CIVILIZATION When did it start? How did it start? Greatest Why did it end?

contribution to the
world.
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia's The development a. Writing The
civilization began of Mesopotamian System Mesopotamian
around 3500 BCE civilization was (Cuneiform): The civilization ended
in the region influenced by the Sumerians are with the arrival of
between the Tigris fertile land credited with the Achaemenid
and Euphrates between the Tigris inventing one of Empire in the late
rivers, which is and Euphrates the earliest writing 6th century BC or
part of modern- rivers, known as systems, known as with the Muslim
day Iraq, Kuwait, the Fertile cuneiform. This conquest and the
eastern Syria, and Crescent. The system involved establishment of
parts of availability of the use of wedge- the Caliphate in
southeastern water, fertile soil, shaped marks on the late 7th
Turkey and and the clay tablets and century AD, from
southwestern Iran. domestication of was initially which point the
The Sumerians are plants and animals developed for region came to be
credited with played a crucial record-keeping known as Iraq.
establishing the role in the rise of and administrative
first cities in this settled agricultural purposes.
region, such as Ur communities. The b. Wheel and
and Uruk. need for Plow:
coordinated Mesopotamians
agricultural developed the
activities led to wheel, which had
the development a significant
of complex impact on
societies, the transportation and
establishment of later became
cities, and the essential for
emergence of various
organized technological
governance. advancements.
Additionally, the
use of the plow in
agriculture
improved
efficiency in
cultivating the
fertile soil of the
region.
c.Time: They
developed
the sexagesimal
system by which
units of time are
divided into 60
parts and its
factors, which
eventually gave us
our minute of 60
seconds and an
hour of 60
minutes. It is also
from the
Mesopotamians
that we inherit the
24 hours of the
day and the 12
signs of the
zodiac,
corresponding to
the lunar months.
To make these fit
with the number
of days in the
solar year, the
 Mesopotamians
added not leap
days but leap
months.
Egypt The ancient The Nile River a. Hieroglyphic The decline of
Egyptian played a crucial Writing System: Ancient Egypt
civilization is one role in the The ancient began around
of the oldest in the development of Egyptians 1100 BCE due to
world, with its ancient Egypt. developed one of a loss of military
roots dating back The annual the earliest writing power, lack of
to around 3100 flooding of the systems known as natural resources,
BCE. The Nile brought hieroglyphs. political conflicts,
unification of fertile silt, These intricate erratic climate,
Upper and Lower creating a symbols were and economic and
Egypt under King conducive used for political unrest.
Narmer (also environment for monumental Egypt was
known as Menes) agriculture. The inscriptions, subsequently
is often ability to predict religious texts, occupied by
considered the and harness the and administrative various foreign
starting point of benefits of the records. The powers, including
ancient Egypt. Nile's flooding Rosetta Stone, the Assyrians,
This unification contributed to the discovered in Persians, and
marked the growth of settled 1799, played a Macedonians, and
beginning of a communities. The crucial role in eventually became
centralized state early Egyptians deciphering a Roman province
with a pharaoh as established a hieroglyphs, in 30 BCE
the ruler. complex society unlocking a
with a hierarchical wealth of
structure, where knowledge about
the pharaohs held ancient Egypt.
both religious and b. Advancements
political authority. in Architecture
and Engineering:
The Egyptians are
renowned for their
architectural and
engineering
achievements,
particularly the
construction of the
pyramids. The
Great Pyramid of
Giza, built during
the reign of
Pharaoh Khufu, is
a testament to
their mastery of
construction
techniques. The
precision with
which the
pyramids were
built remains a
marvel of ancient
engineering.
c. Innovations in
Medicine and
Mathematics:
Ancient Egyptians
made
contributions to
medicine, with a
focus on anatomy
and surgical
techniques. The
Edwin Smith
Surgical Papyrus,
an ancient medical
 text, outlines
surgical
procedures and
medical
observations. In
mathematics, the
Egyptians
developed a
practical system
of measurement
and calculations,
essential for tasks
such as land
surveying and
construction.
China The history of The development a. Confucianism, Chinese
Chinese of Chinese Daoism, and civilization has
civilization spans civilization is Legalism: China not ended but has
thousands of closely tied to the has been the undergone
years, with its fertile lands along birthplace of numerous
roots going back the Yellow River several influential dynastic changes
to the Neolithic (Huang He) and philosophical and and periods of
period. The Xia the Yangtze River. ethical traditions. political
Dynasty, Agriculture, Confucianism, restructuring. The
traditionally particularly rice founded by dynastic cycle,
considered the cultivation, played Confucius, characterized by
first dynasty, is a vital role in the emphasizes social the rise and fall of
said to have ruled growth of settled harmony, ethical ruling families,
from around 2070 communities. The conduct, and filial has been a
to 1600 BCE, early Chinese piety. Daoism, recurring theme in
although societies were attributed to Chinese history.
archaeological characterized by a Laozi, focuses on The fall of
evidence for this system of living in harmony individual
period is limited. kingships, and the with the Dao (the dynasties often
The Shang Shang Dynasty is Way) and resulted from a
Dynasty (1600– known for its use embracing combination of
1046 BCE) is the of oracle bones simplicity. internal strife,
first for which for divination and Legalism, with external invasions,
there is more early forms of roots in works like peasant uprisings,
tangible historical Chinese writing. Han Feizi, stresses and economic
evidence, marking strict rule of law challenges. The
the beginning of a and state control. Mandate of
recorded history b. Inventions and Heaven, a concept
for China. Technological in Chinese
Advancements: political
Ancient China philosophy, was
made numerous used to legitimize
significant the rule of a
contributions to dynasty, and the
technology and loss of this
inventions, mandate was often
including associated with
papermaking, the downfall of a
printing, the ruling house.
compass, The last imperial
gunpowder, and dynasty, the Qing
the development Dynasty, fell in
of various 1912, marking the
agricultural tools. end of dynastic
These innovations rule in China. The
had a profound Republic of China
impact not only in was established,
China but also and later, after a
globally. period of civil
c. Great Wall of war, the People's
China: The Republic of China
construction of the emerged in 1949,
Great Wall is one led by the Chinese
 of China's most Communist Party.
iconic Modern China has
achievements. experienced
While sections of significant social,
the wall were built economic, and
by different political
dynasties over transformations,
centuries, the becoming a major
most well-known global player.
sections were
constructed during
the Ming Dynasty
(1368–1644). The
Great Wall served
as a defensive
barrier against
invasions and
reflects the
engineering
prowess of ancient
China.

