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BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S. Salivahanan is the Principal of SSN College of Engineering, Chennai. He obtained
his B.E. degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from PSG College of
Technology, Coimbatore, M.E. degree in Communication Systems from NIT, Trichy
and Ph.D. in the area of Microwave Integrated Circuits from Madurai Kamaraj
University. He has four decades of teaching, research, administration and industrial
experience both in India and abroad. He has taught at NIT, Trichy, A.C. College of
Engineering and Technology, Karaikudi, RV College of Engineering, Bangalore, and
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi. He has industrial experience as Sci-
entist/Engineer at Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, Telecommunication
Engineer at State Organization of Electricity, Iraq and Electronics Engineer at Electric Dar Establishment,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
He is the author of 40 popular books which include all-time bestsellers such as Basic Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Electronic Devices and Circuits, Linear Integrated Circuits, and Digital Signal
Processing, all published by McGraw Hill Education. He has also authored the books on Digital Circuits
and Design, Electromagnetic Field Theory, Circuit Theory, Network Analysis and Synthesis and Control
Systems Engineering. He has published several papers at national and international levels.
Professor Salivahanan is the recipient of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan National Award for Best Engineering
College Principal for 2011 from ISTE, and IEEE Outstanding Branch Counsellor and Advisor Award in
the Asia-Pacific region for 1996–97. He was the Chairman of IEEE Madras Section for two years 2008 and
2009 and Syndicate Member of Anna University.
He is a Senior Member of IEEE, Fellow of IETE, Fellow of Institution of Engineers (India), Life Mem-
ber of ISTE and Life Member of Society for EMC Engineers. He is also a member of IEEE societies in
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Communications, Signal Processing, and Aerospace and Electronics.
R. Rengaraj is Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering, SSN College of Engineering, Chennai. He obtained his B.E. degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Tirunelveli, M.E. degree in Power Systems Engineering and Ph.D. in the area of Com-
bined Heat and Power, both from Anna University, Chennai. He has authored a book
on Control Systems Engineering. He has more than 13 years of teaching and research
experience. He has published several research publications in refereed international
journals and in the proceedings of international conferences. He has received TATA
Rao Gold Medal from the Institution of Engineers (India) in 2011. He is a Life Member
of ISTE and a Member of IEEE.
G.R. Venkatakrishnan is Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering, SSN College of Engineering, Chennai. He obtained his B.E.
degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering and M.E. degree in Control Systems
from Anna University, Chennai. He has authored a book on Control Systems Engineer-
ing and has published many research papers in national and international journals and
conferences. He is a Life Member of ISTE and a Member of IEEE.
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
S. Salivahanan
Principal
SSN College of Engineering
Chennai
R. Rengaraj
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Chennai
G.R. Venkatakrishnan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Chennai
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering
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CONTENTS
Preface ix
1. AC Circuits and Power Systems 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Three-Phase Supply 1
1.3 Basics of a Three-Phase Power System 3
1.4 Generation of Three-Phase Voltages 5
1.5 Analysis of the Three-Phase System 6
1.6 Steps to Draw Phasor Diagram 17
1.7 Star–Delta Conversion 17
1.8 Power Measurment in a Three-Phase System 31
1.9 Introduction to Electric Power System 44
1.10 Introduction to Power System Protection 48
1.11 Circuit Breaker 49
1.12 Fuse 52
1.13 Protective Relays 55
1.14 Introduction to Tariff 57
1.15 Power Factor 63
1.16 Power Factor Improvement or Correction 65
Two-Mark Questions and Answers 68
Review Questions 71
2. Transformers 72
2.1 Introduction 72
2.2 Single-Phase Transformer 72
2.3 EMF Equation of the Transformer 78
2.4 Reasons for not Using DC Supply as a Source 79
2.5 Types of Transformers 79
2.6 Ideal Transformer 80
2.7 Accounting for Finite Permeability and Core Loss 80
2.8 Transformer on Load 82
vi Contents
2.9 Effect of Winding Resistances 89

2.10 Effect of Leakage Reactance 91
2.11 Winding Impedance 92
2.12 Transformer on Load with Winding Impedances 94
2.13 Circuit Model or Equivalent Circuit of Transformer 96
2.14 Per Unit System 100
2.15 Voltage Regulation 100
2.16 Name Plate Rating of a Transformer 104
2.17 Losses in a Transformer 107
2.18 Efficiency of the Transformer 108
2.19 All-Day Efficiency 112
2.20 Determination of Parameters of Circuit Model of Transformer 117
2.21 Auto-Transformer 125
2.22 Three-Phase Transformer 130
2.23 Voltage and Current Relationship for Different Connections 135
Two Mark Questions and Answers 137
Review Questions 141
3. DC Machines 145
3.1 Introduction 145
3.2 DC Generator 145
3.3 Armature Reaction 154
3.4 Commutation 156
3.5 Types of DC Generators 157
3.6 Electrical Equivalent Circuits, Current and Voltage Equations of DC Generators 158
3.7 Characteristics of DC Generators 164
3.8 Applications of DC Generators 171
3.9 DC Motor 171
3.10 Types of DC Motor 176
3.11 Characteristics of DC Motors 183
3.12 Speed Control of DC Motors 191
3.13 Losses in DC Machines 194
3.14 Power-Flow Diagram 196
3.15 Starting DC Motors 197
3.16 Applications of DC Motors 199
3.17 Universal Motor 200
Contents vii
4. AC Machines 207
4.2 Three-Phase Induction Motor 207
4.3 Slip of an Induction Motor 213
4.4 Effect of Slip on Rotor Parameters 214
4.5 Three-Phase Induction Motor vs Transformer 218
4.6 Torque Equation 221
4.7 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque 227
4.8 Effect of Change in Rotor Reactance on Torque 227
4.9 Losses in Induction Motors 236
4.10 Power Flow in Induction Motor 236
4.11 Relation Between P2, Pc and Pm 237
4.12 Efficiency of an Induction Motor 240
4.13 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 240
4.14 Phasor Diagram of an Induction Motor 252
4.15 Starters 252
4.16 Speed Control of a Three-Phase Induction Motor 257
4.17 Single-Phase Induction Motor 260
4.18 Types of Single-Phase Induction Motors 262
4.19 Equivalent Circuit of a Single-Phase Induction Motor 266
4.20 Alternator or a Three-Phase AC Generator 268
4.21 EMF Equation of an Alternator 273
4.22 Parameters of Armature Winding 275
4.23 Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance 276
4.24 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator 277
4.25 Voltage Equation of the Alternator 277
4.26 Phasor Diagram of the Loaded Alternator 277
4.27 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator 278
4.28 Synchronous Motor 284
4.29 Methods of Starting Synchronous Motors 286
4.30 Behaviour of a Synchronous Motor on Loading 288
4.31 Phasor Diagram 290
4.32 V and Inverted-V Curves 291
4.33 Expression for Back EMF or Induced EMF Per Phase in a Synchronous Motor 292
4.34 Power Flow in Synchronous Motor 293
4.35 Power Developed by a Synchronous Motor 294
4.36 Comparison Between Synchronous and Induction Motors 295
4.37 Stepper Motor 302
4.38 Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) Motor 307
Two Marks Questions and Answers 311
viii Contents
5. Measurement and Instrumentation 321

