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The return of experience from previous FPSO conversion to defects due to stress concentration and corrosion is given
projects is also considered and the several steps necessary to [1], [2] and [3]. Nevertheless, it is well known that occurrence
achieve the hull structural assessment are described in the of corrosion and other defects might vary according to the
paper, incorporating the lessons
lessons learned from these projects. shipyard design, fabrication standards, workmanship and the
operation and maintenance procedures adopted during the
The Candidates trade period.
Statistic data of in-service tankers built between 1973-2004 There are a number of differences and particularities
shows that around 56% are double hulls, 43% single hulls and inherent to each shipyard design, but one of the most
1% corresponding to other designs, such as double side important characteristics is the primary structure arrangement.
tankers and double bottom tankers ( figure 1). Generally two main types of structural arrangement are
Probably the main characteristic of single hull designs built noticed:
after 1985 is the extensive use of HTS. As there are few • Longitudinal ring stiffener system comprising deep
tankers built between 1973-85 still available for conversion girders within center and side tanks, supporting the
into floating units (figure 2), single hull and double hull transverse bulkheads horizontally stiffened. There are no
tankers built after 1985 and 1995, respectively, are natural horizontal stringers.
candidates to conversion into FPSO. The decision making • Horizontal system comprising in general four stringers
process to select the hull will balance between the expected within center and side tanks, supporting the transverse
higher cost for refurbishment of a single hull at conversion and bulkheads vertically stiffened. In general a longitudinal
the higher cost to purchase a double hull tanker. As shown in ring is provided in way of the center line girder.
table 1, in 2004 the average cost to purchase a tanker built Fatigue was clearly not the main concern in the design of
between 1985-95 was in average 60 m USD against 85.5 m connections of primary and secondary elements for such type
USD for a vessel built between 1996-2000 ( figure 3). of vessels, but in some way, it was apparently compensated for
the stiffer structural arrangement, larger corrosion margins and
Oil Tankers – Average Sale Price (m USD) less use of HTS.
Year During this period, oil tankers were built worldwide in
1973-85 1986-95 1996-00 2001-04
different shipyards, some of them having poor fabrication
2000 11.8 43.0 73.8 - quality.
2001 12.6 35.2 79.2 82.5 Single Hulls (1985 - 1995)
2002 11.0 21.5 59.5 75.0 The structure design of such ships is optimized by means
of finite element calculations and the extensive use of HTS to
2003 13.0 32.8 52.0 65.4 reduce the weight of steel. The hull structure design has used
2004 15.0 60.0 85.5 110.1 ST355, ST315 and ST235 steel types in different manners, in
particular in the side shell plates, stiffeners and web frames.
Average Some of them are built only using HTS in the cargo area.
12.3 36.3 66.1 88.3
Sale Price
The use of HTS, in particular in the side shell area around
Ships the neutral axis, was found to be one of the main causes of
29 185 116 118
operating problems associated to this type of vessel. Fatigue cracks of
side shell longitudinal connections to transverse primary
table 1: oil tanker average sale price (source: CW Kellock structures are probably the most typical defect of such designs,
& Co. Ltd.) as fatigue strength of side shell longitudinals and corrosion
Three main categories of oil tankers are here defined and margins are affected by the less stiffer structural panels at
their main characteristics are further described here after.
Return of experience with converted FPSO’s shows that for bottom
As and side shell
a general areas
areas.
rule, .
hulls built with ST355 should be
each of them the structure degradation during the tanker trade specially regarded as such vessels have an extensive record of
will determine the FPSO design life. The main parameters are defects and likely have been reinforced with additional
detail design standard, fabrication standards, operation brackets after construction and before the second Class
conditions, maintenance procedures and trading in harsh Renewal Survey.
environment. Another important parameter is the use of asymmetric
profiles, i.e. angle stiffeners in the side shell and bottom
Single Hulls (mid 70’s - 1985) panels. The use of angles at those locations having high
Conversion of single hull tankers built before 1985 have probability of failure should be specially considered when
been a worthwhile alternative for FPSO projects. Such vessels evaluating hulls candidate to conversion, in particular when
are relatively cheaper and their primary and secondary associated with use of steel ST315 and ST355.