India The history of The Indus Valley a. Concept of Unlike some

Indian civilization Civilization is one Zero and civilizations that
is one of the of the earliest Decimal System: experienced clear
oldest in the known urban Indian beginnings and
world, with roots cultures, featuring mathematicians, endings, Indian
dating back to the advanced city particularly in the civilization has
Indus Valley planning, a system classical period, shown remarkable
Civilization (circa of writing (which made significant continuity and
3300–1300 BCE). remains contributions to adaptability over
The Indus Valley undeciphered), mathematics. The the millennia. The
Civilization was a and sophisticated concept of zero decline of specific
Bronze Age drainage and and the decimal political entities or
civilization that water supply numeral system empires did not
existed in what is systems. The are among their lead to the end of
now modern-day decline of the most notable Indian
Pakistan and Indus Valley achievements. civilization.
northwest India. It Civilization is not These ideas had a Instead, the
is characterized by entirely profound impact subcontinent
well-planned understood, but on mathematics witnessed the rise
cities like factors such as and laid the and fall of various
Mohenjo-Daro environmental foundation for kingdoms and
and Harappa. changes and more advanced empires, including
possibly invasions mathematical the Maurya and
may have developments. Gupta Empires,
contributed. b. Ayurveda and the Mughal
Following the Medicine: India Empire, and
decline of the has a rich tradition regional powers.
Indus Valley of medical India's history is
Civilization, the knowledge, and marked by a
Vedic period Ayurveda, an cultural and
(circa 1500–500 ancient system of philosophical
BCE) marked the medicine, is one continuity that
emergence of the of the earliest transcends
Vedic culture, recorded systems. political changes.
characterized by Ayurveda The influence of
the composition of emphasizes a diverse cultural,
the Vedas, early holistic approach religious, and
religious and to health, linguistic
philosophical incorporating elements has
texts. herbal remedies, contributed to the
dietary guidelines, resilience and
and lifestyle ongoing
practices. It has development of
influenced Indian
medical traditions civilization. Even
globally. during periods of
 c. Dharmic foreign invasions
Philosophies: and colonial rule,
India is the India retained its
birthplace of distinct cultural
several major identity.
world religions
and philosophical
traditions,
including
Hinduism,
Buddhism, and
Jainism. These
traditions have
had a profound
impact on
spirituality, ethics,
and philosophy
worldwide. The
philosophical
concepts of
karma, dharma,
and moksha are
integral to
Hinduism, while
Buddhism's
teachings on the
Four Noble Truths
and Eightfold Path
are fundamental to
that tradition.

