO BUILD VOCABULARY

It is important that we develop an interest in words among the children we teach, so
that they broaden their vocabularies and begin to understand the functions of words.
A wide vocabulary is invaluable when reading and can help us to deduce what an
unfamiliar word might mean as well as how it might be pronounced.
Many additional language learners have vocabulary challenges and it is incumbent

on you to use effective strategies to help them overcome these obstacles. Some of
the most effective strategies for additional language learners are the following:
Strategy 1: Label objects

As the teacher, you should first ensure that the objects in your class are labelled.
Strategy 2: Word walls

One of the favourite strategies for learners are word walls. Teachers should
ensure that word walls are current and visible in all classrooms. A relevant picture
next to each word can help explain the word. Word walls could be in the form of
posters or lists of words on paper on a wall. Learners should contribute to the word
walls by adding new words they have learnt.
Strategy 3: Popular cultural images

Learners can bring their own cultural images (such as contemporary art, pop
culture, etc) to school. When they do, they need to label their images in English
before being allowed to hang up their images in the classroom.
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Strategy 4: Weekly word charts

To encourage the systematic teaching of new words, a few new words are
introduced and worked with each day. Learners should complete the vocabulary
sheet of the weekly word chart to consolidate each word in relation to something
they enjoy.
Strategy 5: Context clues

Learners should be encouraged to identify various types of context clues and must
be taught how to use them effectively. The more learners recognise these context
clues and can understand the basic words being used, the more they can build on
their knowledge in order to scaffold to more difficult words.
Strategy 6: Improvising vocabulary

An effective strategy for teaching additional language learners is to make learning
fun by playing a simple word and motion game. Many learners like to make
physical movements, which if done in connection with saying a new word deepens
their understanding and remembering of that word significantly.
Strategy 7: Vocabulary games

More vocabulary building games to play in your classroom include Scrabble or
Hangman and other games that involve a great deal of speaking and
understanding, but that are also fun and colourful, as well as less intimidating.
Learners can play and replay these games, using an increasingly difficult set of
vocabulary words each time as they scaffold their learning. Bonus points are
awarded when learners can use a previous vocabulary word to help describe a
current vocabulary word.
Strategy 8: Vocabulary activities
When in doubt, do an activity! Try to develop your own fun and interactive activities
with whatever words each learner is learning.
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You will decide depending on your learners whether you want to have a classroom
vocabulary wall and/or whether the learners will have their own vocabulary walls in
their books.
If your school context allows it, your learners can create vocabulary walls on their
mobile devices, or use one of the many vocabulary builder applications available.
Remember that a vocabulary application ought to be managed and incorporated in
teaching and learning in the same way a word wall is. The outcome is important in
that you want your learners to acquire new words that they will use. The learners will
be inquisitive about the new words and how they can use them to communicate and
express their thoughts and ideas.
We saw in learning unit 2 and here that a strategy for learning is to play games with
the learners where learning strategies can be included. English is a global language
and there are many resources to draw from; however, it is important to ensure that
the games are appropriate for the grade and school context.
Study the following vocabulary games critically, because while the games are good,
they were not written for the South African context. Choose five games and use the
criteria on the form below to decide first if it is suitable and practical; which teaching
strategy is used, and how you might adapt the game to be more fitting to your
school’s context.
Feedback
In the current context of Covid-19, vocabulary games such as Touch, Pictionary

and Pass will have to be adapted to avoid or minimise touching of each other or
objects.
Hangman and Time bomb have violent names associated with the death penalty
and war; both are in contradiction of the South African Constitution. Hangman is not
regarded as a suitable game; however, the name Time bomb can be changed to
Stopwatch, Count down or simply Timer.
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Name of the game:
Criteria for a suitable game for your context Yes or No

It relates to the learners’ context
Learners understand concepts/words
It is sensitive to the culture and the community
It is not racist or sexist
It is not violent
All the learners will be able to participate
They are likely to play the game on their own
Which teaching strategy is used in the game?
How would you adapt the game if you think it is not suitable?
Apple game. Have all learners sit in a circle. Use a fake apple and toss it to one
learner. You must say one English word as you pass the apple. The learner then
throws the apple to another learner and says a different English word. If the learner
to whom you threw the apple drops it, he/she is out. The game continues until you
have one winner. It can be played with different categories, such as food or animals.
Backs to the board. Make two teams and ask one learner from each team
to stand in front of the board, facing away from it. Write a word or draw a picture (e.g.
a soccer ball) on the board and ask the learners to explain that word to their team
members. The first learner out of the two standing in front of the board to guess the
word correctly wins a point for his/her team.
Blindfold guess. Blindfold a learner and give him/her an object to feel.

The learner must guess what the object is just by feeling its shape. This works well
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with plastic food and plastic animals as they are a little challenging to guess (I
always throw in a toy plastic dinosaur to spice things up!). Make sure learners use
the structure "Is it a/an ...?".
Category spin. Ask learners to sit in a circle. Spin a bottle or an arrow – the
learner to whom the arrow points is first. The learner needs to say a word from a pre-
decided category. The next learner will say the last word plus his or her own word
and so on, until it gets to the one who fails. For example: S1: "zebra", S2: "zebra
cat", S3: "zebra cat dog".
Charades. Have a learner come to the front of the class and show a flash
card or whisper a word to that learner. The learner then acts out that word and the
first learner to guess correctly can be the next player. This works very well with
action verbs. Variation: divide the class into teams – the first learner to guess
correctly wins a point for his/her team.
Hangman. This game is very good for reviewing vocabulary from past
lessons. You can play this game either with all learners playing against each other
(for points) or as a team game. You can also have learners play in pairs – give the
class a category, such as food, and each pair plays hangman together, deciding on
the words themselves.
I spy. The teacher says "I spy with my little eye something that begins with
B". Learners try to guess the object (e.g. "book"). Colours are a good alternative for
younger learners ("... my little eye something that is red").
Label it. This works well with newcomers of all ages who need an
introduction to basic vocabulary. As long as the learners are able to identify
beginning letter sounds, they should be able to do this activity. To familiarise my
learners with names of objects found in the classroom, I label everything with an
index card that has the item's name on it. Then I have them repeat what I read as
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they point to the item. The next day, I remove the cards and go through them one at
a time, and we place them on the correct item together. On the third day, I let them
label whatever they can on their own. I continue this for a few days. When the
learners are able to independently label most of the items, I surprise them by having
them labelled incorrectly. Then they have to straighten out the mess. You can adapt
this to any noun-based vocabulary list (e.g. types of food, body parts, parts of a room
in a house, animals, etc).
Line true or false. Put a line of tape or a length of rope on the floor and
designate one side "True" and the other "False". Hold up an object or flashcard and
say its word. If learners think that you have said the correct word they jump onto the
True side; if not, they jump onto the False side. Incorrect learners sit out until the
next game.
Odd-one-out. Write three or four words on the board. Learners must

circle the odd one out (e.g. cat - horse - cake - bird). You can even encourage
learners to come up with their own odd-one-out words to write on the board – this
works well in teams. Make sure you give each team a couple of minutes to think up
their words before inviting them up to the board to write them down.
Pass. Let the learners sit with you in a circle. The teacher holds up an
object or flashcard and says its name (e.g. "Pen"). The teacher then passes it on to
the next learner, who also says its name and passes it on to the next learner.
Variations: change directions; speed rounds; have many objects going round at the
same time.
Pictionary. This is a good activity for reviewing vocabulary. Pick a learner

and show him or her a picture or whisper a word in his or her ear. The learner draws
the picture on the board and the first learner to guess correctly what the picture is
can come up to the board to draw the next picture. This can also be played in teams
with a point system.
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Time bomb. Announce a topic and give an egg timer to pass around the class
(set to 1 minute). Each learner has to say a word related to that topic (e.g. food:
apple, cake, hotdog, carrot, bread, etc) as the timer is passed before the time runs
out. When the timer goes off, the learner who is left holding it loses.
Touch. Have learners run around the classroom touching things

that the teacher orders them to do (e.g. "Touch the table", "Touch a chair" or "Touch
your bag"). Colours work well for this, as learners can touch anything of that colour
(e.g. "Touch something green").
Unscramble. Write a word on the board that has all its letters mixed up (e.g.
"lrocsmaos" = "classroom"). Learners have to unscramble the word and shout out
the answer to win a point. This works well in a team game. Variation: use letter
blocks / letter shapes instead of writing on the board – learners then rearrange the
letters/blocks to spell out the correct word.
Vanishing objects game. Place a number of objects in front of

the learners. Give them a few moments to memorise the objects and then tell them
to close their eyes. Take away one of the objects and then tell the learners to open
their eyes. The first learner to guess the missing object can win that object (for 1
point) and take away an object in the next round.
https://www.eslkidstuff.com/esl-kids-games/vocabulary-games.htm
Activity 3.4
Find three good online resources for teaching vocabulary and post them in the
relevant Discussion space on your e-tutor site. Also see which resources other
students have posted.
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3.4 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you have learnt how important it is to build your learners’
vocabulary in a considered and constructive way. As with so many things that we
learn, repetition is very important – and learners must have the opportunity to
practise the use of their vocabulary in a safe space where making mistakes are
tolerated and understood. Learners should have multiple opportunities to acquire
and use their words both in written and spoken language. In the next unit we will look
at spelling and punctuation as all these language structures and conventions work
together to make meaning in language.


reached the reached the Section in the
outcome outcome and learning unit
need to read that I need to
I am able to again revisit
• know what the best

strategies for vocabulary
teaching and learning are
• describe the different
strategies that are available
for teaching vocabulary
• recognise the importance of
vocabulary learning
• evaluate the suitability of
strategies such as games to
the school’s context
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LEARNING UNIT 4
TEACHING SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Effective ways to teach spelling
4.2.1 Ways of making spelling interesting
4.2.2 Look, close, write and check
4.2.3 Make the learning of spelling a game
4.2.4 Spelling and repetition
4.2.5 Spelling and reading
4.2.6 Assessment and spelling
4.2.7 Using dictionaries in teaching spelling
4.3 Why it is so difficult to teach English spelling
5.3.1 Capitalising on the peculiarities of English
4.4 Teaching punctuation
4.4.1 Teaching punctuation activity
4.4.2 Teaching the apostrophe
4.5 Conclusion
4.6 Checking for understanding
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• practise effective ways to teach spelling
• evaluate the efficacy of ways to teach spelling
• explain ways to assess spelling
• describe effective ways to teach punctuation
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous learning units, you have learnt about metalanguage, what the
language structures and conventions are and why vocabulary building is so
important. In this unit we turn to spelling and punctuation. Spelling in English is not
easy, not even for home language speakers. It is not phonetic and the sounds are
very different to our African languages. Teaching punctuation will require a good
shared language in the classroom as it requires technical explanations. As I
mentioned in the previous unit, it is important to create a safe atmosphere in the
English class so that the learners are not afraid of making mistakes and being
ridiculed or punished. Making mistakes (and learning how to correct them) is an
integral part of learning.
4.2 EFFECTIVE WAYS TO TEACH SPELLING
Answer the following questions and share your responses with your fellow
students in the discussion forum.
1. While you were still at school, were you required to write spelling tests
every week?
2. Do you think that today’s children cannot spell as well as we used to spell?
What do you think might be the reasons?
3. Is it necessary to place a lot of emphasis on learning to spell correctly if we

can make use of all kinds of spell checkers when working on word
processors (computers)?
4. Do you think it is a good idea to give learners lists of difficult words to learn
and then to let them write a spelling test on those words? Justify your
answer.
Spelling is important and in spite of the many spell checkers that are available,
learners should learn to spell correctly because it aids reading and helps cement the
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connection that is shared between sounds and letters. Learners who feel confident
with letters and word patterns are able to read and comprehend more complex texts.
In addition, learners need to know how to spell, to be able to choose the correct
alternative when using a spell checker (e.g., “compliment” and “complement” or
“principal” and “principle”). According to Waugh, D., Warner, C., & Waugh, R. (2019)
there is however, a more important reason why spelling words correctly with ease is
important. Learners who are confident that they can spell words correctly spend less
time and energy thinking about spelling and they can instead concentrate on their
writing skill and on using language structures and conventions accurately. If learners
are writing and they are constantly stopping to think about how words are spelled, or
they spend a lot of time looking terms up in a dictionary, they have far less cognitive
space to think about exactly what they want to say. Worrying about spelling can
cause a reluctance to take risks and may also lead to learners trying to avoid writing.
In writing learners learn to express their ideas but as teachers we often pounce on
misspelt words because they are so easy to identify and to mark wrong quickly. It is
also important to differentiate between careless spelling mistakes that should be
picked up during the editing process and serious mistakes indicating that the learner
does not know how to spell correctly.
Spelling is an integral part of the language programme and should not be taught in
isolation. It should be taught continuously and progressively. Spelling words must be
selected from material that learners know – for instance, from stories or poems.
Learners benefit and feel content when they spell correctly the words that they have
read and discussed. As such, they will use the words with confidence when they are
required to write on a specific topic. Spelling can be taught daily for three to five
minutes of the school day. You can use a picture or mime to illustrate the meaning of
the words. In order to help learners to remember the spelling of words, you can use
a chant or learners can come up with their own ways. Another strategy is to use a
coded alphabet to encourage learners to look closely at the spelling of words. You
can also use games to encourage your learners to spell.
As learners learn more about the language, spelling may gradually come naturally to
some of them. However, other learners need to consciously learn to spell correctly.
In the initial stage of the teaching of an additional language, too much emphasis on
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the correct spelling of words may discourage learners from using the language or
expressing themselves in it.
Spelling should be continuously evaluated in the learners' compositions and in