structures use to be stiffer than in hulls built after 1985, where
high tensile steel has been extensively used. Double Hulls (1996 - towards)
A number of different designs can be identified, Despite double hulls are here considered from 1996, a
comprising American, French, German, Swedish and Japanese number of design alternatives have been proposed in the early
standards among others. The industry has a good return of 90’s. But the double hull milestone is 1998/99, when new
experience with oil tankers and an extensive list of areas prone
OTC 17506 3
builds experimented a sharp increasing and typical Japanese some have experimented structural anomalies and defects,
and Korean shipyards have been consolidated as the main independently of they are newbuild or converted units. Despite
references on double hull designs. they may be presented in a different degree of intensity,
In the same way as for single hulls, the industry [4] has corrosion wastage and defects due to fatigue are the major
published guidelines listing the areas prone to defects due to threats for both types of hull.
stress concentration and corrosion. But again the
th e occurrence of Deterioration processes are initiated during the tanker trade
corrosion and defects might vary according to the shipyard period (approximately 45 FPSO’s operating were built before
design, fabrication standards, workmanship and the operation 1985, 4 between 1985-95 and 1 after 1995) and will be present
and maintenance procedures adopted during the trade period. along the FPSO’s service life.
Nevertheless, such designs profit of improvements on fatigue A number of FPSO’s have been converted on the basis of
assessment methodologies, design of connection details and the Classification Society rules requirements, unless additional
fabrication standards over the past 10 years. requirements were specified by operators. It means that
Differently of the second category of single hull tanker inspections at conversion have been carried out within the
designs, ST355 is almost no longer used and typical steel scope of Class Renewal Survey based on a 5-year cycle, where
distribution combines ST315 at bottom and upper deck areas substantial corrosion of structural components is verified in
with ST235 around the neutral axis areas. The latest one with accordance with applied rules. Surveys are carried out in other
in general a percentage not less than 30% of the total cross to identify anomalies and defects, and necessary repairs are
section. performed in order to bring the structure to as-built
Double hull designs have the number of structural configuration.
connections increased up to 15% due to the inner bottom and The problem with such approach is that the durability of
side longitudinal bulkhead stiffener connections to transverse the hull structure is not properly assessed against the required
floors and web frames, where despite the easier access to service life for the FPSO, in addition safety margin of critical
inspection might increase the inspection effort of critical joints components is not evaluated. As a consequence, these units
along the FPSO service. might arrive at the first and second class cycle having
Double hull tankers have an optimized hull design, in substantial corrosion of the structural components of the
general less than 5% margin in comparison with the class structure, increasing the risk of buckling and fatigue.
requirements, in particular at lower areas of the transverse Consequences may be divers, comprising low and majors
section. events in case proper mitigation actions are not taken:
Asymmetric profiles as angle stiffeners are again one of • Reduction of storage capacity,
the most important aspects regarding fatigue strength for side
shell longitudinal end connections. The use of angles, in • non planned shutdowns for repairs,
particular at those locations having h high
igh probability of failure • dry-docking for major repairs,
should be specially considered when evaluating hulls
• Structural failure
candidate to conversion.
Vessels built after 1997 have similar structural • Leak of oil, consequently risk of pollution and
arrangement, one of the most significant differences between explosion,
such designs is probably the position of the cross-ties, fitted Most common anomalies found in converted FPSO’s are
either within the center cargo tanks or within the side cargo the following:
tanks. It is noticed that for the first one ( figure 4.a), the side • Excessive pitting of horizontal structures
shell and the lower hopper structures use to have higher
deflections. It means that special attention should be paid to • Substantial corrosion (grooving)
side and inner shell longitudinal stiffeners connections, • Knife edging
horizontal girders and hopper connections with the inner
bottom and inner hull structures. • Cracks due to fatigue
For designs where the cross-ties are fitted within the side Cracks due to fatigue result from a combination of several
cargo tanks (figure 4.b), side shell structure deflections are parameters. The trading history of the vessel, site specific
decreased and stress levels are expected to be reduced. On the conditions (for harsh environments) and high stress ranges
other hand, longitudinal bulkheads are expected to have experienced during the loading and offloading cycle in the
deflections increased, in particular at alternate loading FPSO service are the main reasons. However, poor detail
conditions where center tanks are full filled and side tanks are designs, low standard of workmanship and corrosion of
empty. Therefore, special attention should be paid to the inner welded joints accelerating the occurrence and increasing
longitudinal bulkhead connections and in way of horizontal significantly the number of defects, where some of the most
stringers. common are the following:
• transverse brackets at transverse ordinary frames
Return of Experience on FPSO’s • end of horizontal stringers
There are approximately 97 FPSO’s and 74 FSO’s in
operation or available worldwide [5]. Over 60% are • end of cross ties in way of the side shell and
conversion projects. longitudinal bulkhead web frames
Over the past five years, 33 FPSO’s have been delivered
and most of them after 1996. Return of experience shows that
4 OTC 17506
• end of longitudinal stiffeners in way of bulkhead the fatigue damage and corrosion wastage cumulated during
penetrations and ordinary web
web frames. the previous tanker phase.