Greece The history of Ancient Greek a. Philosophy: The decline of

ancient Greece civilization Ancient Greece is classical Greek
spans a vast emerged through a renowned for its civilization is
period, but the combination of contributions to often associated
term "Greek factors, including philosophy. with the conquests
civilization" is the influence of Figures such as of Alexander the
often associated earlier cultures Socrates, Plato, Great, who
with the period like the and Aristotle laid succeeded in
from the Archaic Mycenaeans and the foundation for uniting much of
(circa 800 BCE) Minoans. The Western the known world
to the Hellenistic geographical philosophy. under his rule.
(323 BCE to 31 landscape of Socrates' After Alexander's
BCE) eras. The Greece, emphasis on death in 323 BCE,
Mycenaean characterized by critical thinking, his empire was
civilization, an mountainous Plato's exploration divided among his
earlier Bronze terrain and of ideal forms, generals, leading
Age culture, is numerous islands, and Aristotle's to the Hellenistic
considered a led to the systematic period.
precursor to development of approach to The Hellenistic
classical Greek independent city- knowledge have era saw the
civilization. The states (polis) with had a lasting blending of Greek
city-states of distinct political, impact on culture with other
ancient Greece, social, and intellectual civilizations,
such as Athens cultural identities. thought. particularly in the
and Sparta, are The city-state of b. Democracy: Middle East. This
central to the Athens is often Athens is credited period continued
classical Greek considered a with the until the rise of
era. cultural and development of the Roman
intellectual center, one of the earliest Republic, which
while Sparta was forms of gradually
known for its democracy. While expanded its
militaristic it was not influence in the
society. inclusive by eastern
modern standards, Mediterranean.
it marked a The Roman
significant conquest of
departure from Greece was
 autocratic rule. marked by the
The Athenian Battle of Corinth
democracy in 146 BCE,
allowed citizens to leading to the
participate in incorporation of
decision-making Greece into the
processes, Roman Empire.
influencing later While Greece as
democratic an independent
systems. political entity
c. Classical Art ceased to exist, its
and cultural and
Architecture: intellectual legacy
Ancient Greece endured through
produced some of the Roman
the most iconic Empire. The
works of art and Greek language,
architecture in philosophy, art,
history. The and political ideas
Parthenon, a influenced Roman
temple dedicated culture and later
to the goddess contributed
Athena, is a prime significantly to the
example of development of
classical Greek Western
architecture. civilization during
Greek art the Renaissance.
emphasized
proportion,
harmony, and the
celebration of the
human form,
influencing
subsequent artistic
traditions.