answers to literature studies. Learners’ spelling should also be continuously
evaluated in silent reading tests and integrated language learning. Short tests and
dictations should also be given regularly. Examples of spelling should not be
evaluated in isolation but in the context of the sentences in which they appear.
The following are general hints on teaching spelling:
• One should preferably work inductively. If one guides learners to discover the
underlying spelling rule or principle, they will remember it better than if they are
given a long list of examples of the spelling rule to memorise.
• When dealing with a particular spelling rule, learners should be encouraged to

give as many of their own examples as possible.
• As many of the senses as possible must be used to learn the correct spelling.
Spelling cannot be taught meaningfully without the learners being able to
remember the written image, the sound image and the meaning of the word.
• It is often confusing to spell out a word letter by letter. Allow your learners to
spell out the word syllable by syllable, for example in-te-rest-ing rather than i-n-t-
e-r-e-s-t-i-n-g.
• Repetition is crucial. You should continuously revise material already dealt with
and when a specific word comes up again, remind the learners of the relevant
spelling principle.
• Dictionaries and vocabulary lists should be available and the learners should use
them frequently. Learners should constantly check their own spelling when they
are in any doubt at all.
When teaching spelling in an additional language, you should bear the following in
mind (Jacobs 1992:72):
• Remember that a poor speller is not someone who spells difficult words
incorrectly, but someone who spells everyday words incorrectly.
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• Learners must be taught how to look at words in a special way. It is not enough
merely to listen to or read a word in order to learn to spell it; they should learn to
look at a word in order to uncover certain letter sequences.
4.2.1 Ways of making spelling interesting

When I was still teaching, I used to make spelling fun. When I talked to learners, I
sometimes used to say, “You need to do this immediately with two “m’s and one d”.
Children started to mimic me by asking, “Mam, must we immediately, with two m’s
and one d, do this work?”. It became fun when I (and the learners, too) used phrases
such as “I am disappointed with two p’s, in what you have done here.” or “I will be
grateful with an e and one l if you will now pay attention.”.
You can also let your learners play a lot of spelling games. Hands-on games are a
great way to move beyond repetitive drills and memorisation – activities which are
usually associated with the learning of spelling – so kids can have fun and learn to
spell at the same time. If learners are focused on achieving a goal, such as helping
their team win, they may be more motivated to engage with the material and are
more likely to learn a word’s spelling incidentally.
Scrabble is a good choice as learners need to assemble words to get the most
points. You can also do crosswords or play hangman. You may even ask learners to
collect words that they have seen on T-shirts or other clothes and see who can
collect the most words.
The CAT-CALL method
The CAT-CALL method is derived from the words copy, apply, tear, colour, another,
left, learnt (Wessels & Van den Berg 1998:105). This method is very useful when
learners find the spelling of a particular word very difficult.
C – Copy: Learners copy down the word from the textbook, dictionary or board.
A – Apply: They apply it in a sentence.
T – Tear: They break the word down into its syllables.
C – Colour: They write out the word using a pen or pencil of a different colour.
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A – Another: They write out the word in another way, for example in print, italics or in
capitals.
L – Left Right-handed learners write out the word with their left hand and vice
versa.
L – Learnt: Can I spell the word now? The learners test themselves.
For example, use the word: impatient
C impatient
A She is so impatient, she never waits for anything!
T im-pa-tient
C impatient
A impatient
L impatient
L impatient √
4.2.2 Look, close, write and check

Learners may also be taught the following way of learning spelling:
• Look: Learners take a good look at the words to try to remember how to spell
them.
• Close: They close up the words so that they cannot see them.
• Write: They write out the words and read them out softly to themselves.
• Check/revise: The learners check what they have written. If they have misspelt
any of the words, they should not simply write them out correctly but should go
through the whole process again.
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4.2.3 Turn the learning of spelling into a game

The teacher writes out on the chalkboard ten difficult words related to the theme they
are working on, and gives the learners about a minute to look at the words and
particularly the way they are spelt.
Choose words that are related to a specific theme and that your learners are familiar
with, or will be coming across soon. Explain to the learners that you are going to
erase one of the words and that they will have to write down that word themselves.
Then you proceed to erase words at random and the learners write down the words
as they are rubbed out. This continues until every last word has been erased. The
learners then work in groups of three or so to compare their spelling. They help each
other and make corrections as they think necessary. They then look up the words in
a dictionary and mark each other’s work.
4.2.4 Spelling and repetition

Spelling is information that we store in the brain as procedural knowledge. This
means it becomes automatic only after a person has built up extensive contact
through repeated exposure to a word in reading and writing. It is thus important that
learners come across certain words repeatedly, because that would help with
“automation” – in other words, they spell the word correctly without even thinking
about the spelling. That is because the more you hear, see and use a word, the
more active it becomes in memory. Once we know how to spell a word, it is mostly
something we do automatically. And if we know the meaning, we will use the word
without thinking.
4.2.5 Spelling and reading

There is a close relationship between spelling and reading as spelling tends to
enhance learners’ reading proficiency. The more learners read, the more their
spelling will improve. Spelling also contributes to children’s ability to pronounce
words correctly and to decode unknown words.
Once your learners have read a piece of writing, you may ask them to go back and
circle the words that they think are difficult to spell. Then you discuss these words
with them and try to establish why your learners think the particular words are
difficult to spell. You can then let them practise the spelling of these words by
employing any of the methods discussed above.
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4.2.6 Assessment and spelling

Learners who are not proficient in their home language tend to have spelling
challenges in writing in their additional language. Find out from the other teachers if
this is indeed the case and keep this in mind when assessing such learners' work.
These learners should be given extra spelling instruction.
While you are correcting your learners’ work, make a list of the words they spell
wrongly. After a month or so, see whether you can group these words together. Are
there certain sounds that they spell incorrectly? Are there words that they confuse
(e.g., desert, dessert)? Pay specific attention to the problem areas that you have
identified from their work.
Ask yourself the following question: Are my learners aware of their spelling
problems? If they are writing about something, you may, for example, ask them to
underline those words which they are not sure how to spell. You can then ask them
to use a dictionary to check the spelling of the words they have underlined. This
activity should tell you a lot about the learners' spelling ability and need for guidance.
Learners who underline a lot of words are clearly unsure about spelling and require
extra exercises and help.
4.2.7 Using dictionaries in teaching spelling
CAPS expects the use of dictionaries. If your school cannot provide dictionaries or
the dictionaries are inadequate you may have to be creative. Perhaps you can
reproduce certain sections of a dictionary to use as examples to teach learners how
to use the dictionary – thus, not only to look up words but also what the descriptions
of the words mean. Learners will then be able to use digital dictionaries as well.
When learners are having a difficult time in spelling certain words, you should not
interrupt by writing the correct word or teaching them spelling rules. Encourage
learners to look up difficult words in the dictionary. In this way they will learn to solve
spelling problems on their own and the writing process will be interrupted as little as
possible. The ability to use a dictionary is a very important skill they are required to
master as it also helps them to spell correctly. Therefore, allow your learners to use
the dictionary in their language activities. In the following section, I shall give you a
few ideas on how to use the dictionary.
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A good dictionary has a wealth of useful information and contains far more than
merely spelling and the meaning of words. Being able to use a dictionary properly is
one of the most useful skills you can help your learners acquire. Improving
vocabulary, building other parts of speech from a given word, checking spelling,
pronunciation, looking up the correct idiom – all these functions are made possible
by a good dictionary. Some even have information relating to weights and measures,
capitals and major cities of the world, gemstones, the history of countries and
grammar guidelines.
Answer the following questions and share your answers with your fellow students on
the discussion forum.
1. What type of dictionary do you have?
2. Why should you teach your learners to use a dictionary?
3. What are the main uses of a dictionary?
4. How does one decide on the suitability of a dictionary?
Feedback
1. Own answer
2. To look up the meanings of words and expand on their vocabulary
3. To look up the meaning and correct spelling of words
4. You have to consider who will use it – for instance, an intermediate phase
learner will not need the same dictionary as a high school learner.
When you empower your learners to use a dictionary quickly and effectively, you
enable them to become independent readers and users of language. A tricky matter
arises when dealing with a first additional language: should one invest in a
monolingual or a bilingual dictionary?
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Take a look around in the bookshops or contact a representative of a publisher for

advice on what is available for second language learners. There are several very
good learner dictionaries around, some specifically designed for the younger age
group.
A learner dictionary is a monolingual dictionary which is simple but detailed enough

for a second language speaker. If at all affordable, buy a bilingual pocket dictionary
just for quick reference purposes – usually to establish correct spelling or translate
words from the first language.
As the learners’ academic career progresses, one would hope that their range of
resource material extends to include both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries and
even a thesaurus. (A thesaurus is a book that gives you lists of synonyms or related
meanings for a word. It does not provide definitions and explanations but is useful
when looking for another word or one to fit the exact register or context of your
communication.)
The advantages of owning a small, inexpensive dictionary must be emphasised.

There are several school dictionaries on the market, some tailor-made for each
phase. Many are attractively illustrated while others seem big and more “academic”.
So, how does one go about choosing a suitable dictionary?
The following pointers are taken from Barbara Hollingworth’s Teach English well
(1984:174):
• Are the cover and the dictionary pages reasonably durable?
• Will the book fit the average pocket or school bag?
• Is the print large enough?
• Are the word definitions suitable? They must not be too complicated nor over
simplified. Are the definitions comprehensive?
• Will the phonetic system of pronunciation used be understood? The International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) or a modified form is the most common system although
not necessarily the most suitable.
• Are stress marks given?
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• Is there a reasonable number of small illustrations?
• Is the relevant part of speech shown after the headword?
• Are the principal parts shown after irregular verbs?
• Are there any other features that make one dictionary more useful than another?
For instance, some dictionaries include useful lists of common abbreviations,

irregular verbs and idiomatic expressions. Others distinguish between British and
American spelling.
1. Summarise section 5.2.7, “Using dictionaries in teaching spelling” in half a

page.
2. Watch the following online videos and answer the questions that follow:
• "5th Grade Visualisation Spelling Lesson" by Steven Haas at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NxQ-4Jxk4To
• "Spelling list 4" by LogicofEnglish at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8TnQJo38x4Q
(You only need to watch five minutes.)
2.1 Would you be able to adapt any of these techniques for your own
purposes? What would the challenges be?
2.2 Find some more internet resources on teaching spelling and post them in
the relevant discussion space of your e-tutor site.
Feedback
Own answers depending on your unique context.
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4.3 WHY IT IS SO DIFFICULT TO TEACH ENGLISH SPELLING
Spelling is one of those skills that a lot of people find challenging to master. This is
particularly true if English is not your first language. One of the main reasons spelling
is so hard to learn is that English is a highly irregular language. It has borrowed
words from many other tongues and anglicised their spelling in an inconsistent way.
In addition, there are almost twice as many sounds as letters! An f is used in “fire-
truck”, but ph is used in “phone”! The initial sound in kick is k, but the same sound is
spelled with a ck at the end of the word. Similarly, the same letters can represent
different sounds. The pronunciation of c in “face” is soft, but the c in “car” is hard.
This means that learners would find it difficult to write a word if they have never seen
its written form before.
Spelling rules such as “i before e except after c” do exist in English, as in the words
“receive” and “receipt”. But there are also plenty of exceptions to these rules, such
as in “species” and “science”. Moreover, knowing a rule does not always mean you
can operationalise it in an automatic fashion when you need to write words quickly
and accurately, for example during interviews, sales meetings or timed assessments.
A funny poem such as the one provided at
http://spellingsociety.org/uploaded_misc/poems-online-misc-1419940069.pdf
can be used when teaching spelling to help learners to understand that they need to
be able to spell correctly, because a spell checker on their “pea sea”, will not help
them with spelling. You can give them the poem and then ask them to rewrite it by
using the correct spelling of words. If you go to the website indicated above you will
notice that Margo Roark improvised on an initial poem with this title that was written
by Jerrold H Zar.
I have copied only the first four lines from the poem here. You can read the rest of
the poem, “Candidate for a pullet surprise” on the internet page provided.
“Eye halve a spelling checker
It came with my pea sea
It plainly marques for my revue
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Miss steaks eye kin knot sea.”
… Margo Roark
You can find the complete poem and other similar texts on the following website:
http://spellingsociety.org/uploaded_misc/poems-online-misc-1419940069.pdf
4.3.1 Capitalising on the peculiarities of English
One often comes across newspapers or WhatsApp messages where peculiarities