The damage cumulated during the trading history of the Ideally, design review and assessment of the hull condition
vessel uses to be the most significant parcel of the total should be supported by a detailed inspection of the entire hull
cumulated damage comprising tanker and FPSO phases, in structure before select the vessel to be converted. A hot spot
particular for ships operating in severe environment such as map of the hull structure, derived from a detailed hull structure
North Sea and North Atlantic areas. Cumulated fatigue assessment based on finite element analysis, is also useful to
damage due to wave cycles for an FPSO operating in benign evaluate the different hulls, however it may not be available
environments such as West Africa and Brazil (Campos Basin) during the selction process. Therefore, the various aspects
are in general less significant when compared with a harsher concerning the hull design characteristics may need be
environment. For this one the fatigue damage due to sea load reviewed in a more qualitative way.
may be in the same order of that one observed during the The hull design review may comprise a preliminary
tanker trade period. analysis of the existing as-built drawings of the vessel. Based
The fatigue damage caused by loading and unloading on the return of experience, a number of parameters can be
cycles during FPSO operations can be also estimated and defined and a checklist elaborated for a quick review of the
cumulated with the damage due to wave cycles, but in general candidate vessels.
the number of cycles associated to the shuttle tanker arrival is For long term projects, where the unit should stay on site
low, consequently the cumulated damage is in general during 10, 15 or even 25 years, this would not be enough to
negligible. ensure the integrity of the unit along the intended service life.
On the other hand, the effect of the loading and unloading A complete hull structure assessment should be available in
cycle due to differential head on the oil tight bulkheads and the early stage of the project and preferable before the
side shell panels may lead to high stress ranges, specially in refurbishment program is defined.
poor detail designs. Crack propagation analysis shows that the As a minimum scope, the tanker selection process should
loading sequence may accelerate the growth of cracks initiated include for each vessel the review of the following data:
during the tanker trade period [6]. • As-built drawings: look for detail designs prone to
fatigue, percentage of HTS, corrosion additions, etc.
Hull Selection • UTM Reports and survey and inspection records to
Evaluation of VLCC’s candidates for conversion into
identify corroded areas and typical defects: look for
FPSO’s may include a significant number of parameters
typical defects due to fatigue, high stressed areas and
concerning the characteristics of these vessels. Obviously the
buckling. Check for substantial
substantial corroded areas.
first step is to evaluate their adequacy regarding the basic
requirements of the FPSO conversion project, which are • repair specifications in order to evaluate:
associated with the field development. Storage capacity and - extension of scantling renewal due to substantial
the cargo tanks arrangement (number of tanks, subdivision, corrosion along the tanker service
etc) are some of these parameters. - mitigation of defects, including repairs, modifications
Certainly one of the most important and difficult aspects to and strengthening undertaken on board
be evaluated is the effective service life of the unit, which • Operation and maintenance practices (type of oil,
shall meet the required service life established based on the temperature, washing, corrosion protection, etc)
field estimated life.
Once several candidates may be available, attention should • Review of tanker trading history: tankers operating in
be paid to the strength verification of the overall hull and its severe weather are prone to have fatigue related
structural components. Structure safety factors should be problems
Ordinary stiffener connection with transverse supporting The risk of cracks with bending mode is limited with this
structures design but it remains a probability of cracks due to shear
It is through these connections that the loads are mode. Nevertheless, tolerances should be strict in such way
transmitted from the secondary to the primary structure that production and construction are delicate processes.
members.