Rome The traditional Rome's early a. Roman Law: The fall of the
date for the history is marked The Romans made Western Roman
founding of Rome by the transition significant Empire is a
is April 21, 753 from monarchy to contributions to complex process
BCE. According republic around legal systems. The that occurred over
to legend, Rome 509 BCE. The Twelve Tables, several centuries.
was founded by Roman Republic established around While there is no
Romulus and was characterized 450 BCE, formed single cause,
Remus, twin by a system of the basis of several key factors
brothers who were checks and Roman law and contributed to its
said to have been balances, with were displayed decline:
raised by a she- elected officials publicly to ensure a. External
wolf. While the serving limited equal treatment Invasions: The
historicity of this terms. Rome's under the law. Roman Empire
legend is expansion through Roman legal faced repeated
uncertain, it is military conquests principles have invasions by
considered the and alliances had a lasting various Germanic
legendary starting eventually led to influence on tribes, Huns, and
point of Rome. the creation of a Western legal others. The sack
vast empire. traditions. of Rome by the
b. Engineering Visigoths in 410
and CE and by the
Architecture: Vandals in 455 CE
Romans were were particularly
renowned for their significant events.
engineering and b. Internal
architectural Decline: Factors
achievements. The such as political
construction of instability,
roads, bridges, economic decline,
aqueducts, and corruption, and
monumental military problems
 structures like the contributed to the
Colosseum and internal
the Pantheon weakening of the
showcased their empire. The
mastery in division of the
engineering. The empire into
use of the arch, Western and
vault, and dome Eastern Roman
became defining Empires (with its
features of Roman capital in
architecture. Byzantium, later
c. Latin Constantinople)
Language and also played a role.
Literature: Latin, c. Economic
the language of Challenges: The
the Romans, Roman Empire
became a faced economic
foundation for the challenges,
development of including
Romance overreliance on
languages. Roman slave labor, high
literature, taxation, and
including works economic
by Virgil, Cicero, inequality. The
and Ovid, has had decline of trade
a profound impact and economic
on Western productivity
literature and contributed to the
rhetoric. The Latin empire's
language weakened state.
remained The traditional
influential in date for the fall of
science, law, and the Western
academia for Roman Empire is
centuries. 476 CE when the
last Roman
emperor, Romulus
Augustulus, was
deposed by the
Germanic
chieftain Odoacer.
However, the
Eastern Roman
Empire, also
known as the
Byzantine Empire,
continued to exist
for nearly another
thousand years
until the fall of
Constantinople in
1453 CE.

Olmec The Olmec The origins of the a. Olmec The decline of the
civilization is Olmec civilization Colossal Heads: Olmec civilization
considered one of are not fully The Olmecs are is not fully
the earliest understood, and renowned for their understood, and
complex societies there is ongoing colossal stone there are several
in Mesoamerica. archaeological heads, massive theories regarding
It is believed to research to sculptures its demise.
have emerged uncover more depicting human Possible factors
around 1400 BCE details. The faces. These include
and lasted until Olmecs are often heads, carved environmental
approximately credited with from basalt, are changes, such as
400 BCE. The establishing the among the most volcanic activity
Olmec civilization first complex iconic and and earthquakes,
was centered in societies in recognizable as well as shifts in
the tropical Mesoamerica, artifacts of the river courses.
 lowlands of what characterized by Olmec These natural
is now Mexico, large ceremonial civilization. The events may have
particularly in the centers, complex purpose and led to changes in
present-day states social structures, significance of agricultural
of Veracruz and and monumental these heads productivity,
Tabasco. art. The city of remain a subject affecting the
San Lorenzo, with of scholarly Olmec way of life.
its massive stone debate. Additionally, it's
heads and other b. Writing and suggested that
sculptures, is Symbolism: social, political, or
considered one of While the Olmecs economic factors,
the earliest Olmec did not leave including internal
centers. behind a fully conflicts or
developed writing competition with
system, they made emerging cultures,
contributions to could have played
Mesoamerican a role in the
writing and decline of the
symbolism. Olmec
Symbols and civilization. By
glyphs found at around 400 BCE,
Olmec sites the Olmec centers
suggest a system were largely
of communication abandoned, and
and the use of the Olmec people
iconography that dispersed to other
influenced later regions,
Mesoamerican contributing to the
cultures. cultural and
c. Ceremonial historical
Centers and development of
Urban Planning: Mesoamerica.
The Olmecs were Despite the
among the first in decline of the
Mesoamerica to Olmec
build large civilization, their
ceremonial cultural and
centers with artistic influence
earthen pyramids persisted,
and plazas. The influencing
layout of these subsequent
centers and the Mesoamerican
construction of societies such as
ceremonial the Maya and the
platforms Aztecs. The
influenced the Olmecs are often
urban planning of considered the
subsequent "mother culture"
Mesoamerican of Mesoamerica,
civilizations. laying the
foundation for the
complex societies
that followed.