about the English language are highlighted. It is fun to discuss these things with
learners in the classroom. The following are a few of these which I have gathered
over the years. I suggest that you start gathering your own list and include them in
your teacher’s resource file.
An oxymoron is usually defined as a phrase in which two words of contradictory

meaning are brought together:
1. Clearly misunderstood
2. Act naturally
3. Exact estimate
4. Small crowd
5. Pretty ugly
6. Only choice
7. Found missing
8. Seriously funny
9. Original copies
When you are bored, just think about the things in English that do not make sense:
1. If poison expires, is it more poisonous or is it no longer poisonous?
2. Which letter is silent in the word “scent”? The s or the c?
3. Why is the letter w in English called double u? Shouldn’t it be called double v?
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4. The word “swims” upside down, is still “swims”.
5. 100 years ago everyone owned a horse and only the rich had cars. Today
everyone has cars and only the rich own horses.
6. If you replace “W” with “T” in “What, Where and When”, you get the answer to
each one of them.
7. Wonder why the word “funeral” starts with FUN?
8. Why isn’t a fireman called a “water-man”?
9. If money does not grow on trees, how come banks have branches?
10. If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a humanitarian eat?
11. Why are goods sent by ship called “cargo” and those sent by truck called
“shipment”?
12. Why do we put cups in the dishwasher and dishes in the cupboard?
13. How come noses run and feet smell?
14. What are you vacating when you go on vacation?
15. Why is it called “rush hour” when traffic moves at its slowest then?
The above are only two examples of ways you can make the teaching of Language
Structures and Conventions interesting.
Find similar phrases or specific characteristics of English that can be used to make
the teaching of English Language Structures and Conventions fun and place them in
your teacher’s resource file.
There are several applications available for the teaching of spelling. It is important to
choose an application that is appropriate to the age group you are teaching. Choose
the applications carefully, making sure that it is applicable to the South African
context. It may be useful to choose applications that are available offline to avoid the
issue of access to data.
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4.4 TEACHING PUNCTUATION

The teaching of punctuation relies heavily on the learners’ ability firstly to understand
what the punctuation marks are that they are learning, and secondly their ability to
understand the function of punctuation and how it contributes to the meaning of
sentences (Waugh, Warner & Waugh, 2019).
Why is punctuation important? Choosing punctuation well is about communicating

meaning precisely. When we speak, we can rely on hand gestures, tone of voice and
body language to make ourselves understood. There is often a shared context,
however, where everyday speech is fragmented and rarely in complete sentences,
and if the meaning is unclear, it can immediately be clarified.
What we know about how young children learn punctuation is that it initially does not
carry a lot of meaning for them. Learners in the foundation phase may sometimes
capitalise every sentence but put a full stop at the end of every line. This mirrors the
texts that they read; short sentences and just one line, to a page. The basic
relationship between punctuation and the structure of written language is not yet
clear to them (Waugh, Warner & Waugh, 2019: 95)
You will teach your intermediate phase learners that they will use punctuation marks
to show the grammatical organisation of what they write. You hide the punctuation
and the grammatical structure – and if you hide the grammatical structure, you hide
the meaning of what you are trying to say (Waugh, Warner & Waugh, 2019:93).
4.4.1 Teaching punctuation activity

It is best to teach punctuation in texts. Use texts where the learners either identify
the punctuation marks and their function, or punctuate texts. The example below
shows how a text is used to teach punctuation.
Step 1: Introduction
Tell students that they are going to read a few paragraphs. Their task is to add
punctuation and capitalisation.
Quickly review the common types of punctuation, like the full stop, comma, period,
exclamation mark, question mark, and quotation marks.
Step 2: Show text
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Display the text and give the students 3–5 minutes to read it. Pair work is a good
idea. Point out that there are no grammatical errors in the text.
Step 3: Review answers
Read through the text, sentence by sentence, and ask students to shout out the
correct punctuation where required. Show the text solutions.
Text: What are fossil fuels
more than a hundred years ago a Swedish scientist called svante arrhenius warned
people that the earth would get warmer and warmer if they kept on burning coal and
oil very few people believed him today we know that what he said was true why is
burning coal and oil bad for planet earth
4.4.2 Teaching the apostrophe
The apostrophe is a difficult concept to teach and learners are often exposed to
examples of incorrect use in the media and advertising. Teaching the rules are as
important as with all the other principles of punctuation, as is repetition, pointing out
examples in texts and encouraging the learners to use it in their writing. Similar to
teaching other forms of punctuation, it is important to use various teaching methods.
The apostrophe shows belonging and contraction. It is advisable to ensure that the
learners grasp the use of the apostrophe to show belonging first, both in singular and
plural form. Consolidate their learning using many examples and helping them to use
it appropriately in their writing. Once you have established that their learning was
successful you can introduce the apostrophe to show contraction.
The use of the apostrophe
When used to show possession, there is a difference between the singular and plural
forms:
Singular: The girl’s pencil.
Plural: The girls’ pencils.
The apostrophe to indicate contraction:
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We did not close the door. We didn’t close the door.
The goal keeper could not stop the ball. The goal keeper couldn’t stop the ball.

Choose a grade in the intermediate phase. Think of an activity to expose learners to
the use of the apostrophe.
How would you explain the apostrophe indicating contraction?
Develop three sentences for the learners to practise the use of the apostrophe.
4.5 CONCLUSION
The cartoon is a reminder that whatever we do in the classroom must be relevant to

the learners’ contexts and current to their learning. Spelling and punctuation are not
easy to teach and the onus rests on the teacher to engage learners successfully.
Learners learn to be comfortable with spoken sounds and words – and this helps
them to engage with words in the written form. The spelling of words become
important as English is not a phonetic language. Learners need to become
comfortable with the spelling of words to assist them in using and writing words
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easily. Similarly, the use of punctuation helps learners to make meaning of words
and sentences. It is very important that learners understand and integrate these
aspects of language learning as tools of expression and not tests to pass. Some
learners are natural linguists and some are not; however, all the learners have the
need to express themselves in language. In the next unit our focus will shift to using
words and sentences meaningfully.


reached reached the Section in the
outcome need to read I need to revisit
I am able to again
• practise effective ways to teach

spelling
• evaluate the efficacy of ways to
teach spelling
• explain ways to assess spelling
• describe effective ways to teach

punctuation
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LEARNING UNIT 5
WORKING WITH WORDS AND SENTENCES (GRAMMAR)

CONTENTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR IN AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE
5.2.1 Grammatical forms
5.2.2 Grammatical markers in additional language learning
5.3 APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR
5.3.1 The deductive approach
5.3.2 The inductive approach
5.3.3 The functional-notional approach
5.3.4 Grammar in a situational context
5.4 STRUCTURING GRAMMAR LESSONS
5.4.1 Models for teaching grammar
5.4.1.1 A model for teaching grammar effectively
5.4.1.2 Presentation, practice, production
5.4.1.3 Noticing, structuring and proceduralising
5.4.1.4 Modelling
5.5 ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR
5.5.1 Teaching grammar through stories
5.5.2 Teaching grammar through songs, poems and rhymes
5.5.3 Teaching grammar through games
5.6 RESOURCES TO USE IN GRAMMAR TEACHING
5.7 CONCLUSION

At the end of this learning unit, you will be able to
• recognise grammatical forms and markers
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• know how to use a variety of approaches to teaching grammar

• learn different ways to structure grammar lessons
• understand different models for teaching grammar lessons
• use different activities in grammar teaching
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Young learners are able to absorb new information; however, they do not always
understand abstract concepts such as grammar easily. If you teach grammar
explicitly it will require learners to think about it in an abstract way; you can mitigate
this by including activities such as games and songs where learners use the
language in a real situation. You will learn about ways to teach grammar and as a
teacher you will find teaching methods that you are comfortable with. You will also
get to know your learners and what works best for them. You may find that a
combination of strategies to teach grammar works best.
5.2 APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR IN AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE

According to CAPS, the First Additional Language learners in the intermediate phase
will take more notice of words and grammatical structures they are already familiar
with from the foundation phase, explore the way their additional language works and
take conscious control of it, and use this developing knowledge to check their use of
language, especially when writing.
CAPS indicates the language structures that the IP learners should learn; however,
many teachers are not sure how to teach them effectively. There is no single best
way of teaching language structures and so teachers need to consider varied
methods and various approaches to teaching these structures. Choose an approach
that will be suitable for the particular language structure to be taught and learnt.
Additional language learners should be guided to develop correct language usage

and the focus should be on competent and meaningful use of the inflections and
forms (language) that they are encountering. It is imperative to note that abstract
description of language structures should be avoided. It is your responsibility as the
teacher to ensure that you engage your learners with the practice and application of
language structures. Therefore, it is your duty to create learning experiences that will
engage learners in practising language structures and ensure active participation in
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the lesson. This ensures that learners do not engage in memorising the language
structures and the rules but become aware of those rules by using the actual
language in real social situations. The communicative approach is the relevant
approach in teaching the language structures as it places emphasis on social
communication skills. It should be noted that teaching language structures in
isolation should be avoided as it can result in boredom and may ruin learners’
motivation to learn a language. This implies that you, the teacher, must engage the
learners with appropriate language exercises so that they can eventually master
language structures. Always remember that your learners will acquire a good
command of language through frequent reading, speaking and writing.
5.2.1 Grammatical forms

In the IP, the language of teaching and learning for many learners is the language
that is not spoken at home. Consequently, learners struggle to think and
communicate in English or any additional language. McKay (2014) identifies the
following grammatical areas that are challenging to learners:
• the use of prepositions
• degrees of comparison
• the use of punctuation
• figures of speech
• direct and indirect speech
• the use of the past tense
• sentence construction
• the use of personal pronouns
In your teaching activities, you must devote special attention to these problematic
areas, as pointed out by McKay, so that learners may be exposed to the correct
grammatical forms. Note that grammar rules should not be drilled. In order for your
learners to understand and express themselves in the target language, you are
bound to assist them by enhancing their listening, speaking and language usage
skills. The overall purpose includes modelling language proficiency, supporting your
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learners and exposing them to a relevant, correct and joyful engagement with the
additional language.