These details are subjected to high cyclic loading through Connections of primary supporting members
the ship’s life and they constitute one of the most subjected to The most critical types of joint are the welded angles and
fatigue potential problem areas. Repair of such details may cruciform joints that are subjected to high magnitudes of
affect the tanker refurbishment schedule, as the work required tensile stresses.
to repair, renew and strengthen these details is much more The following parameters are considered the most
significant than the required weigh of steel. important parameters regarding fatigue strength of such
The following parameters are considered the most connections:
important ones regarding fatigue strength of such connections: Angle connection (figure 7):
• the location and the number of brackets (on one or both The most general type of welded joint is the angle
sides of the transverse primary member),
member), connection found mainly in the following structures:
• double bottom in way of transverse bulkheads with
• the shape (soft toes or not) and the size of the brackets,
lower stool,
• the longitudinal stiffener profile (symmetrical or not).
• the double bottom in way of hopper tanks,
• the misalignment of the webs of longitudinal ordinary
• the lower part of transverse bulkheads in way of the
stiffeners
lower stool (if any),
• the use of HTS in the side shell plate, stiffeners and
web frames • the lower part of inner side in way of hopper tanks.
and eventually the tank top plating (inner bottom), varying • Shaped brackets and flat bars reduce stress
depending on owner requirements. But areas where coating concentration factor. However fatigue life drops
fails may have accelerated corrosion, in particular in the deck quickly where flat bars are fitted.
head areas subject to increased deflections and stress levels Flexural (figure 9) and shear (figure 10) are the two most
due to the use of HTS. common failure modes regarding fatigue cracks at such type
Accelerated corrosion in cargo tanks may be due to of connections.
microbial attack from bacteria in the cargo oil. Cargo The most common defects in single hull designs are
temperatures in double hull tankers can be found up to 20 °C attributed to the extensive use of HTS, in particular in the side
higher than in single hulls due to the insulation provided by shell construction. Some tankers built between 1985-95 had
the inner hull. These higher temperatures would provide the longitudinal stiffener connections locally renewed and
necessary conditions to the microbes remain active longer and provided with backing brackets around ten years service
service life in
produce corrosive acidic compounds increasing the risk of order to increase fatigue strength.
MIC. In a general way, utilization of HTS in double hull
Higher temperatures mean that the humidity is higher, designs results in the increasing of deflections and stress
increasing the amount of water vapour in the air space above levels, affecting negatively fatigue life of structural
the ballast and cargo tanks. Therefore, coating in ballast tanks connections and the effective life time of coating systems.
bottom shell remains continuously wet, having mud settled in Double hull tankers built early 90’s were subject to a
particular at aft locations due to the ship trim. This number of typical defects due to poor design details, specially
accumulation of mud could also generate a higher risk of MIC. at side shell longitudinal connections to primary transverse
Corrosion prevention systems are likely provided in ballast structures and connections of hopper to inner bottom and side
tanks. In order to prevent accelerated corrosion of the under longitudinal bulkhead. Significant improvements on design
deck and the tank bottom areas, a number of operators require detail and workmanship have been achieved and implemented
painting of these areas also in
in cargo tanks. in the designs built late 90’s.
The total surface area to be coated and maintained in It is remarkable that a number of double hull tankers
double hulls can be up to three times larger when compared to operating in severe environments like North Sea and North
single hull tankers. Consequently, the maintenance of coating Atlantic have reported damages at side shell and bottom
systems is one of the most important aspects regarding the hull longitudinal stiffeners in way of transverse primary structure.
structure condition.
The following main aspects should be considered in order Environmental Loads
to evaluate the durability of the coating system of cargo and Different to other Class societies, Bureau Veritas ([7], [8])
ballast tanks: apply loads depending on the operational conditions of the
• Coating specification floating unit. There are variations in the overall severity of the
• Coating preparation and application climate in a given area, additionally different vessel
dimensions, shape and load distributions need be taken into
• Workmanship during construction (grinding of sharp account. Therefore each project should be provided with
edges for instance) calculation of hydrodynamic loads and vessel motions in the
Double hull tankers have structural flexing increased frequency domain, using the 3D diffraction-radiation method
compared to single hull designs which leads to higher cracking and taking account of site water depth.
potential in particular in the deck, inner shell and inner bottom Site specific conditions need be taken into account in the
areas. hull structure assessment of the FPSO, including metocean
data of the site and the mooring conditions, in order to
Fatigue of longitudinal stiffeners connections properly define the sea loads on the structure. Such data
Connections in way of transverse bulkheads are, in include the wave directions, the wave spectrum and the
general, fitted with double brackets, however those relative headings.
connections in way of ordinary frames are often fitted with The main wave load parameters derived from the direct
single brackets. In cases where HTS is extensively used, hydrodynamic models and used in the structural anlyzes are
backing brackets might be necessary be fitted in way of the following:
ordinary frames along the hull length at conversion into FPSO. • Global Hull girder loads (Wave Bending Moment and
As a general rule, the following parameters were found to Wave Shear Force)
be the most significant ones regarding fatigue strength of side
shell longitudinal connections and increase fatigue life: • Relative wave elevation, that is indicative of variation
of pressure on side shell
• Double brackets reduce stress concentration factors.