Aztec The Aztec According to a. Chinampas The Aztec

civilization, also Aztec legend, the (Floating civilization met its
known as the god Gardens): The end with the
Mexica Huitzilopochtli Aztecs developed arrival of Spanish
civilization, began guided the Aztecs an innovative conquistadors, led
in the 14th to settle in the agricultural by Hernán Cortés,
century CE in the location where system known as in the early 16th
region of they saw an eagle chinampas, which century. The
Mesoamerica, perched on a were artificial Spanish arrived in
specifically in the cactus, eating a islands created in 1519, and through
Valley of Mexico. snake. This the lake. These a combination of
The Aztecs were symbol is now floating gardens military tactics,
originally a depicted on the allowed the alliances with
nomadic people Mexican flag. The Aztecs to cultivate indigenous groups
 who migrated Aztecs, who were crops efficiently, who were enemies
from the north and initially a contributing to the of the Aztecs, and
gradually settled marginalized sustenance of their the spread of
in the central group in the growing diseases (such as
highlands. They region, formed population. smallpox), they
founded their alliances with b. Calendars and managed to
capital city, other city-states Mathematics: conquer the Aztec
Tenochtitlán, on and gradually The Aztecs had Empire.
an island in Lake established their advanced The most
Texcoco in 1325 dominance. knowledge of significant event
CE. astronomy and in the fall of the
mathematics. Aztec Empire was
They created two the siege and
interconnected capture of
calendars—an Tenochtitlán in
agricultural 1521. The city
calendar of 260 was subjected to a
days and a solar prolonged siege,
calendar of 365 and the Aztecs
days. The Aztecs faced challenges
also used a such as famine
sophisticated and disease.
system of Ultimately,
hieroglyphic Tenochtitlán fell
writing and to the Spanish
numerical forces and their
notation. indigenous allies,
c. Art and marking the end
Architecture: of the Aztec
The Aztecs were civilization.
skilled artists and The conquest of
builders. They the Aztec Empire
created intricate was a complex
codices (books) process, involving
containing military conquest,
pictorial political
representations maneuvering, and
and recorded the introduction of
historical and new diseases that
religious had devastating
information. In effects on the
terms of indigenous
architecture, the population. The
Aztecs fall of the Aztec
constructed Empire marked
impressive the beginning of
structures, Spanish colonial
including the rule in the region,
Templo Mayor in which had a
Tenochtitlán, profound impact
which served as on the cultural,
the main temple social, and
of their capital. economic
landscape of
Mesoamerica.