Consider the eight grammatical structures McKay identified as problematic for
second language speakers.
1. Why do you think these structures would pose a problem to learners who
are learning English as a second or perhaps a third language?
2. Choose one as a specific example to explain your answer.
Feedback
1. The grammatical structures are very different from the structure of their
home language or other languages that they may speak.
2. The sentence construction will be problematic if the sentence structure of
their home language is not also subject – verb – object. Some languages do
not use personal pronouns in the same way as English, which makes the
learning of personal pronouns difficult.
5.2.2 Grammatical markers in additional language learning

Grammatical markers are letters used for the inflection of verbs to indicate tense;
forming adverbs and the affixes to change the form and meaning of words.
VanPatten (2004a) mentions that additional language learners often miss the
importance of grammatical markers in input and give priority to meaning rather than
form. This is because learners concentrate on the content words to access meaning
and totally ignore the grammatical markers. It is thus important to expose learners to
a variation of grade-appropriate texts. Furthermore, introduce grammatical markers
when the learners are comfortable with the meaning and the ways the marker may
be used. For instance, registers such as formal or informal language show
grammatical differences. They are different in the use of grammatical structures:
That is the player I was telling you about.
That is the player about whom I was telling you.
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Discourse markers may be more accessible for the intermediate phase learner and a
good place to start when introducing texts. Examples of discourse markers include
the particles oh, well, now, then, you know, and I mean.
Discourse markers also comprise connectives such as: so, because, and, but, or.
5.3 APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR

We have already mentioned that there is not one specific approach that must be
used to teach Language Structures and Conventions. We live in a post-method era.
That means that you may use whatever methods work for your context and learners
and what you want them to learn. Some of the approaches that can be used in
isolation or in combination are the following (Hugo 2016:108–109):
5.3.1 The deductive approach (rule-driven learning)
▪ Learners learn the grammar rule and use the rule.
▪ The teacher shows examples to illustrate the rule.
▪ The learners practise what they have learnt.
The deductive approach is explicit teaching of grammar, also known as a top-down

approach and is commonly used. The teacher will explain the rule and show the
learners examples of where the rule is applied. You can, for example, explain to
learners the rule of “Nouns that end in s, ch, or x get es in the plural”. Once you have
explained the rule, you can show them some examples to illustrate this rule, for
instance:
gas – gases; class – classes; glass – glasses; bus – buses
coach – coaches; arch – arches; beach – beaches; bench – benches
dash – dashes; dish – dishes; fish – fishes; brush – brushes; flash – flashes
box – boxes; tax – taxes; suffix – suffixes; fox – foxes
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Look at the example of a deductive grammar exercise about subject and object
pronouns.
Identify the three steps of a deductive lesson and share your answer on myUnisa.
Feedback
1. The subject and object pronouns are introduced.
2. The rule is explained and examples are given.
3. The learners practise the rule.
Example of a deductive grammar exercise: Subject and object pronouns

Subject pronouns
I you he she it we you they
The subject is the person or thing doing the action.
I left early.
We went home.
We said goodbye.
Object pronouns
me you him her it us you them
The object is the person or the thing receiving the action.
She phoned me.
I fed him.
We saw her.
Write the correct pronouns for these sentences:
1. …..phoned yesterday.
2. We watched ….for hours.
3. Hasn’t …arrived yet?
4. ….don’t understand.
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5. Are you talking to … ?

6. Don’t ask ….., …..don’t know.
7. Nobody told … the bus was leaning.
8. Don’t ask …. Ask … .
5.3.2 The inductive approach (rule-discovery learning)
▪ By using the grammar rule the learners learn the rule.
▪ The teacher shows the learners examples of how the rule is
used and the learners discover the rule.
This is the opposite of the deductive approach and an implicit teaching of grammar.
The learners get many examples and then they need to figure out the rule for
themselves. In this way learners are able to acquire language naturally and
grammatical development follows its own natural progression. The inductive
approach works well where learners are exposed to language that is suitable to their
contexts and interests, thus accessible to them because they will eventually be able
to induce how the structures of the language work.
If you, for example, want to teach them when to use -ible and when to use -able, you
can give them the following examples:
read – readable; comfort – comfortable; fashion – fashionable; transfer – transferable
possible; terrible; horrible; feasible; tangible
Learners then need to use the examples to formulate the following rule: the suffix
-able is used when the root word is a complete word, such as read, comfort and
fashion; and the suffix -ible is used when you add it to a root word that cannot stand
on its own.
The inductive approach can be illustrated in five steps:
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1. Learners analyse examples of correct language.
He walks to school every day.
We learn English from before break.
My mother works in an office.
2. Learners create rules based on their observations.
There is an s at the end of certain subjects; what are they?
He__ We__ My mother___
3. Learners test their rules against additional examples.
She learns/learn to speak English.
They plays/play a game.
My sister reads/read a book.
4. Learners modify and add to rules as necessary.
Here, help the learners formulate the rules and show them more examples.
5. Learners apply rules to their own writing and speaking examples.
Learners complete sentences or write a short paragraph, applying the rule.
It is possible to combine the deductive and inductive approaches. You may explain
the rule to the learners by pointing out the pattern, then follow it up with an exercise
where the deductive approach is used to confirm the pattern and the rule. There are
various approaches to teaching grammar, as mentioned in the introduction to this
learning unit. Your choice of approach will depend on various factors such as the
learners’ age group, their exposure to English and how they learn.

Look at the lesson described here and decide if it is an example of a deductive or
an inductive lesson. Also explain why you think so.
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1. A newspaper article with examples of the passive voice is given to learners.

2. Learners answer questions on the article.
3. Examples of passive verbs are identified; learners find others and work out how passive
sentence constructions are formed.
4. Learners answer further questions, with the focus on the passive voice and about the
article.
5. Learners look at examples of sentences written in the passive voice and answer
questions focusing on the absence of an agent in many passive sentences.
6. A definition is then developed by the learners to explain the passive; the teacher clarifies
the misunderstandings.
7. Further examples are provided to test understanding: an exercise in completing the
missing words; write the correct tense or passages with examples of how the passive
voice is used.
Feedback
It is an inductive lesson as the learners discover the rule for themselves by looking
at examples. The learners formulate the rule and practise it.
5.3.3 The functional-notional approach
This approach places more emphasis on the communicative purpose of speech.

Being able to communicate requires communicative competence, in other words,
“knowing how to say what to whom” (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson 2015:115). Being
able to communicate in a target language requires more than the mastering of the
linguistic structures or vocabulary of a language. Language is constructed around
language functions and notions. This implies that language users have to acquire the
linguistic means to use certain functions and notions.
Functions refer to what you want to do with the language – such as inviting, asking
for directions, congratulating, apologising, promising, greeting, suggesting,
requesting and so on.
Notions refer to situations in which you communicate. Notions may include

concepts, meanings or ideas, and may be expressed by means of nouns, verbs,
pronouns, conjunctions and so forth; and refer to location and quantity. These can be
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quite specific, such as “cat” or “street”, or they can be general to indicate time, size,
emotion or movement. Phrases such as “last year”, “before” or “after” and “when” are
examples of notions.
When designing a lesson, you can choose a real-life situation as your “notion” (e.g.
agreeing or disagreeing with someone – something that often happens in real life)
and then teach learners the corresponding functions so that they are able to
communicate in a situation where they need to agree or disagree with someone. You
can then teach them phrases such as, “Yes, I agree, that is 100% correct. That is
fine with me. That is a good idea.” to agree. You can also teach the learners that
they can use phrases such as, “That may not be a good idea. I don’t quite agree. No,
I disagree. That’s not right. That won’t do”, when they want to disagree.
A real-life situation (such as buying something in a shop) may be chosen to teach a

number of functions. Learners can for example be taught that when a customer
wants to get the attention (function) of the shopkeeper in a shop (notion), he or she
can use a phrase such as “Excuse me…” or if they want to ask the price (function) of
a single item, they can ask “How much is this?” but when they want the price of more
than one item, they need to say “How much are these?”. When being polite to the
shopkeeper, they need to say, “I will take these, thank you.” In case they want to
negotiate, they can say, “It seems a little expensive.” or “That sounds a bit high.” or
“Could you please give me a discount?”. If the customer is not buying, he or she can
say, “I will think about it.” For more information on this approach visit
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Notional-functional_approach.
Function also involves certain expressions such as “I quite agree.”, “That’s right.”,
“Indeed.”, “I believe so.” or “Of course.” to express agreement. When expressing
surprise (function), expressions such as the following can be used: “What a
surprise.”, “How surprising.”, “Fancy that.” or “I am surprised.”. More examples of
function (e.g. to express gratitude or a lack of surprise or offering an apology, or
accepting an apology) can be found at the following website:
https://qualifications.pearson.com/content/dam/pdf/pearson-test-of-english/pte-
general-guides/functions-notions-level-2.pdf
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5.3.4 Grammar in a situational context
The teacher designs a situation to generate example sentences pertaining to a

language structure. This approach is similar to the functional-notional approach in
that a real-life situation is created and learners are expected to role play and use
language that would have been used in such a context.
5.4 STRUCTURING GRAMMAR LESSONS

The teaching of grammar should enable learners to use language well for a wide
range of purposes and audiences, and to harness the power that writing offers.
Learners will develop skills to cope with written language, however unfamiliar, by
discovering how it works. Myhill (2012) is quoted stressing that it is important for
learners to discover how meanings are subtly shaped by lexical and syntactical
choices; that language changes in different contexts; and that there are differences
between spoken and written English, and between standard and non-standard
varieties of a language.
It is important for the learners to know about language and to have a shared
metalanguage. However, the teaching of grammatical knowledge has little impact on
the quality of learners’ talk, reading or writing. The teaching of grammar must be
accompanied by extensive experience of written language and reading. The use of
grammar could be a powerful and effective tool for improving written work. Some of
the approaches that led to significant improvements in learners’ writing included:
• Experimentation and playful engagement with language

• Explicit teaching and application using texts learners were already using
• Explicitly teaching the metalanguage, but also the reasons for using it
• Deconstructing how grammar was used in different texts and encouraging
learners to use this knowledge in their own writing
It was also found that
• teaching grammar out of context as a discrete lesson can teach

metalanguage successfully but does not help learners see the use and
purpose of the grammar
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• grammar needs to be seen as something to be experimented with rather

than labelled and corrected
• learners need to build a repertoire of grammatical skills to experiment with
• teachers’ subject knowledge is an important factor (Waugh, Warner, &
Waugh, 2019:17–18).
Teaching grammar is integrated with other language skills; however, when teaching
grammar a well-structured lesson is also important, regardless of which approach
you are following.
Next, three models are presented. The models are ways of planning and delivering
your lesson so that the learning objective is achieved.
5.4.1 Models for teaching grammar
The two models presented here are examples of how you can structure your
grammar lessons. The first one is aimed at improving the learners’ use of grammar
in their writing but can be applied to other grammar lessons as well. The second
model is quite well known and is often used whereas the third is perhaps more suited
to inductive teaching and experimenting with language. You will come across ways
of teaching grammar in your studies, in your language textbooks and at school
among your colleagues. You have to discern which is most suitable to you and to
your learners’ context as the aim is to teach grammar effectively.
5.4.1.1 A model for teaching grammar effectively

Waugh, Warner and Waugh (2019: 22) suggest the following model for teaching
grammar effectively:
First, be clear about what you want the learners to learn. Remember that there is
no point teaching grammatical metalanguage unless you can explain how it will
make a difference to their learning. Check your own subject knowledge and make
sure you feel confident about this.
Introduce the terms at the point in the teaching sequence that seems most
relevant. This may be through discreet teaching, through investigation, or through
interactive grammar games to find patterns, word-play or games. Through shared
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and guided reading, identify examples of the particular grammatical feature you
are focusing on in the high-quality texts you are reading in class. Make sure you
have identified examples beforehand and can talk about them. Use the correct
terminology to make explicit.
Invite the learners to find examples for themselves and to make up some of their
own. Remind them of the purpose of the task – they are learning this skill because
it opens up all kinds of possibilities for their language learning and writing.
Model the language use before you ask the learners to demonstrate it. Make
explicit the choices the writers have made in the text that you are using.
Invite the learners to use their new knowledge in written or spoken language.
Encourage the learners to be adventurous and to play with language and word
choice.
Review learners’ writing as part of feedback to the class and not only through
individual marking of work.
Figure 5.1: A model for teaching grammar effectively
5.4.1.2 Presentation, practice, production
The PPP model was discussed in learning unit 2, section 2.4 as an example of an approach
to teaching additional language. The PPP is a successful teaching method. Every PPP
lesson has a language aim which learners should fulfil by the end of the lesson. The PPP
can be used to teach grammar, functions, vocabulary, and spelling and punctuation. Here it
is presented as a model for teaching grammar specifically.
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entatioPresentation
n
Figure 5.2: Presentation, practice, production
Lesson aims Learners will understand the use and form of the present continuous
tense. They will be able to recognise it and use it examples – in both
written and oral language.
Stage Time Activity Procedure
Presentation 5 Warm-up The teacher writes example sentences on the
board, underlining the verb phrase. The teacher
asks the learners to give examples of the present
continuous tense and asks which auxiliary verb is
needed.
Presentation 10 Writing The teacher writes the negative form and the
Speaking question form of the sentences in the past
continuous tense and explains how these are
formed.
The teacher explains the use of this tense in
language.
Learners are directed to the textbook where the
grammar exercise is. Instructions are given and
explained.
Practice 10 Speaking Learners complete the exercise in pairs,
discussing it with one another.
Produce 15 Writing The teacher gives a written exercise for learners
Speaking to complete in their workbooks. The task requires
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the learners to use and demonstrate their

understanding of the present continuous tense.
Ending 5 Speaking The teacher repeats the main points of forming
and using the present continuous tense.
The teacher checks for understanding using exit
cards.
Figure 5.3: Example of PPP lesson plan
5.4.1.3 Noticing, structuring and proceduralising
Noticing
An active process where learners become aware of, or notice, the new pattern.
The learners are able to see the link between the pattern and the meaning but do
not try to produce the pattern themselves yet.
Noticing activities
The learners look at pictures and examples of the pattern.
Present the pattern or form (example) in English language and in a social context.
Compare and contrast the new pattern with other, already known patterns or
forms.
The learners participate actively.
Lead into activities where the pattern is recognised and used.
Type of noticing activities that can be used:

Classroom instruction, dialogue with puppet or other.
Using texts, visuals, everyday situations.
Modelling, drawing, recognising and underlining grammatical structures, noticing
how grammatical structures create meaning.
Structuring
Structuring activities help learners to assimilate the new grammar patterns, making
it part of their internal grammar and if necessary, to reorganise it. Structuring is
guided by the teacher. Learners are involved in the controlled use of language,
making necessary grammatical changes to express meaning correctly and
appropriately. Learners are given examples where they have to make changes to
the grammatical structures to express the meaning correctly.
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Structuring activities
Interaction activities such as questionnaires and surveys about learners’ favourite
food, family activities or hobbies.
Language games.
Information gap activities such as guess and action mimed by the teacher or
another learner.
Meaningful repetition such as drills in the form of rhymes and songs.
Written practice in the classroom, such as finding the correct word order of
sentences, identifying the new pattern.
Proceduralisation
Learners are given opportunities to use new grammar patterns.
The task or activity requires attention to grammar and effective communication.
Proceduralising activities
Writing captions for cartoons or pictures.
Finding and writing the ending of a story.
Telling a story based on pictures.
Role-play and simulations.
Problem solving.
Correcting errors, editing.
Grammar can work outwards from participation in discourse, from vocabulary and
grammar structures learnt. Therefore, songs, games and written activities involve
children using the language and help assess learners’ understanding and use of
grammar.
Figure 5.4: Noticing, structuring and proceduralising
It is good practice to model new learning of grammar, regardless of which strategy or

combination of strategies you choose to use. Refer to figure 5.5 where modelling is
explained. It is important that the learners see examples of your thought processes
and how to respond when mistakes are made. Modelling acts as a scaffold in
teaching learners how to use grammar and how to structure their thinking. The use
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of metalanguage will be important when modelling learning. Metalanguage is dealt

with in learning unit 6.
5.4.1.4. Modelling
Modelling is an instructional strategy in which the teacher demonstrates a new

concept or approach to learning and learners learn by observing and following the
teacher’s example.
Steps to get modelling right
• Prepare – know what you will say, write and think out loud.
• Share your thoughts – explain your actions and your thought processes.
• Model mistakes – show your learners what it is like to encounter problems,
then show them strategies to overcome challenges. This also creates an
appositive learning environment where mistakes are accepted as part of
learning.
• Use questions – “What am I doing?”, “Why am I doing it?”. Make sure your
learners really understand how the process applies to their learning.
• Use multiple examples; celebrate successful methods often as it will help
learners understand what successful learning looks like.
Figure 5.5: Modelling for learning
1. During Covid-19 schools have adopted rotation teaching timetables. This

means that the learners are not at school every day – for instance, the
grade 6 learners will be at school on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. On
Tuesday and Thursday, they will be at home.
How would you use the presentation, practice and production approach (section
5.4.1.2) to teach grammar?
2. What are the similarities between an inductive lesson and noticing,
structuring and proceduralising (section 5.4.1.3)?
Feedback
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1. Presentation of new concepts and teaching on Monday with homework to

practise new learning at home. On Wednesday the homework is checked
and gaps in learning are attended to. A task to apply the new learning is
given as homework, which is checked on Friday.
2. The structure is the same, therefore the inductive lesson approach is
compatible with the noticing, structuring and proceduralising model for
teaching grammar.
5.5 ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR
It is important to vary the learners’ activities to expose them to different styles of

teaching and practising their language use in different ways.
English FAL textbooks contain many activities that are well thought through and
appropriate for the learners’ level of learning. Many grammar activities are focused
on the grammar rule and how it is applied, in other words, the deductive approach as
in the following example.
Figure 5.6: DBE example of a grammar activity (DBE, 2019c: 92)
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5.5.1 Teaching grammar through stories
Using stories is a great way to explain grammar because stories are traditional to
most cultures and may therefore be less threatening than academic texts. In
addition, stories are fun and there is often a lot of repetition in stories that can be
used to teach a specific grammatical structure. If you have access to the school
library or you have readers in your classroom, you can use the books to find stories
at a specific grade’s reading level.
5.5.2 Teaching grammar through songs, poems and rhymes
Children love singing songs and listening to poems and rhymes. Therefore, these
can be used to teach language structures and conventions. Songs, poems and
rhymes often offer opportunities for the repetition of structures in a natural way.
Songs also help the learners practise pronunciation.
Simpson (2015) shares the following regarding the use of songs:
Carefully examine what it is you want your class to learn in the lesson.
Is this going to be a lesson focusing on vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, or a

particular topic? In another lesson, I used “In the air tonight” as it uses the present
perfect continuous tense. Whatever your focus, remember that this does not
necessarily place a limit on what you can do with the song.
In the Air Tonight

Phil Collins
I can feel it coming in the air tonight, oh Lord
And I've been waiting for this moment for all my life, oh Lord
Can you feel it coming in the air tonight, oh Lord, oh Lord
Well if you told me you were drowning, I would not lend a hand
I've seen your face before my friend, but I don't know if you know who I am
Well I was there and I saw what you did, I saw it with my own two eyes
So you can wipe off that grin, I know where you've been
It's all been a pack of lies
And I can feel it coming in the air tonight, oh Lord
Well I've been waiting for this moment for all my life, oh Lord
I can feel it coming in the air tonight, oh Lord
Well I've been waiting for this moment for all my life, oh Lord, oh Lord
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Well I remember, I remember, don't worry, how could I…
Source: LyricFind
5.5.3 Teaching grammar through games
If you are at a school where the resources are limited and you do not have easy
access to data, you should take comfort from the fact that the DBE English FAL
workbooks are well designed – as some of the examples in the other units illustrate.
Below is an example of a grammar game, taken from the DBE grade 5 English FAL
textbook. It is a fun and accessible way to learn how to use tenses. Learners have
the opportunity to learn together when working in pairs. It helps if you have created a
safe space for learning in the classroom where learners are comfortable making
mistakes and learning from one another. Games such as these can be repeated and
modified and give you the chance to observe your learners as they use the language
in play.
Figure 5.7: DBE grammar game (DBE, 2019c: 32)
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5.6 RESOURCES TO USE IN GRAMMAR TEACHING
There are many online resources available to assist you in your teaching. Pinterest is
a valuable resource for posters and accessible information about teaching language.
Many posts will lead you to websites where you will find more resources. Some are
free but many must be paid for. However, do not let this limit you – you will still be
able to see examples of resources that you may adapt and use in your classroom.
Remember to acknowledge your sources.
5.7 CONCLUSION
In this unit we covered a lot of information about grammar and ways to teach
grammar. When you think about your own experiences when learning an additional
language you may be able to understand how you were taught and which approach
worked for you. It is important to note that your preferred learning method or the
teaching approach you enjoy most may not be suitable for all the learners in your
class. As teachers we often stick to the approach we feel most comfortable with;
however, if you discover that your learners are not making the progress you
expected you may need to adjust your teaching approach. To explain something a
second time in the same way you did the first time is not the answer – you should be
able to make use of multiple approaches in order to reach your learners.
In the next unit we will look at the use of metalanguage, how it develops
metacognitive thinking and how to use it in feedback.


I am able to need to read that I need to
again revisit
• recognise grammatical forms
and markers
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• know how to use a variety of

approaches to teaching
grammar
• learn different ways to
structure grammar lessons
• explain different models for
teaching grammar lessons
• use different activities in
grammar teaching
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LEARNING UNIT 6
METALANGUAGE
CONTENTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 METALANGUAGE AND METACOGNITION
6.3. WORKING WITH METALANGUAGE IN THE CLASSROOM
6.3.1 Experimenting with language and building meaning
6.3.2 Learners taking conscious control of their use of English FAL
6.3.3 Teaching learners to critically evaluate texts
6.3.4 Metalanguage and feedback
6.4 CONCLUSION

At the end of this learning unit, you will be able to:
• describe what metalanguage is
• recognise how metalanguage facilitates metacognition
• use metalanguage in the classroom to facilitate effective language learning
and use
• use metalanguage to improve the use of feedback
6.1 INTRODUCTION
You were introduced to metalanguage in learning unit 1 where it was explained as a
common language in the classroom. This common language will enable you as the
teacher to explain linguistic concepts to the learners. The learners will learn to think
about their learning using metalanguage, and will therefore develop metacognition.
In review, metalanguage is words or symbols for talking about language itself. Firstly,
metalanguage is useful to help you and the learners understand language-learning
resources. When learners look at a new sentence structure, word, or even
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pronunciation point in a textbook, they need to understand metalanguage in order to

understand what they are learning.
6.2 METALANGUAGE AND METACOGNITION

In learning unit 1 coaching soccer was used as an example to illustrate the use of
metalanguage. Importantly, the function of metalanguage is to facilitate a
conversation about the learning but also, learners use metalanguage to think about
their learning.
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory is based on the central principle that human

consciousness arises through the dialectic unity of our biology-endowed brain and
“auxiliary stimuli” appropriated during participation in social practices. The stimuli
enable us to intentionally control, or regulate, our mental functioning (Lantolf &
Poehner, 2014:8).
Socio-cultural theory places the emphasis on children as active participants in social

interactions that inform learning. The fundamental concept within socio-cultural
theory is that higher forms of mental activity (e.g. intentional attention, voluntary
memory, logical thought and problem solving) are mediated by culturally constructed
artefacts (Van Compernolle & Kinginger, 2013:287). Vygotsky emphasised language
as the most pervasive and powerful symbol (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996) and it is
situated at the heart of his psychological theory (Lantolf & Poehner, 2014:7).
Mediation is a term Vygotsky used to describe the human capacity to regulate not
only themselves, but each other, resulting in self-regulation. This is crucial as
learners progress towards autonomy, and the teacher’s role is to facilitate this
through the activities in which they encourage learners to engage.
Framed within the theory of mediation in Vygotskian thinking, a study by Harun,

Abdullah, Wahab and Zainuddin (2017) explored how metalanguage is used as a
regulatory tool in understanding and mediating the targeted grammatical concepts,
namely the tense–aspect concept of past time in the English language system.
In this study, metalanguage is operationalised as “language used to talk about

language” (McArthur, 1992, p. 652). It is also termed as the explicit knowledge that
one brings into conscious awareness and that one articulates (Hulstijn, 2005; Roehr,
2006). In this instance, it “induces learners to reflect about the language,” which is
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also known as metalinguistic function (Fortune, 2005, p. 23) and general

understanding of the language itself; it also consists of learners’ ability to reflect on
the language, or better referred to as metalanguage (M. Ellis, 2016, p. 145). (Harun,
Abdullah, Wahab & Zainuddin, 2017)
6.3 WORKING WITH METALANGUAGE IN THE CLASSROOM

It makes sense that it is easier to talk about grammar with children if there is a
shared common language. A shared metalanguage allows teachers and children to
talk together using terms that everyone understands – it creates an inclusive
classroom. There is no need to shy away from using the correct terms consistently
and accurately (Waugh, Warner & Waugh, 2019:17).
Hu (2010) explains, however, that the use of metalanguage does not guarantee
language learning. Learners should understand the terminology used and they must
use it actively in their own learning. For example, in figure 6.1, from a DBE book, the
word “adjective” is in bold, drawing attention to it. Then the word is explained and an
example of an adjective is given with a simple explanation of how it is used. As a
teacher you will ask learners to repeat what an adjective is and to give examples of
adjectives. In doing so you will reinforce their understanding of the concept and in
the meaning-making process use metalanguage.
Figure 6.1: Example of metalanguage use in a textbook
There are five advantages to learning and using metalanguage in the First Additional
Language classroom (Hu, 2010:65).
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1. As argued by Ellis (2004), access to metalanguage can sharpen a learner’s

understanding of the structure of the target language and lead to verbalisable,
analysed knowledge, which according to Bialystok (1990) and Schmidt (1990)
constitutes the highest level of consciousness of language.
2. In societies where analytical study and metalanguage feature strongly in L1
literacy instruction, the use of metalanguage in the L2 classroom is a useful
way to tap the wealth of metalinguistic awareness that learners have
developed in the process of acquiring L1 literacy.
3. Even in a communicative-oriented language teaching classroom, it is
sometimes desirable to have an explicit discussion of the structural and
functional features of complex structures (Carter, 1995; Rutherford, 1987).
Such a discussion can be used either to raise learners’ consciousness about
the target structures or to provide an opportunity for them to confirm or modify
the rules they have internalised as a result of their own hypothesis formation
and testing.
4. Metalanguage that is appropriately used can pre-empt both under-
generalisation and over-generalisation of the rules in question.
5. Finally, metalanguage can be used profitably by teachers to help their
learners link up newly encountered structures with knowledge of the target
system that has already been acquired. In other words, metalanguage and
concepts of L2 structural properties already learnt can be exploited as points
of reference or anchoring sites for the assimilation of new knowledge.
Figure 6.2 for example illustrates that the assumption is that the learners understand
what subject-verb agreement means and that they can apply it in the exercise. The
explanation on the top right (in the yellow box) indicates that the learners have been
taught the difference between the present tense and the past tense, as well as the
difference in the use of the singular and plural forms of the verb. This is where
metalanguage is used to deepen the learners’ understanding of language. As the
teacher you will make sure that the metalanguage in your classroom will include the
terminology used – in this way all the learners are included.
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Figure 6.2: The use of metalanguage (DBE, 2019c:14)
The communicative approach to teaching grammar is dominant in many English