• Vessel accelerations
• Type of steel: ST235 construction leads to stiffer
structures around the neutral axis. In the contrary
ST315 and ST355 lead to less stiff structures. Hydrodynamic analysis
The outputs of the hydrodynamic analysis determine the
• Symmetric profiles avoid lateral bending of design load parameters to be applied to the structural model in
longitudinal stiffeners. On the other way angle profiles order to assess the scantlings of the structure. The
lead to lateral bending. hydrodynamic model takes into account the unit hull forms,
OTC 17506 7
the lightweight distribution (including structure weight, and dynamic loading applied to the hull structure.
topside weight, turret weight, etc.), the loading conditions and SWBM and SWSF will be driven by the maximum values
the connections with the seabed. At least three loading of VWBM and VWSF (including safety margins) and the
conditions are in general analyzed, comprising the full range calculated total hull girder capacity, taking into consideration
of the FPSO loading conditions: the corrosion wastage along the tanker trading service.
• Minimum draught It should be noted that the direct analysis of wave induced
shear force will result in a distribution slightly different to the
• Intermediate draught one given by the typical rule distribution. Despite VWSF
• Maximum draught distribution has two peak values at approximately L/3 from the
FPSO’s are generally moored by two different types of hull aft and fore ends, the hull capacity needs be checked
systems that influence the calculation conditions of the along the length of the unit and in particular at the position of
hydrodynamic analysis: transverse bulkheads, where the total shear force has its
maximum value. Oil tankers often have local reinforcements
• Spread moored design: the unit is maintained in a
in the longitudinal bulkhead and side shell plating, over one to
constant position independent of the sea and current
two web spacing, aft and fore of transverse bulkheads, to
heading, while the environmental loads have a
allow for peak values of the total shear force.
predominant direction. Generally, the mooring lines are
Considering the wave load parameter results for a unit
connected to the main deck at the fore and aft ends.
moored offshore Angola for instance, the site specific values
• Turret moored design: the unit is free to weathervane for VWBM and VWSF are approximatelly 0.3 and 0.5 of the
and has a natural tendency to orientate in the direction North Atlantic reference values, leading to an increasing over
of the most severe environment component. The the minimum Rule value of 0.65. Nevertheless, the allowable
mooring lines are connected to the turret, generally values would still be increased up to 50% for SWBM and up
located in the fore part of the unit. to 35% for SWSF.
• The unit is fixed on a specific site, generating specific the external sea pressure is calculated at the full load draught
loads. when the side tanks are considered empty (cargo loading
conditions), and at the light ballast draught when the side
• The unit is permanently moored (no dry dock is
tanks are considered full (ballast loading conditions).
planned for inspection and maintenance).
maintenance).
• Additional loads generated by the mooring system, Strength of the primary structure
risers and topsides. The first objective of the finite element analysis is to
• Continuously loading and unloading on site (constant determine the stress distribution in the primary supporting
variation of draught), differently of tanker which are members. It allows verifying that the scantlings comply with
generally operated in full and ballast conditions. the yielding and buckling criteria.
Therefore, specific assessment of the FPSO hull structure Two levels of meshes are generally necessary to assess the
strength of the structure. The first step is the global coarse
needs be undertaken taking into consideration such
mesh model (figure 11). The 3D coarse mesh model allows
particularities. The following limit states are verified for the
verify the overall behavior of the primary structure. There are
hull structure components:
two main approaches:
• The simpler and faster one is based on a three-cargo
Ultimate
Yielding Buckling Fatigue tank model, where the beam theory is used to balance
Strength
the model and obtain the desired bending moment and
shear force distribution in the mid tank area. VWBM,
Hull Girder
VWSF, accelerations and relative wave elevations
derived from hydrodunamic analysis are used.