5.2 Essential Requirements of Measuring Instruments 321
5.3 Elements of the Measuring Instruments 321
5.4 Types of Electrical and Electronic Measuring Instruments 324
5.5 Principles of Electrical Indicating Instruments 325
5.6 Types of Indicating Instruments 328
5.7 Moving-iron Instruments 328
5.8 Moving-coil Instruments 334
5.9 Electro Dynamometer Type 337
5.10 Electrothermic Instruments 342
5.11 Electrostatic Type Instrument 346
5.12 Induction Type Instruments 349
5.13 Rectifier Type Instruments 352
5.14 Ammeter 355
5.15 DC Voltmeter 357
5.16 Digital Voltmeter (DVM) 358
5.17 Ohmmeter 360
5.18 Digital Multimeter 363
5.19 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 364
5.20 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments 372
5.21 Errors in Measurement 378
5.22 Introduction to Transducer 380
5.23 Classification of Transducers 380
5.24 Resistive Transducer 382
5.25 Inductive Transducer 389
5.26 Capacitive Transducers 392
5.27 Thermoelectric Transducer 394
5.28 Piezoelectric Transducer 396
5.29 Photoelectric Transducer 397
5.30 Hall Effect Transducers 398
5.31 Mechanical Tranducers 400
PREFACE
Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering is designed specifically to cater to the needs of second
semester ECE students. The book has a perfect blend of focused content and complete coverage. Solved
university question papers, which are tagged with specific topics, will be extremely helpful to students from
the examination point of view. Simple, easy-to-understand and jargon-free text elucidates the fundamentals
of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering. Several solved examples, schematic diagrams and adequate
questions further helps students to understand and apply the concepts.
SALIENT FEATURES
Comprehensive coverage as per the latest Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering syllabus
Solutions of examination papers from 2010 to 2017 are present appropriately within the chapters
Solved university questions as solved examples incorporated appropriately within each chapter
Theory questions are tagged within each chapter
Rich exam-oriented pedagogy
Solved Numerical Examples within chapters: 96
Two-Mark Questions and Answers at the end of each chapter: 150
Unsolved Review Questions: 270
CHAPTER ORGANISATION
Chapter 1 deals with three phase power supply, three phase power measurement, transmission and
distribution of electrical energy, protection of power system, tariff and power factor improvement.
Chapter 2 is devoted to introduction of ideal transformer, circuit model of transformer and determina-
tion of parameters, efficiency and auto-transformers.
Chapter 3 describes the constructional features of various motors, methods of excitation and magneti-
sation characteristics, starting and speed control and universal motor.
Chapter 4 focuses on the principle of operation of three-phase induction motors, equivalent circuit,
single phase induction motors, types of starting and speed control methods, working principle of alterna-
tor, synchronous motors, stepper motors and brushless DC motors.
x Preface
Chapter 5 concentrates on the type of electrical and electronic instruments, principles of electrical
instruments, multimeters, oscilloscopes, transducers and their classifications and applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors sincerely thank the management of SSN College of Engineering, Chennai for the constant
encouragement, and for providing necessary facilities for completing this project.
The authors are highly appreciative of the editorial and production team of McGraw Hill Education (India)
for their initiation and support to bring out this edition in a short span of time.
The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank the reviewers especially the colleagues V. Thiyaga-
rajan, U. Shajith Ali, Alagudheeraj S. Malathy and D. Umarani from EEE department, and M. Karthikeyan
from Velammal Engineering College, Chennai for their useful comments and suggestions.
The authors would also like to thank Mr. G. Muralikrishnan, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai, for
his valuable feedback.
Finally, they thank their family members Mrs. Kalavathy Salivahanan, S. Santhosh Kanna & S. Subadesh
Kanna, Mrs. Rajalakshmi Rengaraj, R. Harivarshan and Master R. Devprasath, and Mr. S. Rajan Babu,
Mrs. Sumathi Babu, Mrs. G. R. Hemalakshmi Prakash & Mrs. R. Jeya Jeyaprakash for their patience and
constant inspiration during the preparation of this book.
Any constructive criticism, suggestions and corrections for further improvement of the book will be most
appreciated.
S. Salivahanan
R. Rengaraj
G. R. Venkatakrishnan
Publisher’s Note:
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments, all of which can be sent to
info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
CHAPTER 1
AC Circuits and
Power Systems
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical power is generated, transmitted, distributed in sinusoidal form for the commercial, industrial and
domestic applications. In general, two types of electrical power can be generated: single-phase power and
poly-phase power. The main disadvantage of single-phase power supply is that it can carry only a reasonable
amount of power but poly-phase system is normally used to generate, transmit and distribute bulk electric
power. This chapter deals with the three-phase system, which is a type of poly-phase system. The generation
of three-phase electric power, the relationship between voltage and current, and their power measurements
are also discussed.
Further, the transmission and distribution of electric power, the necessity of protecting the power system
and operation of various protective devices like circuit breaker, fuse and relay are explained. Tariff refers
to the price of electrical energy that the consumer is charged for consumption. Tariff plays a major role
in maintaining a healthy relation between the supplier and consumer. Hence, due consideration has to be
given in fixing the tariff and the consumers must be charged with different tariffs, based on their usage. The
different objectives and characteristics of tariff, factors affecting the tariff, and different types of tariff are
discussed in this chapter. In an AC power system, power factor plays a major role in analysing the system
performance. If the power factor is low, heavy current will flow and damage the system. The causes of low
power factor, its consequences and the methods to improve the power factor are described in this chapter.
1.2 THREE-PHASE SUPPLY

In an electrical power system, there are two types of systems, namely: single-phase and poly-phase systems.
A single-phase system consists of two wires, where the current flows through one wire and returns through
another wire, when it is energized by two terminals. Generally, in most of the households and small industries
where the required capacity of a motor is not greater than 5 horsepower, single-phase systems are used. But
nowadays, a three-phase system, which is a type of poly-phase system, is used to generate, transmit and
distribute electrical energy.
In a three-phase system, three conductors can carry three alternating electrical quantities at the same
frequency. The electrical quantities in these three conductors reach the same peak amplitude at different
instances, as shown in Figure 1.1.
2 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering
120° 120° 120°
Voltage amplitude
0 Time
180° R Y B
Figure 1.1 Three-phase Power System of an Electrical Quantity
If any one of the alternating quantities is taken as a reference, the other two are delayed by one-third and
two-thirds of a cycle of the alternating quantity i.e., 120° apart. Therefore, three-phase power systems can
be viewed as the combination of three separate single-phase systems, with 120° phase difference.
1.2.1 Advantages of a Three-phase Power System

The advantages of a three-phase system over a single-phase system are:
1. The power-to-weight ratio of a three-phase system is high when compared to a single-phase system i.e.,
for the same electrical power, the size of energy source required in a three-phase system is less when
compared to a single-phase system.
2. For transmission of electrical power, the requirement of conductor material in a three-phase system is
less, when compared to a single-phase system.
3. Instantaneous power is always constant in a three-phase system, when compared to pulsating power in
a single-phase system.
4. A three-phase system will have better power factor and efficiency, when compared to a single-phase
system.
5. For a given size of the system, higher output power can be obtained in a three-phase system, when
compared to a single-phase system.
6. A three-phase system is efficient, reliable, economical and has better regulation when compared to a
single-phase system.
7. When a fault occurs in a single line, the other two lines can be used to transmit the power to the load.
8. Motors that operate on a three-phase supply do not require any starting devices like a capacitor to run it.
9. Torque produced in the motor using a three-phase supply is uniform, when compared to pulsating
torque produced by using a single-phase supply.
10. A three-phase system can be used to supply the electrical energy for a single-phase load.
11. A three-phase supply can be rectified into DC supply with very low ripple factor, when compared to a
single-phase supply.
12. Parallel operation is easy in a three-phase system, when compared to a single-phase system.
AC Circuits and Power Systems 3
1.3 BASICS OF A THREE-PHASE POWER SYSTEM

The colour codes of the wires used in a three-phase system vary from country to country. In India, Red (R),
Yellow (Y) and Blue (B) are the colour codes used in three-phase systems. The two different configura-
tions by which the three wires in a three-phase system are connected are: star (Y) connection and delta (D)
connection. The different types of three-phase power systems are: (i) three-phase, three-wire system and
(ii) three-phase, four-wire system. The fourth wire in a three-phase four-wire system is the neutral wire,
represented in black colour. It is known that the three-phase power system can be used as source and load.
As a source, a three-phase power system can be used as either three or four-wire star connection or
three-wire delta connection. Similarly, as a load, depending upon the application, the type of connection and
configuration of a three-phase power system varies. The different terms used in three-phase power systems
are described as follows:
● Phase: A branch of the circuit in a three-phase system is known as a phase.
● Line: The wire that connects the source and load is known as transmission line or line.
● Neutral: The fourth wire in the three-phase system, where all the phases in a star connection are
connected together is known as neutral.

● Phase voltage: The voltage measured between a line and neutral or the voltage across a particular
phase is called as phase voltage. It is represented as VRB = VRN - VBN or simply VR , VY , VB .

● Line voltage or line-to-line voltage: The voltage measured between any two lines in a three-
phase power system is known as line voltage. It is represented as VRY , VYB and VBR and is given by
VRY , = VR – VY , VYB , = VY – VB and VBR = VB – VR respectively.
● Line currents: The currents flowing through a particular line are called line currents, represented by
I R , IY and I B .
● Phase current: The current flowing through a single-phase or a branch of the system is called as
phase current. It is represented as I RY , IYB and I BR and is given by I RY = I R - IY , IYB = IY - I B and

I BR = I B - I R respectively.
● Load impedance: For a star-connected load, the impedance between the line and neutral is called
load or line impedance and for a delta-connected load, the impedance between two lines is called
load or phase impedance.
● Phase sequence: The time order or the sequence in which the electrical quantity in the three-phase
system reach their respective maximum values is known as phase sequence. If the phase sequence of
a particular system is RYB, then it indicates that R phase reaches the maximum value of electrical
quantity at first and then followed by Y phase and B phase.
● Balanced condition: The condition for having a balanced source or a balanced load is given below.
(i) Balanced source: A three-phase system is said to be a balanced source, if the phase voltage of each
phase has the same magnitude and frequency and the phase difference between the lines is 120°.
(ii) Balanced load: A three-phase system is said to be a balanced load if the impedance is same for all
the phases, either in star or delta connection.
● Unbalanced condition: If the load impedance differs in one or more phases, then the three-phase
system is said to be an unbalanced load. This unbalanced condition leads to changes in line and phase
currents.
● Three-phase source: If the three-phase system is used to generate a three-phase power supply, then
it is said to be a three-phase source.