FAL books. Explain why metalanguage is an important aspect of this approach.
Feedback
Metalanguage makes an overt discussion about language structures and
conventions possible.
6.3.1 Experimenting with language and building meaning

As we saw in learning unit 1, CAPS expects the learners to experiment with
language and building meaning in learning English FAL. But what does that mean? I
would like to remind you that a classroom environment that is safe is conducive to
learning. It is important to nurture a classroom environment where mistakes are
accepted as part of learning – and not ridiculed. Learners should be encouraged to
use English FAL in the classroom and they should feel comfortable to experiment
with language.
English FAL textbooks offer ample opportunity for language use and practice. It is
important to provide opportunities to use the language in a way that allows the
learners to experiment, in other words, try something out. In unit 5.4 it was
mentioned how important it is to teach grammar in the learners’ context so that they
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understand the purpose of grammar. A grammar lesson that focuses on the rules
without explaining how they are used to create meaning places too much emphasis
on what is correct and therefore discourages experimentation. The better the
learners’ grammatical skills and their understanding of how grammar functions, the
more comfortable they will be to experiment with grammar and language.
When learners learn a new aspect of language and they try it out by using it or they
recognise its use in verbal or written form, that is how they engage with it. Using
metalanguage to guide the learning will give the learners a safe opportunity to use
the language. Language is used to express thoughts and ideas, thus building
meaning with words and sentences. It is important that learners learn that meaning
making is a process and that there are multiple ways of doing it. Expose learners to
a variety of texts, verbal and written, and teach them to find the ways that meaning is
built as part of the mediation process. You as the teacher will use metalanguage to
guide the conversation with the learners about using language to build meaning.
6.3.2 Learners taking conscious control of their use of English FAL

The use of metalanguage allows for the conversation between the teacher and the
learners, a form of mediation of the learning. As we have seen in section 7.2,
learners talking about their learning is a high form of consciousness. Thinking and
talking about their English FAL learning using metalanguage means that they are
engaging with their language learning and with you, the teacher, in a way that makes
sense to them. When learners understand the structures and conventions of a
language and talk about them, they will find ways to improve their language – firstly
by understanding where they made mistakes and secondly knowing how to fix them.
It is an important part of learning to be able to identify the gap in learning and how to
bridge it. This is not possible without conscious control of language use. Learning
does not happen in a straight line and is more often than not, quite messy. Learners
also do not all learn at the same pace and they may have to be taught again –
language learning requires a lot of repetition. Using metalanguage consciously is a
critical tool for teaching and learning.
The checklist in figure 6.3 is an example of how metacognitive thinking is applied in

the classroom. The learners have to think about and indicate their understanding of
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their own learning. The checklist (figure 6.3), similar to the one you complete at the
end of each learning unit, is a prompt for the learner and the teacher to find the gaps
in the learning. Effective use of the checklist will require more than merely ticking the
emoticon that applies – the learner and the teacher need to respond to the gap in
learning. If, for example, the learner selected the unhappy face for the “use link
words to order events” it requires you as the teacher to check what the gap in
learning is. You may look at the learner’s written exercise again or ask the learner to
write a short paragraph using link words. Therefore, the checklist is used to gather
information about what the learners have achieved but also, importantly, to check
their metacognitive thinking.
Figure 6.3: Grade 5 checklist (DBE, 2019b: 34)
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6.3.3 Teaching learners to critically evaluate texts

Teachers use metalanguage to build meaning with their learners about how
language is used and how to take conscious control of their use of language. The
learners grow in their understanding of how language structures and conventions
work. As learners engage with language and learn to respond to written texts and
write their own texts, they develop their skills to critically evaluate texts. In the
teaching of Language Structures and Conventions this means that learners are able
to critically evaluate their own writing. Not only will they learn to edit their texts and
correct errors, but they will also evaluate how well they have used language
structures and conventions to accurately convey the meaning they intended.
6.3.4 Metalanguage and feedback

The term “feedback” is often used to describe all kinds of comments made after the
fact, including advice and praise. However, while teachers routinely provide
feedback, it is not always useful. The objective of feedback is the deep involvement
of learners in metacognitive strategies such as personal goal-planning, monitoring,
and reflection, which support self-regulated learning by giving learners the power to
oversee and steer their own learning so that one can become a more committed,
responsible and effective learner (Clark, 2012:210). Influenced by socio-cultural
perspectives on learning, and developments in the fields of learner self-regulation
and assessment for learning, present-day notions of feedback emphasise the
importance of learner autonomy and agency (James, 2006). Metalanguage is
essential for effective feedback – as we have seen before, it is a shared language in
the classroom. Learners need to be able to use the feedback in their conscious
thinking about their learning and in building meaning.
Feedback must be given on what you want the learners to achieve. We go back to
the question posed in learning unit 1; what do you want them to learn? Therefore,
feedback should be specific to the learning goal or objective and instructive in
overcoming the gap.
When using a grammar exercise (for instance, where the learners learnt how to use
subject and object pronouns and they had to demonstrate their learning by
completing the fill-in exercise), it would be very easy to simply mark the answer
indicating a tick mark or a cross, or to correct the answer for the learner. However,
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we want the learners to take conscious control of their language use and to
understand how pronouns are used as objects and subjects in a sentence.
Therefore, your feedback using metalanguage must be specific and should guide
them to understand how the mistake was made and how to correct it.
Study the sentences and the feedback below. Note how the feedback does not
simply state whether the answer is right or wrong but rather indicate the use of the
pronouns.
Sentences Feedback
8. Nobody told us the bus was leaving Think again, is the pronoun an object or a
(they) subject?
10. Don’t ask I, ask him (I/he) You used it; check your use of I again.
12.They asked him to invite we Check your use of we, is it an object or a
(they/he/we) subject?

Read the two excerpts and answer the following questions.
1. What conclusion do both articles reach regarding the communicative
approach and the explicit teaching of grammar rules?
2. Describe in your own words how metalanguage is a tool for language
learning.
3. What kind of learner behaviour does the use of metalanguage result in?
4. What does Hu mean by saying that metalanguage can be a valuable
means of facilitating L2 learning?
Feedback
1. Both are necessary.
2. Metalanguage allows for conscious control of language learning and use.
3. Reasoning behaviour.
4. Metalanguage can simplify L2 language learning.
The use of metalanguage among second language learners to mediate L2

grammar learning (Harun, Abdullah, Wahab & Zainuddin, 2017).
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Excerpt 1
Conclusion
The role of metalanguage manifested through learners’ verbalisation is regarded
as a crucial tool for them to “intentionally organise and control their mental
processes during the performance of cognitively complex tasks, and discover
meanings and connections” (Knouzi et al, 2010, p 24). In essence, the findings of
this study are consistent with others that have reported the significant role of
explicit knowledge in promoting L2 learning (Fortune, 2005; Negueruela, 2008;
Storch, 2008; Swain, 2008, 2009, 2010). An important finding is that instruction
consisting of explicit rule-presentation followed by communicative practice can
guide the learners to focus on specific features in the input and draw their attention
to the gap that exists between their knowledge and the input (Long, 1991).
In the case of metalanguage deployed by learners and manifested through the use
of LUs, the study findings have established the important role that metalanguage
plays in mediating and facilitating learners to extensively understand L2 grammar
concepts. Specifically, metalanguage is used as an effective reasoning behaviour
by the learners, to focus their attention on a particular linguistic concept in their
attempt to make sense of it. This is done by:
i) integrating the newly acquired metalinguistic knowledge gained from the current
explanatory slides with the knowledge gained from previous slides, ii) deploying
paraphrasing and analysing strategies to frame the new concept learnt in order to
fit or reconcile it with previous information of concepts encountered, and iii) making
a hypothesis and elaboration pertaining to the metalinguistic knowledge gained. It
is noteworthy to highlight that much research is still needed on the pedagogical
applications of metalanguage in language instruction. However, by analysing the
actual nature of metalanguage manifested in the verbalisation protocols, this study
has established the crucial role that metalanguage plays as an effective learning
strategy for learners to develop their L2 learning ability.
Revisiting the role of metalanguage in L2 teaching and learning (Hu, 2010)
Excerpt 2
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Conclusion
The preceding discussion points to a need to reconsider the role of metalanguage in

L2 teaching and learning in the light of current research on the interrelationships
between metalinguistic knowledge, metalinguistic awareness, and L2 proficiency.
The empirically identified positive correlations among the three, as well as the many
potential advantages that the use of metalanguage can offer, lead to the conclusion
that metalanguage deserves a place in L2 teaching. A case can be made that,
unless it is taught purely for its own sake, metalanguage can be a valuable means of
facilitating L2 learning rather than “an additional learning burden” that “remain[s] a
separate body of knowledge” (Mohammed, 1996, p 283). This reappraisal of the role
of metalanguage, however, does not resolve all pedagogical issues concerning the
use of metalanguage. While a return to the boring and sterile pedagogical practices
of the traditional approaches is out of the question, many issues (e.g. when and how
to use metalanguage) remain to be explored. In particular, there is a need for
empirical research, along the direction taken by such studies as Basturkmen,
Loewen, and Ellis (2002) and Storch (2008), that seeks to explore how metalinguistic
awareness and metalanguage can be most fruitfully integrated into a meaning-
focused, communication-oriented L2 pedagogy.
6.4 CONCLUSION
Metalanguage is a strategy to improve communication in the classroom. The teacher
uses shared words and expressions to teach grammar and the learners participate in
their use of the metalanguage. The use of metalanguage enables the learners to
think about their thinking and their learning; this is empowering and is the point of
teaching. In the next learning unit, we will deal with the assessment of Language
Structures and Conventions and you will see that metalanguage is critical to the
effective assessment of learners.
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again revisit
• describe what metalanguage is
• recognise how metalanguage

facilitates metacognition
• use metalanguage in the
classroom to facilitate effective
language learning and use
• use metalanguage to improve the
use of feedback
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LEARNING UNIT 7
ASSESSMENT OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS

CONTENTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 POLICY ON ASSESSMENT
7.2.1 CAPS and the assessment of languages
7.2.2 Cognitive levels
7.3 ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
7.3.1 Informal assessment
7.3.2 Implementing the programme of assessment
7.3.3 The assessment for learning process
7.4 ASSESSMENT TOOLS
7.5 CONCLUSION
At the end of this learning unit you will be able to:

• explain what the DBE policy on assessment is
• describe how language is assessed according to CAPS
• apply cognitive levels in your questions and assessments
• implement the assessment for learning process
• analyse the efficacy of an assessment rubric
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we dealt with the language structures and conventions, what
they are and approaches to teaching them. We have also looked at how
metalanguage is used to facilitate metacognition. While learning how to deliver your
lessons on language structures and conventions, you were encouraged to ask
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yourself what you want the learners to learn, in other words, focusing your attention
on the outcome of the teaching and learning. Now, as we turn our attention to the
assessment of Language Structures and Conventions, the question is:
WHAT DO THEY KNOW?
This question is critical because we have to make sure that our teaching and
assessments are aligned with what the learners are learning. Assessment in
languages needs to be ongoing as it supports the growth and development of our
learners. It is an integral part of teaching and learning as it provides us with valuable
feedback for teaching and learning. Assessments inform us about how successful
our teaching was and what the learners have learnt; what knowledge and skills they
have acquired. Therefore, assessments are more than the accumulation of marks for
reporting purposes. Assessments need to be treated as opportunities to gather
information and to use the information in planning the teaching and learning to
follow.
7.2 POLICY ON ASSESSMENT
The National Protocol for Assessment (DBE, 2011) differentiates between

assessments used to make decisions about the progress of learners, and classroom
assessment which should provide an indication of learner achievement by collecting
evidence in the form of assessment. Classroom assessment is seen as informal and
formal; in both cases the expectations are that the learners will know which
knowledge and skills are being assessed and that feedback should be provided.
Through informal assessment, feedback is provided to improve learning by paying
attention to the gaps in the learners’ knowledge and skills. Furthermore, teachers
use informal assessment to evaluate and improve their teaching. The view is, thus,
that daily, informal assessments are assessment for learning as opposed to formal
assessment which is assessment of learning (DBE, 2011:3-4). The First Additional
Language learners’ success depends on regular, informal assessment and feedback
from the teacher as they engage with the texts and activities. The teaching plan sets
out the required content, skills and strategies for teaching and learning over a year.
This is what will be assessed at increasing levels of development (progression). Not
everything taught needs to be formally assessed. However, it is essential that
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learners’ progress is assessed through both a formal and an informal assessment

programme, as this informs planning.
The concepts of “informal” and “formal” assessment have replaced the terms
formative and summative assessments and are further extended, with a clear
connection being made to assessment for learning and assessment of learning. The
assessment policy explains that, “Informal (assessment for learning) or daily
assessment is the monitoring and enhancing of learners’ progress. This is done
through teacher observation and teacher-learner interactions, which may be initiated
by either teachers or learners” (DBE, 2011:3). The policy specifies further that
informal assessment should be “used to provide feedback to the learners and
teachers, close the gaps in learners’ knowledge and skills and improve teaching”
(DBE, 2011:3) and goes on to explain that “informal assessment builds towards
formal assessment and teachers should not only focus on the formal assessment”
(DBE, 2011:3).
7.2.1 CAPS and the assessment of languages

The section in CAPS on assessment explains that assessment is a continuous,
planned process of identifying, gathering and interpreting information about the
performance of learners, using various forms of assessment. Therefore, assessment
is not limited to the prescribed tasks or the examinations but should be part of your
classroom activities. It should be incorporated in teaching and learning instead of
being dealt with as a separate entity. The Caps (DBE, 2011: 93) lists the assessment
steps, on the left in table 8.1. However, also take note of the activity linked to the
steps (on the right).
Table 7.1: CAPS assessment steps and activities
Steps in assessment Activity
Generating and collecting evidence of Design assessment tasks or tests.

achievement
Evaluating this evidence Mark the assessment and provide

feedback.
Recording the findings Record the marks and comments
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regarding your observations about the

learners’ progress and where the gaps
are.
Using this information to understand Respond to your observations,

and thereby assist in the learner’s determining the gaps and how to deal
development in order to improve the with them in the next teaching phase or
process of learning and teaching sequence.
You will assess Language Structures and Conventions separately at times to make
sure that the learning was successful. However, as explained previously, assessing
the different language skills should be seen as one integrated activity. Learners will
learn the past tense, for example, to use it effectively in spoken and written
language. Remember, we are teaching learners to make meaning in the First
Additional Language, and that is what we ultimately want to assess; how successful
is the learning in expressing their thoughts and ideas in English FAL? Assessment of
written work will focus primarily on the learners’ ability to convey meaning, as well as
how correctly they have written; for example, used correct language structures and
conventions, spelling and punctuation. All assessment should recognise that
language learning is a process and that learners will not produce a completely
correct piece of work the first time round. Therefore, the various stages in the writing
process should also be assessed (DBE, 2011: 93).
Self-reflection activity 7.1

After reading and processing the information in sections 8.2 and 8.2.1, I encourage you
to reflect on the following:
1. What do you believe is the purpose of assessment?
2. Why do you think teachers often equate assessment with giving marks and
recording the marks?
3. Do you think learners are able to assess themselves?
4. What do assessments tell you about your teaching?
5. What do assessments tell you about learners’ learning?
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Feedback
1. The purpose of assessment is to find the gaps in learning and determine what
was successfully learnt.
2. The focus on marks detracts from the learning intentions and how they must be
reached.
3. Teachers can teach learners how to assess themselves using metalanguage,
engaging in conversation; activating metacognition.
4. Assessments indicate whether teaching resulted in successful learning.
5. Assessments identify the gaps in learning.
7.2.2 Cognitive levels
Cognitive levels are different levels of thinking. There are several models of cognitive
levels and you may have seen something like this before:
Figure 7.1: Bloom’s taxonomy
CAPS (DBE, 2011, 96) states that the assessment items must be pitched at different
cognitive levels to ensure validity. When you set your formal assessments and
examinations you may be expected to indicate at which cognitive level each question
is. CAPS has a very useful table (DBE, 2011:97) indicating what the different
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cognitive levels are, examples of questions and how the different cognitive levels
must be weighted in your assessment.
The expectation in CAPS is that the cognitive levels are applied in the formal
assessments; however, you have to build the different cognitive levels into your
teaching and classroom activities and assessments. You ought to teach learners at
the various cognitive levels even when teaching Language Structures and
Conventions. Learners need to have deep knowledge of language structures and
conventions and they have to understand how it works to build meaningful
expression by applying them. Critically evaluating texts, experimenting with language
and taking conscious control of their language use require analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. As you engage with the learners using metalanguage and when you ask
questions, aim at covering the different cognitive levels. Remember that assessment
is not only in informal or formal written form but also part of your questions and
observation in the classroom. The asking of questions needs to be planned, be
purposeful, have space for thinking and should be open ended. Teachers often ask
closed-ended sentences which involve a simple “yes or no” answer – or sometimes a
teacher will answer his or her own question within a matter of seconds or ask
learners who are likely to know the answer to the question. Rather ask open-ended
questions that require more thought from the learners, and encourage all learners to
try and provide an answer during lessons. Try to develop effective, conscious
questioning skills from early on in your teaching career. It will add enormous value to
the learners’ participation in their own learning.
7.3 ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
Hargreaves (2013:229) suggests that assessment for learning might be

conceptualised as a classroom conversation in which learners as well as teachers
assess how feedback relates to learning, which would itself constitute a major
contribution to self-regulation and the learners’ autonomous learning. Assessment
for learning is linked to learning interactions and pedagogical relationships and is
conceived not as ‘‘something that is being done to learners [but rather as] something
that is being done with and for the learners’’ (Klenowski, 2009:89).
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Informal assessment, or assessment for learning, is not necessarily a rigid process

to be implemented. Clark (2011:165) explains that formative assessment takes place
in the context of each individual classroom, therefore, the process concerns itself
exclusively with the activities undertaken by teachers and their learners during the
process of classroom teaching and learning.
The following five steps (Black, 2015) describe the process of assessment for
learning:
1. Learning intentions, goals and expectations clarified
2. Appropriate activity to demonstrate achievement of the learning goal
3. Feedback to move learning forward
4. Learners actively involved in learning process
5. Assessment results inform future learning decisions

Provide an example of one particular lesson that you have experienced. Think
about the concept of the lesson you provided. Answer the following questions in
relation to that lesson.
1. Are you able to identify the learning intentions and how they will be
reached?
2. What was the activity and did it allow for the learning to be demonstrated?
3. Was the feedback instructive; was it a conversation or an instruction?
4. As learner, how did you participate in your learning?
5. Did the assessment inform the next learning steps?
Feedback
1. The learning intention is clear, for instance: will be able to use the simple
past tense correctly in a sentence.
2. Own answer. Activity appropriate to Language Structures and Conventions.
3. Effective feedback provides information about the gaps in learning.
4. Learners’ participation is successful when the learners show understanding
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of their mistakes and are able to deal with these mistakes and engage in
conversation about their learning.
5. Not all the learners have reached the learning intention, therefore the
simple past will be incorporated in the next teaching phase.
7.3.1 Informal assessment

According to CAPS, informal assessment is regarded as formative, in other words
assessment for learning. It means that the purpose of the assessment is to learn
from it. One could argue that even formal assessments such as tests and
examinations are formative; however, continuous informal classroom assessments
present greater opportunity for assessment for learning.
Informal assessment forms part of the day-to-day classroom learning. There are two
levels of informal assessment. The first comprises the observations and interactions
where you will notice the progress – or lack of it – in learning as you engage with
your learners, as well as the class exercises such as those contained in the DBE
English FAL books (examples of these as shown in the previous learning units). The
second could be the tasks as set out in CAPS, or other assessment tasks your
curriculum requires the learners to do. For the purposes of this module, we are going
to focus on the CAPS programme of assessment tasks. The assessment tasks are
informal assessment, therefore assessment for learning, and the purpose is to
continuously collect information on a learner’s achievement. Such information can
then be used to improve his or her learning.
7.3.2 Implementing the programme of assessment

The grade 5 teaching plan as shown in table 7.2 frames the teaching and
assessment for the term. The learners will focus on the skill of storytelling; they will
read a story and write their own story using the skills they are taught and the
language structures and conventions appropriate to storytelling. It is an eligible case.
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Table 7.2: CAPS grade 5 teaching plan (DBE, 2011:53)
The six informal tasks reflected in the CAPS programme of assessment in table 7.3
will be the assessment for learning opportunities for term 1. You will assess each
task according to what you wanted the learners to learn and what you are expecting
them to demonstrate. Therefore, the assessment must be aligned with the teaching
and learning.
Table 7.3: CAPS grade 5 programme of assessment (DBE, 2011:99)
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The learners will demonstrate what they have learnt and you will assess the success
of your teaching and their learning of the four language skills. The Language
Structure and Conventions in context task below assesses the learners’ ability to use
grammar, spelling and punctuation in the context of a text where the language
structures and conventions are applied.
Language in context
Read the passage below and then answer the questions that follow by referring to
the text.
It was a beautiful day in Durban. The weather was perfect for lunch outside.
My friend Leah headed towards the boerewors roll stall outside Spar and I agreed
that there would be nothing better than a tasty boerewors roll for lunch. The vendor
put our food together just the way Leah asked, but when she took out her money to
pay, the man, whose face was wrinkled from so much time in the sun, surprised us.
“It looks a little on the cool side,” he said, “so never mind paying me. This will be the
freebie for the day.”
We said thanks, went to sit in the nearby park and dug into our food. But as we ate I
was distracted by a man sitting nearby, looking at us. I could tell he hadn’t showered
for days. “Just another homeless person,” I thought but didn’t pay much attention.
Leah and I finished eating and decided to go and do some shopping. But when we
went to the rubbish bin to throw away our serviettes, I heard a strong voice ask,
“Excuse me, is there anything left?”
It was the man who had been watching us. I didn’t know what to say except, “No, I
ate it already.” “Oh”, was his only answer, with no shame in his voice at all. He was
obviously hungry, couldn’t bear to see anything thrown away, and was used to
asking this question. I felt bad for the man, but didn’t know what I could do. That’s
when Leah said, “I’ll be right back,” and ran off.
I watched curiously as Leah went across to the boerewors roll stand. Then I realised
what she was doing. She bought a boerewors roll, crossed back to the bin, and gave
the food to the hungry man.
As she came towards me Leah simply said, “I was just passing on the kindness that
someone gave to me.” That day I learnt how generosity can go further than the
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person you give it to. By giving, you teach others how to give also.
From: Solutions for all English Home Language Grade 7 Learner’s Book
A. Write the opposite form of the word in brackets by adding a prefix.

1. The weather was (perfect) for a lunch outside.
2. The girls had (finished) business with the vendor.
B. Find a synonym in the text for the word in brackets.

1. The boerewors roll is (delicious).
C. Complete the sentence by providing the correct plural of the words in brackets.
1. Leah and her friend take different (bus) to different (church) on Sundays.
2. The vendor washes (dish) every day.
D. Read paragraphs 1 and 2 of the text. Identify:

1. One simple sentence from the paragraphs
2. One complex sentence from the paragraphs
3. One compound sentence from the paragraphs
E. Rewrite the sentences in the past tense.

1. The vendor sells boerewors rolls at the stall.
2. The homeless man sits under the lamppost and begs for food.
F. Identify the words that have been used as adjectives in the sentences.
1. It was a beautiful day in Durban.
2. The vendor sells tasty boerewors rolls.
G. Use the conjunction in brackets to combine the two sentences.