Plating
• Complete ship model including the entire hull structure
over the unit length, from aft to fore ends can be used.
Ordinary Obviously it is a more time consuming approach. On
stiffeners
the other end, accelerations and wave pressure
distribution derived from hydrodynamic analysis are
Primary applied along the hull structure model in order to
supporting
equilibrate it and obtain the correct bending moment
Structural and shear force distribution along the hull.
details
Fine meshes are also performed to get more accurate stress
levels in specific locations (figure 12).
Hull girder strength Detailed Stress analyses are in general performed for the
The first step of the hull structure assessment is in general following typical primary structures:
the verification of the global hull girder strength. A yielding • horizontal stringers in way of typical oiltight bulkhead
check is performed, comparing the bending moment applied to
• horizontal stringers in way of typical swash bulkhead
the structure does not exceed the bending moment capacity
provided by the actual hull scantling configuration. The • typical transverse ring
bending moment applied to the structure is given by the • typical first transverse ring aft and forward oiltight and
maximum allowable still water bending moment derived from swash bulkheads
the assessment of the loading conditions of the unit (operation,
transport, maintenance, etc) and VWBM derived from the • Longitudinal girders in way of oiltight bulkhead and
wave load parameters analysis. swash bulkhead
It should also be checked that the bending moment applied • FPSO specific areas (topside supports, turret structure,
to the structure is lower than the ultimate bending moment hull connections and other hull attachments).
capacity of the hull girder, taking into account a safety factor Main scenarios
increased compared to ships. The tanker and the FPSO phases need be distinguished in
structural assessment of the converted FPSO to proper
Local strength of plating and ordinary stiffeners consider the effects of previous corrosion and cumulated
The second step is the verification of the scantlings of the fatigue damage during the trade, but also the floating unit
plating and the ordinary stiffeners. These elements are design characteristics and operation conditions.
assessed through a 2D section model loaded with the design The following scenarios are therefore usually studied:
load parameters defined by the hydrodynamic analysis. A (a) As-built tanker at construction date
yielding check and a buckling check are carried out for (b) Actual condition (at conversion date)
stiffeners and plates. (c) End of FPSO service life: derived based on the estimated
In all cases, local loads are calculated for the expected corrosion wastage cumulated during the FPSO phase.
most severe conditions. Each element is analyzed considering Scenario (a) is mainly used to assess the fatigue damage
the compartments as being alternately full or empty, for the cumulated during the tanker phase. It may be also used for a
purpose of maximizing the loads induced on that element by
the cargo carried. Similarly, for the elements of the outer shell, first screening of the candidate vessel in order to identify the
OTC 17506 9
most loaded areas to be further investigated during inspections Environmental loads for fatigue assessment of the tanker
carried out prior to the hull refurbishment program.
program. may be derived based on the analysis of the trading route. In
In scenario (b), the existing 2D and 3D finite element cases where the trade data is not available, standard Bureau
models (initially modeled based on the as-built configuration) Veritas Rules wave load parameters for a typical World Wide
are updated in order to take into account the FPSO actual trade tanker can be used.
configuration, new loading conditions, site specific In general, tanker analyses are carried out based on the
environmental loads, structural alterations and topsides added typical loading conditions: full load and ballast loading
at conversion. Derived from the latest gauging reports and/or conditions leading to maximum sagging and hogging load
estimated based on typical oil tanker corrosion rates [2], the cases. For the FPSO, review of the operational loading
wastage cumulated during the tanker trade period can be conditions comprising the loading/unloading sequences should
calculated and the hull overall scantlings are updated. be carried out to determine the representative loading
Renewals foreseen during the refurbishment may be also taken conditions to be considered in the analysis.
into account if already decided. The FPSO hull structure
strength will be verified in accordance with the several limit Deterministic fatigue strength assessment:
states above described. The deterministic methodology has been further developed
Scenario (c) can also be studied, incorporating the for the FPSO’s by introducing several draughts and loading
corrosion wastage expected during the FPSO phase, the cases over the expected lifetime of the floating unit. The
expected hull structure condition of the unit at the end of its calculation method applied today by Bureau Veritas has been
service life is assessed. The reserve of strength of the hull calibrated against spectral fatigue strength assessment and the
structure components could be estimated and for those methodology is applied in-house for screening of the structural
elements found critical, the alternatives to mitigate the details.