● Three-phase load: If the three-phase system uses the three-phase supply to perform certain functions,
then it is said to be a three-phase load.

● Power factor: The cosine of the angle between phase voltage and the phase current is known as power
factor. It can be lagging, leading or unity, depending upon the type of load connected to the system.
If the phase current lags behind the phase voltage, then it is a lagging power factor load. If the phase
current leads the phase voltage, then it is a leading power factor load. Similarly, if the phase current
is in phase with the phase voltage, then it is a unity power factor load.
● Phasor diagram: The diagram that represents the line voltage, phase voltage, line current and phase
current of a three-phase source or a three-phase load is known as a phasor diagram. In a star-connected

three-phase system, phase voltage is taken as the reference; while, in a delta-connected three-phase
system, line voltage is taken as the reference.
The schematic diagrams of a three-phase star-connected power system with three wires and four wires
are shown in Figures 1.2 (a) and (b) respectively.
R
VRN
R
VRN
VBN
VBN VYN
B N
N
B VYN
Y
Y
(a)
R VRN
R
VRN
VBN VYN VBN
B
N
B VYN
Y Y
N N
(b)
Figure 1.2 Schematic Diagram of a Star-connected Three-phase System
The schematic diagram of a three-phase delta-connected power system is shown in Figure 1.3.
R
R
R
VBR VRY VRB
Y
VYB
B
B Y
VYB B
VYR
Y
Figure 1.3 Schematic Diagram of a Delta-connected Three-phase System

The relation between the phase voltages in star-connected balanced three-phase system is given by:
VRN = |Vm | –0o ¸
ÔÔ
VYN = |Vm | – - 120o ˝ (1.1)
o oÔ
VBN = |Vm | – + 120 or |Vm | – - 240 Ô˛
where, Vm is the maximum value of the voltage in volts
Similarly, the relation between the line voltages in a delta-connected balanced three-phase system is given by:
VRY = |V | – 0o ¸
o
ÔÔ
VYB = |V | – -120 ˝ (1.2)
o oÔ
VBR = |V | – + 120 or |V | – - 240 Ô˛
The vector diagrams of balanced star and delta-connected power systems using the above equations are
shown in Figures 1.4 (a) and (b) respectively.
VBN VBR
120° 120°
120° VRN 120° VRY
120° 120°
VYN VYB
(a) (b)
Figure 1.4 Vector Diagram of Balanced (a) Star (b) Delta-connected Systems
1.4 GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

The primary requirement in a three-phase system before analysing the balanced and unbalanced condition is
the generation of three-phase voltages. A three-phase AC generator or an alternator is used to generate the
three-phase voltages. The two main components of AC generator or an alternator are the field and armature, in
which either field or armature is stationary. Therefore, the alternator configurations by which the three-phase
voltage can be generated are: (i) stationary field with rotating armature and (ii) rotating field with stationary
armature. The instantaneous phase voltages of the three-phase system, when connected in star are given by:
VRN = Vm sin(w t ) ¸
o
Ô
VYN = Vm sin(w t - 120 ) ˝ (1.3)
o o Ô
VBN = Vm sin(w t - 240 ) = Vm sin(w t + 120 )˛
where, Vm is the maximum value of the voltage in volts.
Adding all the instantaneous voltages given in Eqn. (1.3), we get
VRN + VYN + VBN = Vm sin w t + Vm sin(w t - 120∞) + Vm sin(w t + 120∞)
= Vm [sin w t + sin w t cos 120∞ - cos w t sin 120∞ + sin w t cos 120∞ + cos w t sin 120°]
È Ê -1ˆ ˘
= Vm [sin w t + 2 sin w t cos 120∞] = Vm Ísin w t + 2 sin w t Á ˜ ˙ = 0
Î Ë 2 ¯˚
Therefore, VRN + VYN + VBN = 0 (1.4)

It is clear from Eqn. (1.4) that the phasor addition of all the phase voltages at any instant in a three-phase
balanced star-connected system is always zero. Similarly, if the instantaneous line voltages of the three-phase
system, when connected in delta connection, are added, we get VRY + VYB + VBR = 0 .
1.5 ANALYSIS OF THE THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

The different three-phase systems for which the relationship between phase and line voltages, phase and
line currents, power, and phasor diagrams are discussed as follows:
1. Three-phase balanced star-connected source
2. Three-phase balanced delta-connected source
3. Three-phase balanced star-connected load
4. Three-phase balanced delta-connected load
5. Three-phase unbalanced delta-connected load
6. Three-phase unbalanced four-wire star-connected load
7. Three-phase unbalanced three-wire star-connected load
1.5.1 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced star- R IR

connected source with phase sequence RYB is shown in
Figure 1.5. IR
In a balanced system, all the magnitudes of phase voltages, VRN VRY
line voltages, phase currents and line currents are equal,
which can be represented as: VBR
|VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph| ; |VRY | = |VYB| = |VBR| = |VL| (1.5) VYN
N
IY
| I R| = | IY | = | I B| = | I L| ; | I RY | = | IYB| = | I BR| = | I ph| (1.6) IB
VBN
B Y VYB
Relationship Among Line and Phase Quantities IB
Current Relationship
Figure 1.5 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase
Appling Kirchhoff’s current law at nodes R, Y and B Balanced Star-connected Source
shown in Figure 1.5, we get:
I RY = I R ; IYB = IY ; I BR = I B (1.7)
From Eqns. (1.6) and (1.7), we can conclude that, in a balanced star-connected three-phase source, phase
current is equal to the line current, as given by
I ph = I L (1.8)
Voltage Relationship
It is known that, VRY = VRN - VYN
Using the parallelogram law of addition and the vector diagram shown in Figure 1.6, we get:
|VRY | = |VRN |2 + |VYN |2 + 2 |VRN ||VYN | cos 60∞

Using Eqn. (1.5) in the above equation and solving, we get:
|VRY | = 3 |Vph| (1.9)

Similarly, we get:
|VYB| = 3 |Vph| and |VBR| = 3 |Vph| (1.10)

Therefore, using Eqns. (1.5), (1.9) and (1.10), we get the relation between the line and phase voltages, which is
|VL| = 3 |Vph| (1.11)

Hence, it can be concluded that in a star-connected balanced three-phase source, the line voltage is 3
1
times the phase voltage or that the phase voltage is times the line voltage. It is to be noted that the angle
3
between the phase voltage and the line voltage is 30°.
Vector Diagram
The vector diagram for a three-phase balanced star-connected VBN VBN –VYN VRY
source, by considering the phase voltage as reference, is shown
in Figure 1.6.
120°
Power Relationship 30°
The real power produced per phase in the system shown in Figure
–VRN 120° 120° VRN
1.5 is Pph = |Vph|| I ph| cos f .
Therefore, the total real power produced in the system is given
by
VYN –VBN
P = 3 |Vph|| I ph| cos f (1.12)
Using Eqns. (1.8) and (1.11), we get
|VL|
P=3 | I L| cos f = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f (W) (1.13) VYB
3
Similarly, the total reactive power, Q, and total apparent power, Figure 1.6 Vector Diagram for a
S, produced in the system are given by: Three-phase Balanced Star-
connected Source
Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f (VAR) (1.14)
S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.15)
1.5.2 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced delta-connected source with phase sequence RYB is shown
in Figure 1.7.
R IR
VL3 IBR VL1

IRY VRY
VBR
IYB IY
Y
B
VYB
VL2
IB
Figure 1.7 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Source
Relationship Among Line and Phase Quantities

Current Relationship
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the node R in Figure 1.7, we have
I R = I RY - I BR
Using the vector diagram shown in Figure 1.8, and applying the parallelogram law of addition, we get
| I R| = | I RY |2 + | I BR|2 + 2 | I RY || I RB| cos 60∞

Solving the above equation by using Eqn. (1.6), we get
| I R| = 3 | I ph| (1.16)
Similarly, we get:
| IY | = 3 | I ph| and | I B| = 3 | I ph| (1.17)