Maya The Maya The Maya a. Hieroglyphic The decline of the

civilization is civilization Writing System: Classic Maya
known to have its emerged in the The Maya civilization is a
roots in the tropical lowlands developed one of complex process,
Preclassic period, of present-day the most and scholars have
with the Mexico, sophisticated proposed various
development of Guatemala, writing systems in theories:
early Maya Belize, Honduras, the ancient a. Environmental
communities and El Salvador. It Americas. Their Factors: Some
dating back to began as small hieroglyphic researchers
around 2000 BCE. agricultural script, found in suggest that
However, the villages, and over inscriptions on environmental
Classic period, time, the Maya stelae, stressors, such as
characterized by people developed monuments, and deforestation, soil
the height of complex societies codices, has been degradation, and
Maya civilization, with advanced partially prolonged
began around 250 architecture, deciphered, droughts, played a
CE and lasted agriculture, and providing insights role in the decline.
until social into Maya history, These factors may
approximately organization. religion, and daily have contributed
900 CE. Notable early life. to agricultural
centers include b. Calendar and challenges and
Nakbé and El Astronomy: The resource scarcity.
Mirador. Maya had a b. Political and
complex and Social Factors:
accurate Internal strife,
calendrical including warfare
system, including and political
the Long Count unrest, might have
calendar, which weakened the
allowed them to social fabric of
record historical Maya society.
events and predict City-states
celestial engaged in
phenomena. Their conflicts, leading
understanding of to the collapse of
astronomy is certain polities
evident in the and the
alignment of their abandonment of
architectural cities.
structures with c. Economic
celestial events, Decline:
such as solstices Economic factors,
and equinoxes. such as trade
c. Urban disruptions or
Planning and changes in
Architecture: economic
The Maya built systems, may
impressive have contributed
ceremonial to the decline. The
centers with interconnected
monumental nature of Maya
architecture, city-states meant
including that economic
pyramids, disruptions in one
temples, and ball area could have
courts. Cities like widespread
Tikal, Calakmul, effects.
and Caracol The Classic period
featured intricate collapse around
city planning, 900 CE marked
with plazas, the end of the
acropolises, and grand city-
elaborate building phase of
structures that the Maya
reflected their civilization.
religious and However, it's
political important to note
significance. that Maya
civilization did
not disappear
entirely. Many
Maya cities
continued to be
occupied, and the
Postclassic period
(900–1500 CE)
saw the rise of
new centers, such
as Chichen Itza
 and Mayapan. The
reasons for the
Classic collapse
remain a subject
of ongoing
research and
debate in the field
of Maya studies.

Inca The Inca The legendary a. Terrace The decline of the

civilization, also founding of the Farming: The Inca Empire is
known as the Inka Inca Empire is Inca civilization is closely tied to the
Empire, is often attributed to renowned for its arrival of Spanish
believed to have Manco Cápac, the advanced conquistadors, led
originated in the first Sapa Inca agricultural by Francisco
early 13th century (ruler) according practices, Pizarro. In 1532,
CE in the Andean to Inca mythology. particularly Pizarro, with a
region of South The historical terrace farming. small force,
America. origins of the Inca The construction captured and
However, its peak civilization of extensive eventually
and expansion involve the agricultural executed the Inca
occurred during gradual expansion terraces on ruler Atahualpa,
the 15th and 16th of the Inca people mountain slopes exploiting internal
centuries. from their early allowed the Inca divisions and
settlement in to cultivate crops capitalizing on the
Cusco. Under the in the challenging effects of diseases
leadership of Andean terrain, introduced by the
various Sapa contributing to Spanish, such as
Incas, the empire their ability to smallpox.
expanded through sustain a large The Spanish
military conquest population. conquest marked
and strategic b. Road System: the end of the Inca
alliances. The Inca Empire Empire, as the
developed an indigenous
impressive population faced
network of roads, not only military
known as the defeat but also the
Qhapaq Ñan, devastating
spanning impact of
thousands of miles European diseases
across diverse and disruptions to
landscapes. These their social and
roads facilitated political
communication, structures. The
trade, and the Inca Empire
movement of collapsed, and the
armies throughout Spanish
the empire. The established
Inca road system colonial rule over
is considered one the region.
of the most While the Inca
sophisticated civilization as a
engineering political entity
achievements of came to an end,
pre-Columbian aspects of Inca
America. culture and
c. Quipu: The technology
Inca civilization persisted in the
did not have a region. The
writing system in surviving Inca
the conventional population
sense, but they continued to resist
used a unique Spanish rule in
system of record- various ways, and
keeping called elements of Inca
quipu. Quipus society influenced
consisted of the development
colored strings of the colonial and
with various post-colonial
knots, and they Andean societies.
were used for
numerical and
possibly even
linguistic
purposes. While
the full extent of
their encoding
remains a subject
of study, quipus
played a crucial
role in
administrative and
accounting
functions.