deterioration effects along the life of the unit could also be The results of the deterministic approach are in general
identified, such as: expected to be more conservative than those given by the
• Additional renewal and strengthening work at spectral one.
conversion
Spectral fatigue strength assessment:
• Specify corrosion protection system to avoid corrosion
wastage at critical locations. In order to assess more precisely the fatigue damage of the
structural details a spectral fatigue strength assessment may be
• Improve the IMR plan to ensure the hull structure carried out. The spectral analysis is to be carried out in the
integrity following three steps:
• hydrodynamic analysis
Fatigue
• structural analysis
The efficiency of the structural connections subjected to
high cyclic stresses needs be checked with respect to possible • calculation of the fatigue damage
fatigue related problems. The hydrodynamic analysis determines the loads and the
Fatigue assessment can be divided into main groups: resulting motions generated by the environmental loads; the
• connections of the longitudinal ordinary stiffeners with site-specific environmental
environmental loads are thus taken into account.
transverse primary supporting members (transverse The loads obtained through the hydrodynamic calculation
bulkheads and web frames)
frames) are applied to the structural model. The structural model
provides the RAO’s of stresses at location of interest, within
• connections of primary supporting members the model. The fatigue damage is then calculated based on
The first group can be assessed by BV program statistics of stress ranges.
VeriSTAR/MARS
the fatigue strength where
of library of details is used
end connections to evaluate
of longitudinal At least three draughts (and associated loading conditions)
5 headings and 25 frequencies are to be taken into
in to account, but
stiffeners by mean of fatigue deterministic approach. 2D may be adapted depending on the type of mooring.
analysis is therefore carried out in order to evaluate the The acceptable damage depends on the location, the
strength of side shell and bottom longitudinal connections accessibility for inspection, maintenance and repair, and on the
along the cargo region due to fatigue flexural mode in way of consequences of failure.
each oil tight bulkheads and in way of ordinary frames.
3D finite element analysis is needed to capture the local Loading unloading fatigue assessment:
stresses in non-standard details for use in the fatigue Fatigue damage cumulated during the FPSO phase due to
calculation. Therefore, very fine mesh models ( figure 13) are wave and loading/offloading cycles is also assessed.
used, having element size between once and twice the For the calculation of the stress range due to the loading
thickness of the structural element. unloading, the wave at a return period not less than one day is
Assessment of detail connections shall take into account to be taken into account.
both tanker and FPSO phases. Fatigue damage taking into The damage ratio of loading unloading is to be combined
account wave cycles and loading/unloading cycles are with the one due to the wave effect.
cumulated with the damage associated to the tanker phase in
order to estimate the remaining fatigue life at conversion.
10 OTC 17506
Considerations about welding of structural members structural analysis, there are a number of parameters that can
To evaluate the standard and quality of welding on be proper assessed
assessed only by means of inspections.
seagoing tankers with respect to possible conversion to • Pitting on tank bottom plating, stiffeners and other
Floating Storage Unit, a comparison has been made with a horizontal members.
new-built FPSO and a tanker.
In general, welding leg length and scantlings of the FPSO, • Brackets and web stiffeners may present heavily
with the exception of interface structures with Offshore corroded.
equipment and topsides, are often made on the basis of Ship's
Rule requirements. Plate renewal
Due to welding of interface structures and FPSO-owner's Renewal thickness of plates and stiffeners needs to be
special requirements for particular areas (additional thickness, defined in order to determine the total steel renewal required at
fatigue life etc.), welding leg length of FPSO seems to be conversion. The expected corrosion during the FPSO service
more significant. Possible difference is coming from the more life is to be taken into account. Therefore the renewal
comprehensive loading booklet giving higher values of hull thickness at conversion is defined as follows:
girder still water bending moment and shear forces.
Conclusions References
The selection of vessels for conversion into FPSO will
[1] Guidance Manual for the Inspection and Condition
probably face two main types of design: single hull tankers
Assessment of Tanker Structures – Tanker Structure Co-
built between 1985-95 and double hulls built after 1996.
operative Forum, Witherby & Co. Ltd., 1986.
The return of experience from previous conversion projects
shows that both designs are prone to defects due to fatigue and [2] Condition Evaluation and Maintenance of Tanker
corrosion wastage. Despite the particularities inherent to each Structures - Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum, Witherby
hull design, corrosion and fatigue deterioration cumulated & Co. Ltd., 1992.
along the trade period will affect the FPSO hull structure
[3] Guidance Manual for Tanker Structures – Tanker Structure
integrity and performance along its service life.