Therefore, using Eqns. (1.6), (1.16) and (1.17), we get the relation between the line and phase currents as
| I L| = 3 | I ph| (1.18)
Hence, it can be concluded that in a delta-connected balanced three-phase source, the line current is 3
1
times the phase current or that the phase current is times the line current. It is to be noted that the phase
3
angle between the phase current and the line current is 30°.
Voltage Relationship
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop consisting of VR and VRY in Figure 1.7, we have:
VRN = VRY ; VYN = VYB and VBN = VBR (1.19)
Using Eqns. (1.5) and (1.19), we can conclude that, in a balanced delta-connected three-phase source, phase
voltage is equal to the line voltage, as given in Eqn. (1.20).
Vph = VL (1.20)
Vector Diagram IB
The vector diagram for a balanced delta-connected source, by
considering the phase currents as reference vector, is shown in
Figure 1.8.
IBR –IYB
Power Relationship
The real power produced per phase in the system shown in Figure
1.6 is Pph = |Vph || I ph | cos f . 120°
–IRY 120° IRY
Therefore, the total real power produced in the system is given by
30°
P = 3 |Vph|| I ph| cos f (1.21) 120°
Using Eqns. (1.18) and (1.20), we get

| I L| IY IYB –IBR IR
P = 3 |VL| cos f = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f (W) (1.22)
3 Figure 1.8 Phasor Diagram for a
Similarly, the total reactive power, Q, and total apparent power, S, Balanced Delta-connected
produced in the system are given by: Source
Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f (VAR) (1.23)
S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.24)
1.5.3 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Load [AU April/May, 2015]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced star-connected load with phase sequence RYB is shown in
Figure 1.9.
IL1
R
IR
VRN ZR = Zph
VRY
VBR N VBN
IB
IL2 Z ph
Y ZY = ZB = Zph
IY VYN B
VYB
IL3
Figure 1.9 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Star-connected Load

Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

Let ZR, ZY and ZB be the load impedances in R, Y and B phases respectively. But in a balanced load condi-
tion, all the load impedances are equal to the load impedance per phase, Zph, represented as:
ZR = ZY = ZB = Zph (1.25)
The current, voltage and power relationship between the line and phase quantities, explained in
Section 1.4.1, is applicable to the balanced three-phase star-connected load, i.e.,
I ph = I L ; |VL| = 3 |Vph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

and S = 3 |VL|| I L| (1.26)
The relation between phase current, phase voltage and load impedance per phase is given by:
Vph
I ph =
Z ph
Load Impedance
If the load is lagging, leading and unity power factor in nature, then the load impedance is given by
Zph = Rph + jXph, Zph = Rph – jXph and Zph = Rph respectively.
Power Factor
The power factor of the given three-phase star-connected balanced load is cos f.
Phasor Diagram
The phasor diagram for a three-phase balanced star-connected load with lagging and leading power factor
load is shown in Figures 1.10 (a) and (b) respectively.
VBR VBN –VYN

VBN VBN VRY VRY
–VYN IB
IB
f 120° 30°
f 120°
IR
f
30° VRN
–VRN 120° 120°
–VRN 120° f VRN
120° f
f IR
IY
IY
VYN –VBN
VYN –VBN
VYB VYB
(a) (b)
Figure 1.10 Phasor Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Star-connected Load with (a) Lagging and (b) Lead-
ing Power Factor
1.5.4 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Load

The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced delta-connected load with phase sequence RYB is shown
in Figure 1.11.
IR R
IBR
V
VL1 Zph L3
VRY
Zph
VBR
IRY
IY Zph
Y IB
B
IYB
VYB VL2
IB
Figure 1.11 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Load
Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

The current, voltage and power relationship between the line and phase quantities, explained in Section
1.4.2, is applicable to the balanced three-phase delta-connected load, i.e.,
Vph = VL ; | I L| = 3 | I ph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

and S = 3 |VL|| I L| (1.27)
The relation between phase current, phase voltage and load impedance per phase is given by:
Vph
I ph =
Z ph
Load Impedance
If the load is lagging, leading or unity power factor in nature, then the load impedance is given by
Zph = Rph + jXph; Zph = Rph – jXph or Zph = Rph respectively.
Power Factor
The power factor of the given three-phase delta-connected balanced load is cos f.
Phasor Diagram
The phasor diagram for a three-phase balanced delta-connected load with lagging and leading power factor
load is shown in Figures 1.12 (a) and (b) respectively.
VBR IB
IB
VBR
IBR
–IYB
IBR
IYB
–IRY f f
120° IRY
120° 120°
120° VRY
f
f –IRY 30° VRY
IY f 120° 30° IRY 120°
f
IR
IYB
–IBR
–IBR IYB
IY
IR
VYB
VYB
(a) (b)
Figure 1.12 Phasor Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Load with (a) Lagging and (b) Lead-
ing Power Factor
1.5.5 Three-Phase Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load [AU May/June, 2014]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase unbalanced delta-connected load with phase sequence RYB is shown
in Figure 1.13.
IR R
IBR
VBR
VRY |ZBR|–fBR
VRY
|ZRY|–fRY
VBR
IRY |ZYB|–fYB
Y IYB
B
IY
VYB VYB
IB
Figure 1.13 Three-phase Unbalanced Delta-connected Load
The load impedance across R-Y, Y-B and B-R terminals is given by |ZRY|–fRY, |ZYB|–fYB and |ZBR|–fBR
respectively. It is known that in delta connection, the phase and line voltages are same. Since there is a
change in load impedance, there will be changes only in the line and phase currents.
The phase and line currents in the system are given by:
VRY V VYB V
I RY = = RY ; IYB = = YB
| Z RY | –j RY Z RY | ZYB| –jYB ZYB
VBR V
and I BR = = BR (1.28)
| Z BR| –j BR Z BR
I R = I RY - I BR ; IY = IYB - I RY and I B = I BR - IYB (1.29)
Also, the total real power, reactive power and apparent power for the unbalanced delta-connected load are
given in Eqns. (1.30) to (1.32) respectively.
P = |VRN || I RY | cos f RY + |VYN || IYB| cos fYB + |VBN || I BR| cos f BR (1.30)
Q = |VRN || I RY | sin f RY + |VYN || IYB| sin fYB + |VBN || I BR| sin f BR (1.31)
S = |VRN || I RY | + |VYN || IYB| + |VBN || I BR| (1.32)
1.5.6 Three-Phase Unbalanced Four-Wire Star-Connected Load [AU May/June, 2014]

The circuit diagram for a three-phase four-wire unbalanced star-connected load, with phase sequence RYB,
is shown in Figure 1.14.
IR
R
VRN |ZR|–fR
VRY
IN
N VBN
|ZY|–fY N
|ZB|–fB
VBR
VYN
Y
IY
VYB
IB
B
Figure 1.14 Three-phase Four-wire Unbalanced Star-connected Load
The load impedance across R-N, Y-N and B-N terminals are given by |ZR|–fR, |ZY|–fY and |ZB|–fB respec-
tively. In star-connected load, the line and phase currents are equal as given by:
VRN V VYN V VBN V
IR = = RN ; IY = = YN and I B = = BN (1.33)
| Z R| –j R ZR | ZY | –jY ZY | Z B| –j B ZB
The current flowing through the neutral point is obtained using Kirchhoff’s current law as given by:
I N = I R + IY + I B
The phase voltages in this system are given by:

|VRY | |Vph|
|VRN | = –q R - 30o or –q R - 30o (1.34)
3 3
|VYB| |Vph|
|VYN | = –qY - 30o or –q R - 90o (1.35)
3 3
|VBR| |Vph|
|VBN | = –q B - 30o or –q R - 210° (1.36)
3 3
Also, the total real power, reactive power and apparent power for the unbalanced delta-connected load are
given by:
P = |VRN||IR|cos fRY + |VYN||IY|cos fYB + |VBN||IB|cos fBR (1.37)
Q = |VRN||IR|sin fRY + |VYN||IY|sin fYB + |VBN||IB|sin fBR (1.38)
S = |VRN||IR| + |VYN||IY| + |VBN||IB| (1.39)
1.5.7 Three-Phase Unbalanced Three-Wire Star-Connected Load

[AU May/June, 2014]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase three-wire unbal- IR

anced star-connected load, with phase sequence RYB, is R
shown in Figure 1.15.
The potential of a neutral point in this system is dif-
ferent from the potential of a neutral point in a balanced I1 ZR
star-connected source. Such neutral points are called as VRY
floating neutral points, as the relation between the phase
voltage, line voltage and supply voltage do not exist and ZY N ZB
the phase angle between any two phases will not be 120°. VBR
This creates difficulties in determining the line and phase IY
voltages and currents of the load. The solution to these Y
difficulties can be achieved by any one of the following
I2
three methods: VYB
(a) Star-to-delta conversion
(b) Mesh analysis IB
B
(c) Millman’s theorem
Figure 1.15 Three-phase Three-wire Unbalanced
Star-to-Delta Conversion Star-connected Load
In this method, the star-connected unbalanced load is
converted into delta-connected unbalanced load, which eliminates the problem of floating neutral points.
Once the star to delta conversion is performed, the system starts to act as a three-phase unbalanced delta-
connected load. The line and phase voltages and currents can be obtained using the equations indicated in
Section 1.4.5. The detailed description of star-to-delta conversion is discussed in Section 1.7.
Mesh Analysis
The circuit diagram of a three-phase unbalanced three-wire star-connected load, with phase sequence RYB,
is shown in Figure 1.15. Let I1 and I 2 be the currents flowing through loop 1 and loop 2 respectively.
Applying mesh analysis to Figure 1.15, we get