1. Leah studies hard. Leah will go to university. (if ………then)
2. Leah gave the homeless man a boerewors roll. The homeless man was hungry.
(because)
3. The girls wanted to pay for their food. The vendor offered it for free. (but)
2014 GRADES 6 AND 7 ENGLISH FAL WINTER SCHOOL SUPPORT MATERIAL

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GRADE 6 AND 7 ENGLISH TEACHER WORKBOOK

http://www.kzneducation.gov.za/Portals/0/Circuiars/General/2014/FINAL%20GRADES%206%20AND
%207%20DOCUMENT%202014.pdf

1. Explain why the text is an appropriate choice for a language-in-context
exercise.
2. Identify the problem if most of the learners in the class get D and E wrong.
Feedback
1. The context is familiar to most South African learners and it is an authentic
piece of writing.
2. The teaching and learning of sentence construction and the past tense did
not succeed.
7.3.3 The assessment for learning process
Language structures and conventions are not used in isolation. Therefore, language
is assessed in an integrated way as well. We are going to use the last assessment
task in table 7.3, Write a paragraph: a factual recount/description of people/
a message to demonstrate how assessment for learning is implemented. In table
7.4, pay attention to how the assessments that you use work together, allowing you
to assess all aspects of language you wanted the learners to acquire.
Table 7.4: Assessment tasks for grade 5
Task 1 % What you are assessing

Listens to and speaks about a 15 Listening comprehension, verbal skills
story/gives a factual and use of pronouns, subject verb
recount/takes part in a
conversation or role-play concord and simple past.
Vocabulary; learning new words.
Reads aloud a prepared text 10 The text should be a story or a factual
recount. Reading strategies, vocabulary
and pronunciation. Recognise and use
punctuation in reading aloud.
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Language structures and 15 The use of pronouns, countable and

conventions in context uncountable nouns, subject verb
concord and simple past in the context
of a text.
If you are including prior knowledge
such as adjectives, make it a part of
your teaching.
Reading comprehension of a 20 Reading comprehension.
story/information text
Reflects on stories/text read 10 Reading and comprehension,
independently vocabulary.
Writes a paragraph: a factual 30 Personal recount of events. Stays on
recount/description of topic, uses new vocabulary. Uses
people/message
nouns, pronouns and adjectives to
describe. Uses simple past correctly.
Total 100
Figure 7.3: Assessment for learning process
• Step 1: Learning intention

The learning intention is what you want the students to learn.
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1. Why is the task written? To assess learners’ ability to write a factual

recount, staying on topic, using simple past tense, nouns and pronouns and
vocabulary at grade-appropriate level.
2. How will success be recognised? The minimum requirements are: stay on
topic, use the simple past tense correctly, use nouns, pronouns and
vocabulary correctly.
3. What to do? Write a factual recount on a certain topic.
(e.g., Write a story about celebrating your birthday … during level 5 lockdown!)
• Step 2: Teaching phase

In this phase you will focus on the language structure and conventions / skills you
want the learners to master before they write their factual account. First you will
revise knowledge the learners have been taught already, such as the use of
adjectives to describe an object. You will also teach OR revise grammar such as the
present tense and the simple past tense which can be used in the story.
Furthermore, you will provide suitable vocabulary and guide the learners with regard
to suitable punctuation to be used in the story. Scaffolding is an important part of
this phase. You will challenge the more accomplished learners to use new
vocabulary and more advanced grammar such as complex sentences. The learners
who are not as comfortable yet with the grammar will require scaffolding. You may
give them example sentences to use to start off their thinking, or give them words to
work with. Please note that you are not making it easier for them; you are making
learning accessible to them.
• Step 3: Assessment for learning activity

This is where the learner will do the following: “Write a story about celebrating
your birthday … during level 5 lockdown!”
You will be very clear in your instructions to the learners as to what a successful
story will look like. That is, you will have clear criteria for success, which will also be
reflected in the rubric or marking tool. The rubric or marking tool must be attached to
the informal assessment task and discussed with the learners. Make good use of the
writing process to create opportunities for effective feedback. Allow learners to
critically read their first draft and compare their writing with the assessment criteria.
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Similarly, use peer assessment to help learners assess each other’s work positively
and critically.
• Step 4: Dealing with gaps in learning

This step follows after you have marked the writing task. Taking note of the gaps in
learning is very important. For example, are the learners struggling with the simple
past tense, or the correct use of pronouns? You will provide informative feedback,
using metalanguage so that the learners will know where in their learning they went
wrong. In the next teaching phase, you will deal with gaps, restate goals, and
incorporate the re-teaching of some of the language structures and conventions.
Therefore, you will use the informal assessment tasks to give you information about
what the learners have learnt – this information will inform your next teaching phase.
• Step 5: Formal assessment task

The formal writing task or examination will be an opportunity for the learners to
demonstrate their learning. You will assess the learning outcomes and again identify
the gaps in learning to answer your question “what do they know?”
7.4 ASSESSMENT TOOLS

There are different assessment tools available for language assessment. One is a
memorandum with the correct answers which you would use to mark the language
structures and conventions in context tasks. Checklists, multiple-choice marking and
rubrics are also commonly used.
A rubric is typically used for the assessment of writing and oral tasks as well as
prepared and unprepared reading. A rubric is a more nuanced assessment tool as it
has several levels of competence and can also be used to assess multiple learning
skills. In addition, a rubric is conducive to a rich conversation between the teacher
and the learner, using metalanguage. Such a conversation is typically focused not on
what was wrong but what the learning intention was, why it was not reached and
what must happen for the learner to succeed. Consequently, teachers find it difficult
to work with rubrics because it is not simply a case of marking something right or
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wrong. It requires metacognitive thinking and the teacher and the learner engaging
with the assessment for learning.
There are ways to mitigate the use of a rubric in assessment. The most critical
strategy is to move away from the perception that you as the teacher give your
learners a mark. Involve the learners by making sure they know what the learning
intention is, what they have to do to succeed and how marks are allocated. Then let
them use the rubric themselves in assessing their work – this way they will
understand the role of assessment in their learning. Assessment then truly becomes
assessment for learning.
The quality of the feedback you provide is pivotal to the learning process. Marking
grammar errors by underlining them with multiple exclamation marks in the margin
does not give the learners any information about the mistake. This kind of marking
strategy results in learners repeating the same mistakes in their work, leading to
frustrations for the teacher and the learner. Thus, while the use of a rubric may seem
time consuming, it is a more effective way of dealing with gaps in learning. The
learners understand where they went wrong and they should over time be able to
correct their own mistakes during the editing phase of process writing. The learners’
reflections at the end of the rubric enable them to engage with the assessment in
conversation with you but also themselves. It gives the learners the opportunity to
think about their mistakes and the strategies they will employ to improve on their
competence. This reflection could be on the teacher’s comments and also on areas
they themselves have identified as gaps. Again, this is an example of how you as
teacher can use assessments to gain invaluable information about your learners’
learning.
Question the value of learning when making corrections, particularly if the learners
do not understand their own mistakes.
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Analyse the assessment rubric in table 7.5 and answer the following questions:
1. Provide an example from the rubric to show how the assessment criteria align
with the teaching intentions.
2. Which learning assessment criteria would you have added and why?
3. What is your understanding of the difference between fully competent and

competent?
4. How would you teach learners how to reflect on their assessment result?
Feedback
1. The learning intentions and assessment criteria are aligned.
2. Own answer.
3. Fully competent would be a learner who is fluent in the language and produces
nearly error-free work. Competent means it is good enough to be considered
successful.
4. The teacher will include reflections as part of the teaching and learning in class.
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Table 7.5: Rubric for writing a paragraph
Learner’s name:
Fully competent Competent Not yet competent

Learner’s performance
(5–6) (3–4) (1–2)
Writes a factual story and stays 5
on topic. Look at the sentence
about your aunt again
and decide if it needs
to be part of your
story.
Writes interesting content. 6
Used the lockdown
regulations in an
interesting way to
show how difficult it
was to celebrate the
way you wanted to.
Well done!
Uses pronouns correctly; the use 4
of pronouns, countable and
uncountable nouns, subject verb Good use of
concord and simple past tense in pronouns. Check
the context of a text. what the difference
between countable
and uncountable
nouns is. Look at
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the verbs I have

underlined and
check subject-verb
agreement.
Uses punctuation marks 4 Good use of the
correctly; commas, full stops, full stop, well done!
question marks and exclamation
marks. Look at the capital
letters at the
Spells words correctly. beginning of your
sentences again.
Writes final draft neatly. 2 Please remember

to rewrite the rough
draft neatly.
TOTAL 30 16
Teacher’s comments: Thank you for a lovely story about the birthday. I can see that your writing is
improving. Keep underlining the subject-verb agreement in the texts that we are reading and notice
how they are used. We will keep practising the countable and uncountable nouns.
Learner: What I want to work on for my next writing task: How will I do that?
I want to understand the subject-verb agreement. Notice and underline subjects and verbs in texts.
I want to use better words. Read more and build my own vocabulary wall.
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7.5 CONCLUSION
Assessment is dynamic as it is part of the conversation between you and your learners. Together
you can determine what they have learnt and understood well and where the gaps are that need to
be dealt with. It can be most gratifying for you as a teacher to see how your learners are able to
take part actively in their learning, understand their learning needs and set learning targets for
themselves. To see assessments as odious and only as mechanisms to accumulate marks for
reporting, is the undoing of an opportunity for the learners to thrive.
7.6 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING (Activity: Checklist)

again revisit
• explain what the DBE policy on
assessment is
• describe how language is
assessed according to CAPS
• apply cognitive levels in questions

and assessments
• implement the assessment for

learning process
• analyse the efficacy of an

assessment rubric
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ACI2602/501/0/2024

Tutorial Letter 501/0/2024

Department of Language Education, Arts and

2.3.2 Sociolinguistic competence.................................................................................................. 25

2.3.3 Discourse competence ......................................................................................................... 25

2.3.4 Strategic competence .......................................................................................................... 26

2.4 THE PPP APPROACH TO TEACHING AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE ................ 27

2.4.2 The practice stage ................................................................................................................ 28

2.4.3 The production phase .......................................................................................................... 29

2.5 USING GAMES TO TEACH LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS . 32

2.6.2 Working with words and sentences..................................................................................... 35

2.6.3 Vocabulary ........................................................................................................................... 35

2.7 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 35

3.2.2 Vocabulary in context and vocabulary lists................................................................... 42

3.2.4 Encourage learners to use dictionaries......................................................................... 43

3.2.5 Extend vocabulary by means of word building ............................................................. 43

3.3 A FEW STRATEGIES TO BUILD VOCABULARY................................................. 44

4.2.2 Look, close, write and check ......................................................................................... 57

4.2.3 Turn the learning of spelling into a game ..................................................................... 58

4.2.4 Spelling and repetition .................................................................................................. 58

4.2.5 Spelling and reading ............................................................................................................. 58

4.2.6 Assessment and spelling ...................................................................................................... 59

4.3 WHY IT IS SO DIFFICULT TO TEACH ENGLISH SPELLING .............................. 63

4.4 TEACHING PUNCTUATION ................................................................................. 66

4.4.2 Teaching the apostrophe .............................................................................................. 67

4.5 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 68

5.2.2 Grammatical markers in additional language learning ................................................. 73

5.3 APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR ........................................................ 74

5.3.2 The inductive approach (rule-discovery learning) ............................................................... 76

2. Learners answer questions on the article................................................................... 78

7. Further examples are provided to test understanding: an exercise in completing

5.3.3 The functional-notional approach ....................................................................................... 78

5.3.4 Grammar in a situational context ........................................................................................ 80

5.4 STRUCTURING GRAMMAR LESSONS............................................................... 80

5.5 ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR ........................................................... 87

5.5.2 Teaching grammar through songs, poems and rhymes................................................ 88

5.5.3 Teaching grammar through games ...................................................................................... 89

5.6 RESOURCES TO USE IN GRAMMAR TEACHING .............................................. 90

6.3.3 Teaching learners to critically evaluate texts....................................................................... 99

6.3.4 Metalanguage and feedback................................................................................................ 99

6.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 102

7.3 ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING ........................................................................ 109

7.3.1 Informal assessment .......................................................................................................... 111

7.3.2 Implementing the programme of assessment ................................................................... 111

7.3.3 The assessment for learning process ................................................................................. 115

7.4 ASSESSMENT TOOLS ...................................................................................... 118

WELCOME AND ORIENTATION

Module purpose and outcomes

The specific outcomes are as follows:

How the study guide is structured

There are seven learning units in this study guide.

INTERPRETING CAPS ENGLISH FAL – LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND

1.2 WHAT ARE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS?

1.4 APPROACHES TO TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS

1.5 INTEGRATION OF LCS WITH OTHER SKILLS

1.6 USING ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING IN THE TEACHING OF LCM

1.7 USING TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND CONVENTIONS

1.9 CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

As the end of this unit, you will be able to:

Formal/Written Intentions as specified in curriculum

Table: 1.2: English First Additional Language skills

1 Listening and speaking conversations, discussions and short oral