Thought that FPSO conversion projects requires fast track Co-operative Forum, Witherby & Co. Ltd.
schedules, a detailed hull structure assessment by means of [4] Guidelines for the Inspection and Maintenance of Double
finite element analysis may not be available at the selection of Hull Tankers - Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum,
the vessel to be converted. Therefore, the various aspects Witherby & Co. Ltd., 1995.
concerning the hull design characteristics, ship’s historical
information, including operation conditions, maintenance [5] Floating Production Systems, assessment of the outlook for
procedures and records of survey and inspections should be FPSO vessels, production semis, TLPs and spars –
reviewed at least in qualitative way during the hull selection International Maritime Associates, Inc.. New Orleans, USA
process. March 2004.
In the same way that the hull structure may vary in [6] Otegui J., Orsini M.: Converted FPSO’s. Making a
function of the shipyard design and fabrication standards, the Worthwhile Conversion – DOT 2004.
hull condition may change depending on the trade, operation
conditions and maintenance procedures. Therefore a complete [7] Arselin E., Cambos P., Frorup U.: New FPSO Rules Base
hull structure assessment by means of finite element analysis don Return of Experience. – OMAE – FPSO’04 – 0091.
and consideration of the tanker trade phase degradation modes Houston, USA 2004.
seems the most efficient way to proper assess the FPSO hull [8] Rule Note on Hull Structure of Production, Storage and
structure design and screening of the critical areas and Offloading Surface
Surface Units – NR 497, Octobe
Octoberr 2004 – Bureau
components of the hull. Therefore, as far as possible, first Veritas.
results should be available early to assist the selection of the
hull and the specification of the refurbishment program.
program. [9] Rules for the Classification of Steel Ships – November
Even if the hull is not the expensive part of the production 2004. Bureau Veritas.
project, as a large investment is made on the topsides and
subsea equipment, special attention needs to be paid to the hull
effective design life. Safety margins should be estimated and
the necessary procedures to ensure the hull structure integrity
should be incorporated in the unit’s
un it’s IMR plan.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Bureau Veritas for permission to
publish this paper. The views expressed are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect those of Bureau Veritas.
12 OTC 17506
0.9%
36.0%
56.4%
6.7%
SH 73-84
SH 85-95
DH 96-04
source: Lloyd's Register Others
Figure 1: hull type of VLCC’s built between 1973-2004.
40 450000
400000
35
350000
30
300000 t
w
25 D
y
t e
250000 g
Q ra
20 e
v
200000 A
15
150000
10
100000
5 50000
0 0
1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003
Year
source: Lloyd's Re
Register
gister
Figure 2: oil tankers operating per year of build and average deadweight.
OTC 17506 13
1973-85
Ship Sales 2000-04 (USD) 1986-95
> 250,000 dwt 1996-00
120.0 2001-04
100.0
80.0
$
m
(
e
g 60.0
a
r
e
v
a
40.0
20.0
0.0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
year source: CW Kellock & Co Ltd
1. 13E
13E+
+ 02 1. 06E+
+0
02
9. 87E
87E+
+ 01
9. 12E+
+0
01
B
8. 46E
46E+
+ 01
7. 60E+
+0
01
7. 05E
05E+
+ 01
A
6. 08E+
+0
01
5. 64E
64E+
+ 01
4. 56E+
+0
01
4. 23E
23E+
+ 01
3. 04E+
+0
01
2. 82E
82E+
+ 01
Y
Y 1. 52E+
+0
01
Y
Y
1. 41E
41E+
+ 01
X
X Z
Z 0. 00E+
+0
00
X
X
Z
Z
0. 00E
00E+
+ 00
D I SPLACEMENT S ; LOAD CASE 9: -1. 52E
E+
+01
PART I AL CARGO LC8 , HEAD , S , D , TROUGH , VBM D I SP
SP L ACEMENT S ; LOAD CASE 9:
P ART
ART I AL CARG
CARGO L C8, HE A
AD,
D, S , D , T ROUGH, V BM
Stiffener
flange
Stiffener
web
Longitudinal
plating
Flat bar: Detail when One backing bracket: Two backing brackets:
low stress area improved design reinforced design
F lexur
lexur al m
moode:
Typical crack at transverse web
frame