For loop 1,
VRY = I1Z R + ( I1 - I 2 ) ZY = I1Z R + I1ZY - I 2 ZY
(1.40)
VRY = I1 ( Z R + ZY ) - I 2 ZY
For loop 2,
VYB = I 2 Z B + ( I 2 - I1 ) ZY = I 2 Z B + I 2 ZY - I 2 ZY
(1.41)
VYB = - I1Z B + I 2 ( Z B + ZY )
Upon solving Eqns. (1.40) and (1.41), the currents I1 and I 2 can be determined.
From Figure 1.15, we get:
I R = I1 ; I B = - I 2 and IY = I1 - I 2 (or) I 2 - I1 [Depending on the magnitude of higher value]
If I R , IY and I B are determined, then the phase and line voltages can be calculated using Eqns. (1.42)
and (1.43) respectively.
VRN = I R Z R , VYN = IY ZY and VBN = I B Z B (1.42)
VRY = VRN - VYN , VYB = VYN - VBN and VBR = VBN - VRN (1.43)
Millman’s Theorem
According to Millman’s theorem, if number of voltages sources V1 , V2 , V3 º Vn with internal impedances
Z1, Z2, …, Zn. are in parallel, as shown in Figure 1.16 (a), then it can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source Veq in series with impedance Zeq, as shown in Figure 1.16(b).
V1 V2 Vn
+ + ... +
Z1 Z 2 Z n V1 Y1 + V2Y2 + ... + VnYn
Where, Veq = = and
1 1 1 Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn
+ + ... +
Z1 Z 2 Zn
1 1 1
Z eq = or =
1 1 1 Yeq Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn
+ + ... +
Z1 Z2 Zn
1 1 1 1 1
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = Za = Zeq =
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn Yeq
+ + + + +
V1 ∼ V2 ∼ V3 ∼ Vn ∼ Veq ∼
(a) (b)
Figure 1.16 Milliman’s Theorem Representation

The unbalanced three-wire star-connected load, which is supplied by a balanced star-connected source,
to which Millman’s Theorem is applied, is shown in Figure 1.16.
R IR R
VRN1 VRN2
N2
VBN1 N1 VBN2
VYN1 Y IY Y
B VYN2 B
IB
Figure 1.17 Application of Milliman’s Theorem to Unbalanced Three-wire Star-connected Load
Applying Millman’s theorem to Figure 1.17, we get
VRN 1YR + VYN 1YY + VBN 1YB

VN 1N 2 =
YB + YY + YB
Where, YR, YY and YB are admittances of unbalanced three-wire star load, connected such that:
1 1 1
YR = ; YY = ; YB =
ZR ZY ZB
Therefore, VRN 1 = VRN 2 + VN 1N 2

And VRN 2 = VRN 1 - VN 1N 2
Similarly, VYN 2 = VYN 1 - VN 1N 2 and VBN 2 = VBN 1 - VN 1N 2

The line (or phase) currents are given by:
VRN 2 VRN 2 V VYN 2 V VBN 2

IR = = ; IY = YN 2 = and I B = BN 2 =
ZR | Z R| –q R ZY | ZY | –qY ZB | Z B| –q B
Different Types of Balanced Connection

The different types of connections, which can exist in three-phase systems, are:
1. Star-connected source – star-connected load
2. Star-connected source – delta-connected load
3. Delta-connected source – star-connected load
4. Delta-connected source – delta-connected load
1.6 STEPS TO DRAW PHASOR DIAGRAM

Check for the type of load connection
Star connection Delta connection
Draw VRN, (phase voltage) Draw VRY (phase voltage =

which is the reference line voltage) which is the
voltage phasor reference voltage phasor
Draw VYN and VBN Draw VYB and VBR

displaced by 120° from displaced by 120° from
each other and VRN each other and VRY
Using the parallelogram law of addition, Based on the type of load, draw phase
draw line voltages VRY, VYB and VBR currents IRY, IYB and IBR such that IRY
such that VRY leads VRN by 30°, VYB is displaced from VRY by fRY, IYB
leads VYN by 30° and VBR leads is displaced from VYB by fYB and IBR
VBN by 30° is displaced from VBR by fBR
Based on the type of load, draw (phase Using the parallelogram law of addition,
currents = line currents) IR, IY, IB such draw line currents IR, IY and IB such
that IR is displaced from VRN by fR, IY is that IR lags IRY by 30°, IY lags IYB
displaced from VYN by fY and IB by 30° and IB leads IBR by 30°
is displaced from VBN by fB
1.7 STAR–DELTA CONVERSION [AU May/June, 2013]
The transformation or replacement of the three-phase star-connected load to a three-phase delta-connected

load and vice versa is known star–delta conversion. This conversion is required in three-phase loads to
simplify and analyse the complex circuits. As an example, if a three-phase load is connected in delta, it
can be transformed into an equivalent star-connected load and after analysis, the results are converted back
into their original delta equivalent. The converted equivalent circuit will have the same current and voltage
levels at its network terminals, as it appears in the original circuit. The two different conversions existing
in three-phase systems are: (i) star-to-delta conversion and (ii) delta-to-star conversion.
1.7.1 Star-to-Delta Conversion

In this conversion, star-connected three-phase load, shown in Figure 1.18 (a), is converted into delta-connected
three-phase system, as shown in Figure 1.18 (b).
The equivalent impedances in delta-connected load are given by:
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R ¸
Z RY = Ô
ZB Ô
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R Ô
ZYB = ˝ (1.44)
ZR Ô
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R Ô
Z BR = Ô
ZY ˛
R
R
ZBR ZRY
ZR
B ZYB Y
ZB ZY
B Y
Figure 1.18 Star-to-delta Conversion
1.7.2 Delta-to-Star Conversion

In this conversion, star-connected three-phase load, shown in Figure 1.19 (a), is converted into delta-
connected three-phase system, as shown in Figure 1.19 (b).
R
R
ZBR ZRY
ZR
B ZYB Y
ZB ZY
B
Y
Figure 1.19 Delta-to-star Conversion
The equivalent impedances in star-connected load are given by:

Z RY Z BR ¸
ZR =
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR ÔÔ
ZYB Z RY Ô
ZY = ˝ (1.45)
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR Ô
ZYB + Z BR Ô
ZB = Ô
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR ˛
Example 1.1
For the circuit shown below in Figure E1.1, calculate the line current, power and power factor. The values
of R, L and C in each phase are 10 W, 1 H and 100 mF respectively. [AU Nov/Dec, 2012]
Solution
The load impedance in each phase is a parallel combination of R, L and C, as given by
1
Z R = ZY = Z B = = 9.262 - j 2.615 = 9.624– -15.77∞ W
1 1 1
+ +
R X L XC
R IR
C R L
400 V, 50 Hz
C L
R
R
L C
IB
B
IY
B
Figure E1.1
|VL| 400
For a star connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |V ph| = = = 230.94 V
3 3
In a balanced star-connected load, the line current or phase current is given by
|Vph | 230.94
I R = IY = I B = I ph = I L = = = 24–15.77° A
ZR 9.624– - 15.77°
The power factor of the system is given by
cos f = cos(Vph ^ I ph ) = cos(15.77°) = 0.9624
– – – –
where V ph ^ I ph represents the phase angle between V ph and I ph
The power consumed by the load is
P = 3 VLIL cos f = 3 ¥ 400 ¥ 24 ¥ 0.9624
= 16 kW
Example 1.2
A balanced star-connected load having an impedance of 15 + j20 W per phase is connected to three-phase,
440V, 50 Hz. Find the line current and power absorbed by the load. [AU April/May, 2014]
Solution
Given, load impedance, Zph = 15 + j20 W and line voltage, |VL| = 440 V.
|VL| 440
For a star-connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph | = = = 254.03 V
3 3
In a star-connected load, magnitude of line and phase currents are equal and hence,
Vph 254.03 254.03
IL = = = = 10.16– - 53.13° A
Z ph 15 + j 20 25–53.13
The power factor of the given system is cos(f) = cos(53.13°) = 0.6 A

Therefore, the line currents in star-connected load are: I R = 10.16–-53.13∞ A , IY = 10.16–-173.13∞ A
and I B = 10.16–- 293.13∞ A .
The active power, reactive power and apparent power absorbed by the load are:
P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos (f ); Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin (f ) and S = 3 |VL|| I L|

Substituting the known values in the above equation, we get:
P = 3 ¥ 440 ¥ 10.16 ¥ 0.6 = 4.645 kW
Q = 3 ¥ 440 ¥ 10.16 ¥ 0.8 = 6.194 kVAR
and S = 3 ¥ 440 ¥ 10.16 = 7.743 kVA
Example 1.3
Three equal impedances, each of 8 + j10 W, are connected in star. This is further connected to a 440 V,
50 Hz, three-phase supply. Calculate the active and reactive powers and line and phase currents.
Solution
Given, load impedances, Zph = 8 + j10 W, line voltage, VL = 440 V
|VL| 440
For a star-connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph| =
= = 254.04 V
3 3
The line or phase current in a star-connected balanced load is obtained as
Vph
I L or I ph = = 19.83– - 51.34° A
Z ph
From the above equation, we get
cos f = cos (51.34°) = 0.6247
Therefore, I R = 19.83––51.34° A; IY = 19.83––171.34° A and I B = 19.83––291.34°A
The active and reactive power drawn by the star-connected load is given by
P = 3VL I L cos f kW and Q = 3VL I L sin f kVAR
Substituting the known values in the above equation, we get
P = 9.44 kW and Q = 11.8 kVAR
Example 1.4
A three-phase, three-wire 120 V RYB system feeds a delta-connected load, whose phase impedance is 30–45° W.
Find the phase and line currents in the system and draw the phasor diagram. [AU Nov/Dec, 2012]
Solution
Given, load impedance, Zph = 30–45° W and line voltage, |VL| = 120 V
For a delta-connected balanced load, |Vph| = |VL| = 120 V
The phase current in a delta-connected balanced load is given by
|Vph| 120
| I RY | = | IYB| = | I BR| = | I ph| = = =4A
Z ph 30
The line current in a delta-connected balanced load is given by
| I R| = | IY | = | I B| = | I L| = 3 | I ph| = 3 ¥ 4 = 6.92 A
For drawing the phasor diagram, the angle IB

VBR
between Vph (VL ) and I ph and the angle between
Vph (VL ) and I L are required.
IBR
I ph 120
Here, I ph = = = 4– - 45° A
Z ph 30–45° IYB
–IRY 45°
Therefore, the angle between Vph (VL ) and I ph
120°
is 45o, for any phase and since it is negative, it 120°
45°
VRY
indicates that the phase current lags behind the IY 45°120° 30° IRY
phase (line) voltage.

Also, it is known that the angle between line IYB
and phase currents is 30o. Hence, the angle between –IBR
o o o
Vph (VL ) and I L is 75 (i.e., 30 + 45 ) for any IR
phase. With the help of these details, the phasor VYB
diagram of the delta-connected load is shown in
Figure E1.4 Phasor Diagram of Delta-connected Load
Figure E1.4.
Example 1.5
A three-phase balanced delta-connected load of 4 + j8 W is connected across a 400V, three-phase balanced
supply. Determine the phase currents and line currents (Phase sequence is RYB). [AU May/Jun, 2014]
Solution
Given, load impedance, Zph = 4 + j8W = 8.994–63.43°, line voltage, VL = 400 V and RYB sequence.
For a delta-connected load, VRN = VYN = VBN = Vph = VL = 400 V
The phase angle between the phase voltage and phase current in a delta-connected load is f = 63.43° and
the magnitude of the phase current is given by
Vph 400
I ph = = = 44.722– – 63.43° A
Z ph 8.944–63.43∞
Therefore, I RY = 44.722– - 63.43°; IYB = 44.722– -183.43° and I BR = 44.722– - 303.43°

Now, the magnitude of line current in a delta-connected load is given by
| I L| = 3 ¥ | I ph| = 3 ¥ 44.722 = 77.46 A
It is well known that the angle between phase current and line current of a phase in a delta-connected load
is 30o. Therefore, IR = 77.46 ––93.43° A, IY = 77.46 ––213.43° A and IB = 77.46––333.43° A
Example 1.6
A three-phase delta-connected load has ZRY = 100 + j0 W, ZYB = j100 W and ZBR = 70.7 + j70.7 W and is
connected to a balanced three-phase 400 V supply. Determine the line currents IR, IY and IB. Assume the
phase sequence as RYB.
Solution
Given, load impedances: ZRY = 100 + j0 W, ZYB = –j100 W and ZBR = 70.7 + j70.7 W. Line current,
VL = 400 V and phase sequence is RYB.
For a delta-connected load, |Vph| = |VL| = 400 V
Therefore, the phase currents in the delta-connected load are given by:
Vph 400–0°
I RY = = = 4.4 A
Z RY 100
Vph 400– -120°
IYB = = = 4– - 30° A
ZYB - j100
Vph 400– - 240°
and I BR = = = 4.4 – - 285° A
Z BR 70.7 + j 70.7
The line currents of the system are:
I R = I RY - I BR = 4.4 - 4– - 30° = 2.2–64.92° A
IY = I YB - I RY = 4– - 30∞ - 4.4– - 285° = 6.66– - 69.59° A
and I B = I BR - IYB = 4.4– - 285° - 4.4 = 5.357–127.5° A
Example 1.7
Detremine the currents for the unbalanced delta-connected load consisting of ZRY = 30 + j40 W, ZYB = 8 – j4 W,
and ZBR = 15 + j12 W. Assume the phase sequence to be RYB, V = 200 V.
Solution
Given, load impedances: ZRY = 30 + j40 W, ZYB = 8 – j4 W, and ZBR = 15 + j12 W, line voltage, VL = 200 V.
For a delta-connected load, |Vph| = |VL| = 200 V
Therefore, the phase currents in the delta-connected load are given by:
Vph 200–0o
I RY = = = 4– - 53.13°A
Z RY 30 + j 40
Vph 200– -120°
IYB = = = 22.36– - 93.44°A
ZYB 8 - j4
Vph 200– - 240°
and I BR = = = 10.41–81.34°A
Z BR 15 + j12
The line currents of the system are:

I R = I RY - I BR = 4– - 53.13 - 10.41–81.34° = 13.51– - 86.46°A
IY = IYB - I RY = 22.36– - 93.44° - 4– - 53.13° = 19.48– -101.07°A
and I B = I BR - IYB = 10.41–81.34° - 22.36– - 93.44° = 32.74–84.90°A
Example 1.8
A wye load with ZR = 3 + j0 W, ZY = 2+ j3 W, and ZB = 2 – j1 W is connected to a three-phase, four-wire,
100V, BYR system. Find the currents in all four lines.
Solution
Given, load impedances: ZR = 3+ j0 W, ZY = 2 + j3 W, and ZB = 2 – j1 W and line voltage, VL = 100 V.
|VL| 100
For a star-connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph| = = = 57.74 V
3 3
Therefore, VBN = 57.74–0° V; VYN = 57.74– - 120° V and VRN = 57.74– - 240° V
The line or phase currents in a star-connected unbalanced load are:
VBN 57.74–0°
IB = = = 25.82–26.56° A = 23.09 + j11.54 A
ZB 2 - j1
VYN 57.74– - 120°
IY = = = 16.01– - 176.30° A = –15.97 – j1.03 A
ZY 2 + j3
VRN 57.74– - 240°
and IR = = = 19.24– - 240° A = – 9.62 + j16.66 A
ZR 3 + j0
The neutral current in the system is given by
I N = – 9.62 + j16.66 - 15.97 - j1.03 + 23.09 + j11.54
= – 2.5 + j 27.17
= 27.3–95.28° A
Example 1.9
A symmetrical three-phase three-wire 440 V supplies to a star-connected load. The impedances in each branch
are ZR = 2 + j3 W, ZY = 1 – j2 W and ZB = 3 + j4 W. Find its equivalent delta-connected load.
[AU April/May, 2014]
Solution
The equivalent impedances for each branch in delta-connected load are:
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R
Z RY =
ZB
(2 + j 3)(1 - j 2) + (1 - j 2)(3 + j 4) + (3 + j 4)(3 + j 3)
= = 3.8 - j 0.4 W
3 + j4
ZYB =
ZR
(2 + j 3)(1 - j 2) + (1 - j 2)(3 + j 4) + (3 + j 4)(3 + j 3)
= = 5.23 - j 0.85 W
2 + j3
Z BR =
ZY
(2 + j 3)(1 - j 2) + (1 - j 2)(3 + j 4) + (3 + j 4)(3 + j 3)
= = - 3 + j8 W
1 - j2
Therefore, the equivalent load impedances of delta-connected load are: ZRY = 3.8 – j0.4 W, ZYB = 5.23 – j0.85 W
and ZBR = –3 + j8 W.
Example 1.10
A symmetrical three-phase three-wire 400 V supply is connected to a delta-connected load. Impedances is
each branch are ZRY = 10 –30° W, ZYB = 10 –45° W and ZBR = 2.5 –60° W. Find its equivalent star-connected
load. [AU May/Jun, 2014]
Solution
The equivalent impedances in star-connected load are given by:
Z RY Z BR 10–30° ¥ 2.5–60°
ZR = =
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR 10–30° + 10– 45° + 2.5–60°
= 0.724 + j 0.864 = 1.127–50.03° W
ZYB Z RY 10–30° ¥ 10– 45°
ZY = =
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR 10–30° + 10– 45° + 2.5–60°
= 3.7 + j 2.59 = 4.51–34.99° W
ZYB Z BR 10– 45° ¥ 2.5–60°
ZB = =
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR 10–30° + 10–45° + 2.5–60°
= 0.48 + j1.022 = 1.129–64.84° W
Example 1.11
A symmetrical three-phase, 100 V, three-wire supply feeds an unbalanced star-connected load with imped-
ances of the load as ZR = 5 –0° W, ZY = 2 –90° W and ZR = 4 ––90° W. Find the line currents, voltage
across the impedances and draw the phasor diagram. [AU April/May, 2014]
Solution
Given, load impedances: ZR = 5 –0° W, ZY = 2 –90° W and ZB = 4 ––90° W
The line currents and phase voltages of unbalanced star-connected three-phase three-wire system can be
determined using any one of the following methods:
(i) Star-to-delta conversion
(ii) Mesh analysis
(iii) Milliman’s theorem
(i) Star-to-delta Conversion

The equivalent impedances for each branch in delta-connected load are:
Z RY =
ZB
(5–0°)(2–90°) + (2–90°)(4– - 90°) + (4– - 90°)(5–0°)
=
4– - 90°
12.80– - 51.34°
= = 3.201–38.65° W
4– - 90°
ZYB =
ZR
(5–0°)(2–90°) + (2–90°) (4– - 90°) + (4– - 90°)(5–0°)
=
5–0°
12.80– - 51.34°
= = 2.56– - 51.34° W
5–0°
Z Z + ZY Z B + Z B Z R
Z BR = R Y
ZY
(5–0°)(2–90°) + (2–90°)(4– - 90°) + (4– - 90°)(5–0°)
=
2–90°
12.80– - 51.34°
= = 6.4– - 141.34° W
2–90°
For a delta-connected load, |Vph| = |VL| = 100 V .
Therefore, VRN = 100–0° V, VYN = 100– - 120° V and VBN = 100– - 240° V .
In a delta-connected load, the phase currents are obtained as:
VRN 100–0°
I RY = = = 31.24– - 38.65° A
Z RY 3.201–38.65°
VYN 100– -120°
IYB = = = 39.06– - 68.66° A
ZYB 2.56– - 51.34°
VBN 100– - 240°
and I BR = = = 15.62– - 98.66° A
Z BR 6.4– -141.34°
Therefore, the line currents are obtained as:
I R = I RY - I BR = (31.24– - 38.65°) - (15.62– - 98.66°) = 27.057– - 8.65°A

I Y = I YB - I RY = (39.06– - 68.66°) - (31.24– - 38.65°) = 19.705– -121.11°A
and I B = I BR - IYB = (15.62– - 98.66°) - (39.06– - 68.66°) = 26.70–128.34°A
(ii) Mesh Analysis

Applying mesh analysis to each loop in the system, we get:
100–0∞ = I1 (5–0o + 2–90°) - I 2 (2–90°)
= I1 (5.38– 21.80°) - I 2 (2–90°) (1)
100– - 120∞ = - I1 (2–90°) + I 2 (2–90° + 4– - 90°)

= - I1 (2–90°) + I 2 (2– - 90°) (2)
Subtracting Eqn. (1) from Eqn. (2), we get
100– -120° - 100–0° = - I1 (2–90°) - I1 (5.38–21.80°)
Therefore, I1 = 27.057 – - 8.65°A
Substituting I1 = 27.057 – - 8.65° in Eqn. (1), we get
I 2 = 26.70– - 51.66°A
Therefore, the line currents are given by:
I R = 27.057 – - 8.65° A
I B = - I B = 26.70–128.34° A
IY = 19.705– - 121.11° A
(iii) Milliman’s Theorem

Taking VRY as the reference line voltage, i.e., VRY = 100–0° V , we get phase voltages of source as:
100
VRN 1 = – - 30° = 57.73– - 30o V; VYN 1 = 57.73– -150° V and VBN 1 = 57.73– - 270° V
3
The load admittances of the system are:
1 1 1
YR = = = 0.2–0° ; YY = = 0.5– - 90° and
Z R 5–0° 2–90°
1
YB = = 0.25–90°
4– - 90°
We know that,
VRN 1YR + VYN 1YY + VBN 1YB
VN 1N 2 =
YR + YY + YB
[57.73– - 30 ¥ 0.2] + [57.73– - 150∞ ¥ 0.5– – 90∞] + [57.73– – 270∞ ¥ 0.25–90∞]
=
0.2 + 0.5– – 90∞ + 0.25–90∞
VN1N 2 = 84.15– – 174.19∞ V
The voltage drops across the load are:
V RN 2 = V RNI - V NIN 2 = 135.26– - 8.65∞ V
VYN 2 = VYNI - VNIN 2 = 39.39– - 31.10∞ V
and VBN 2 = VBN 1 - VNIN 2 = 106.75–38.35∞ V
The line currents are: VBN

VRN 2 IB
IR = = 27.052– - 8.65° A 8.4°
ZR
VYN 2 8.65°
IY = = 19.705– - 121.11° A I4 1.11° VRN

ZY IR
VBN 2
and IB = = 26.7 –128.34° A VYN
ZB
Figure E1.11
The phasor diagram for the given load is shown in Figure E1.11.
Example 1.12
An unbalanced star-connected load has balanced voltages of 100 V and RBY phase sequence. Calculate the
line currents and the neutral current. Take ZR = 15 W, ZB = (10 + j5) W, and ZY = (6 – j8) W.
[AU April/May, 2013]
Solution
Given, three-phase four-wire unbalanced star-connected load, line voltage, VL = 100 V, load impedances:
ZR = 15 W, ZB = (10 + j5) W, and ZY = (6 – j8) W and an RBY phase sequence.
|VL| 100
For a star-connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph| =
= = 57.74 V
3 3
In a star-connected load, the line or phase currents are given by:
Vph 57.74
IR = = = 3.849 A
ZR 15
Vph 57.74– - 120° 57.74– - 120°
IB = = = = 5.164– - 146.56° = –4.309 – j 2.845 A
ZB 10 + j 5 11.180–26.56
Vph 57.74– - 240° 57.74– - 240°
and IY = = = = 5.774– - 186.87∞ = –5.732 + j 0.6906 A
ZY 6 - j8 10– - 53.13
The neutral current in the star-connected unbalanced load is given by
Substituting the known values in the above equation, we get:
I N = 3.849 - 4.309 - j 2.845 - j 5.732 + j 0.6906
= - 6.192 - j 2.1544
= 6.55– - 160.81° A
Example 1.13
A three-phase four-wire 120 V RYB system feeds an unbalanced star-connected load with ZR = 5 –0° W,
ZY = 10–30° W, and ZB = 20 –60° W. Obtain the four line currents. [AU Nov/Dec, 2012]
Solution
Given, line voltage, |VL| = 120 V, load impedances: ZR = 5 –0° W, ZY = 10 –30° W, and ZB = 20 –60° W
|VL| 120
For star-connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph| =
= = 69.3 A
3 3
The line currents or phase currents in a star-connected load are given by:
VRN 69.3
IR = = = 13.86 A
ZR 5
V YN 69.3– -120°
IY = = = 6.93– -150°A
ZY 10–30°
V BN 69.3– - 240°
and IB = = = 3.465– - 300°A
ZB 20–60°
The current flowing through the neutral point is given by
Substituting the line currents in the above equation, we get
I N = 13.86 + (6.93– -150°) + (3.465– - 300°)
= 9.602– - 2.77°A
Example 1.14
An unbalanced star-connected load is supplied from a three-phase, 440 V R IR
symmetrical system. Determine the line currents and power input to the
circuit shown in Figure E1.14 . Assume RYB sequence. 10 W
[AU April/May, 2010] 440 V
Solution
Given, line voltage, |VRY | = 440 V , load resistances: RR = 10 W, RY = 15
15 W 20 W
W and RB = 20 W. Y
IY
For a star-connected load, |VRY | = |VYB| = |VBR| = |VL| = 3 |Vph| IB

B
440
Therefore, |Vph| = = 254.03 V
3 Figure E1.14
In a star-connected load, | I L| = |Vph| . Hence, the line or phase currents are obtained as:
Vph 254.03
IR = = = 25.403 A
RR 10
VY 254.03– - 120°
IY = = = 16.93– - 120° A
RY 15
VB 254.03– - 240°
and IB = = = 12.72– - 240° A
RB 20
The total power consumed by the unbalanced star-connected load is
P = PR + PY + PB = |Vph| (| I R| + | IY | + | I B|)

P = 13.98 kW
Assuming the system to be lossless, the total power consumed by the load is the total power supplied to the
load. Therefore, the total power supplied to the load is 13.98 kW.
Example 1.15
Determine the line currents for the unbalanced delta-connected load shown in Figure E1.15.
IR
R
j40 W 15 W
3f
balanced 200 V
supply 30 W j12 W
Y
IY 8W –j14 W
B
IB
Figure E1.15
Solution
Given, line voltage, |VRY | = 200 V, load impedances: ZRY = 30 + j40 W = 50–53.13° W, ZYB = 8 – j14 W =
16.124––60.255° W and ZBR = 15 – j12 W = 19.2093–+ 38.66° W, balanced three-phase supply and unbal-
anced three-phase delta-connected load.
For a delta-connected load, |VRY | = |VYB | = |VBR | = |VL | = 200 V and |Vph | = |VL | = 200 V
Taking VRY as the reference voltage phasor, the phase voltages are given by:
VRY = 200–0° V; VYB = 200– -120° V and VBR = 200– - 240° V
Therefore, the phase currents are obtained as:
VRY 200–0°
I RY = = = 4– - 53.13° = 2.4 - j 3.2 A
Z RY 50–53.13°
VYB 200– - 120°
IYB = = = 12.4034– - 59.745° = 6.25 - j10.714 A
ZYB 16.124– - 60.255°
VBR 200– - 240°
and I BR = = = 10.412– - 278.66° = 1.56 + j10.29 A
Z BR 19.209– - 38.66°
Hence, the line currents of the system are obtained as:
I R = I RY - I BR = (2.4 - j 3.2) - (1.56 + j10.29)
= 0.84 - j13.49 = 13.51– - 86.43° A
IY = IYB - I RY = (6.25 - j10.714) - (2.4 - j 3.2)
= 3.85 - j 7.514 A = 8.443– - 62.87° A
I B = I BR - IYB = (1.56 + j10.29) - (6.25 - j10.714)
= - 4.69 + j 21 = 21.52–102.58° A
Example 1.16
Three impedances, Z1 = 17.35 + j10 W, Z2 = 20 + j34.64 W 0 – j 10 = 10 ––90° W
and Z2 = 0 – j10 W are delta-connected to a 400 V, three- R R
phase system, as shown in Figure E1.16. Determine the
phase currents, line currents and the total power consumed 17.32 + j10
Y Z3 Z1
= 20 –30° W
by the load.
Z2 Y
Solution B B
Given, line voltage, |VL | = 400 V, load impedances:
20 + j34.64
ZRY = Z1 = 17.35 + j10 W = 20–30° W, ZYB = Z2 = 20 + j34.64 W = 40 –60° W
= 40–60° W and ZBR = Z3 = 0 – j10 W = 10––90° W. Figure E1.16
For a delta-connected load, |Vph | = |VL | = 400 V
Taking VRY as the reference voltage phasor, the phase voltages are given by:
VRY = 400–0° V; VYB = 400– - 120° V and VBR = 400– - 240° V

Therefore, the phase currents are obtained as:
VRY 400–0°
I RY = = = 20– - 30° = 17.32 - j10 A
Z RY 20–30°
VYB 400– - 120°
IYB = = = 10– - 60° = 5 - j8.66 A
ZYB 40–60°
VBR 200– - 240°
and I BR = = = 40– - 150° = - 34.64 + j 20 A
Z BR 10– - 90°
Hence, the line currents of the system are obtained as:
I R = I RY - I BR = (17.32 - j10) - ( -34.64 - j 20) = 51.96 + j10 = 52.913–10.89° A

IY = IYB - I RY = (5 - j8.66) - (17.32 - j10) = -12.32 + j1.34 = 12.392–173.79° A
I B = I BR - IYB = ( -34.64 - j 20) - (5 - j8.66) = - 39.64 - j11.34 = 41.2301– - 164.03° A
The powers consumed by the load are given by:

P1 = |VRY || I RY | cos(VRY ^ I RY ) = 40 ¥ 20 ¥ cos(30°) = 6928.2032 W
P2 = |VYB || IYB | cos(VYB ^ IYB ) = 400 ¥ 10 ¥ cos(60°) = 2000 W
and P3 = |VBR || I BR | cos(VBR ^ I BR ) = 400 ¥ 40 ¥ cos(90°) = 0 W
Therefore, the total power consumed by the load is
P = P1 + P2 + P3 = 8.928 kW
1.8 POWER MEASURMENT IN A THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

The power consumed in a three-phase system is measured using wattmeters. Generally, one wattmeter is
required for measuring power in one phase and hence three wattmeters would be required to measure power
in a three-phase system. But, universally it is proved that only two wattmeters are enough to measure power
in three-phase systems of any type i.e., balanced or unbalanced and star or delta-connected systems. In ad-
dition, if the system is balanced, the circuit power factor can also be determined using the readings of two
wattmeters. Also, in a balanced system, the total power in all the three-phases can be obtained by multiplying
the power obtained in a single-phase.
1.8.1 Wattmeter
A wattmeter is an instrument that is used to measure power in watts in a single-phase or a three-phase
system. The two coils that exist in a wattmeter are: fixed or current coil and moving or pressure or voltage
coil. The wattmeter has four terminals: M, L, C and V; where ‘M’ is the terminal to which the phase volt-
age of supply or mains is connected, ‘L’ is the terminal to which the load is connected, ‘C’ is the common
terminal in the wattmeter device and ‘V’ is the voltage terminal to connect the energy metre. In a wattmeter,
the terminals ‘M’ and ‘C’ are interconnected.
Fixed or Current Coil (CC)

The coil that is connected in series with the branch or line to sense the current flowing through it is called
the current coil. The characteristics of current coil are: low resistance, large cross-sectional area and less
number of turns. The terminals, which are used to denote the CC, are M – L. In a modern wattmeter, the
maximum current that is allowed to pass through CC is 20 A.
Moving or Pressure or Voltage Coil (PC)

The high-resistance coils, which are connected across or parallel to W
the branch or line are called moving or pressure or voltage coils. M L
The two terminals of the pressure coil are ‘C’ and ‘V’, where the P
C V
first one is the common terminal, which can be connected after or
before the current coil and ‘V’ is the specified voltage terminal with Load
actual voltage marking. PC carries the current proportional to the
voltage across the branch or line. The characteristics of PC are: large
resistance, small cross-sectional area and more number of turns. N
A wattmeter, which is connected to measure the power of a Figure 1.20 Wattmeter Connected to
single-phase load, is shown in Figure 1.20. In general, the power Measure the Power of a
measured by the wattmeter is a product of voltage that the pressure Single-phase Load
coil measures and the current that flows through the current coil.
1.8.2 Methods of Power Measurement

The three methods that are used for the measurement of three-phase power in three-phase circuits are:
1. Three-Wattmeter Method
2. Two-Wattmeter Method
3. Single-Wattmeter Method
Blondel’s Theorem
When power is supplied by an ‘n’ wire AC system, then the number of wattmeters required to measure
power is ‘n – 1’, i.e., one less than the number of wires in the AC system, irrespective of a balanced or
an unbalanced load. Therefore, for a three-phase four-wire system, the number of wattmeters required to
measure the power is three and for a three-phase three-wire system, the number of wattmeters required to
measure the power is two.
1.8.3 Three-Wattmeter Method

According to Blondel’s theorem, the three-wattmeter method can be used only to measure the power in three-
phase, four-wire star-connected balanced and unbalanced load, whose circuit diagram along with wattmeters
W1, W2 and W3 is shown in Figures 1.21 (a) and (b) respectively.
M L
M L R R
R R C V
C V
Zph ZR
N N
N N
W2 W2
M L Y ZY ZB
M L Y Zph Zph B Y B
Y C V
C V
W3 W3
M L M L
B B
C V
C V
(a) (b)
Figure 1.21 Power Measurement Using Three-Wattmeter Method
Balanced Load
Usually, the wattmeter connected across the balanced load measures the actual power measured by the load
and is given by the product of root mean square (RMS) values of voltage and current. The power consumed
by the three-phase load, given in Figure 1.21(a) measured by W1, W2 and W3 are given by:
W1 = |VRN || I R | cos(VRN ^ I R ) (1.46)
W2 = |VYN || IY | cos(VYN ^ IY ) (1.47)
W3 = |VBN || I B | cos(VBN ^ I B ) (1.48)
where, VRN ^ I R , VYN ^ IY and VBN ^ I B are the angles between VRN and I R , VYN and IY and VBN and I B
respectively.
From the phasor diagram shown in Figures 1.21 (a) and (b), the angles VRN ^ I R , VYN ^ IY and VBN ^ I B
will be f and –f for lagging and leading power factors. But it is known that cos(–f) = cos(f). Therefore,
the total power consumed by the load is given by
W = W1 + W2 + W3
Substituting Eqns. (1.46) to (1.48) in the above equation, we get
W = |VRN || I R | cos f + |VYN || IY | cos f + |VBN || I B | cos f (1.49)
But in a balanced star-connected load, we have

|VL |
|VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph | = and | I R | = | IY | = | I B | = | I L | (1.50)
3
Substituting Eqn. (1.50) in Eqn. (1.49) and solving, we get the total average power measured by the three
wattmeters connected across a star-connected balanced load as
W = 3 |VL | | I L | cos f (1.51)
Unbalanced Load
Usually, the wattmeter connected across the unbalanced load measures only the instantaneous power rather
than the actual power. The instantaneous powers measured by W1, W2 and W3 in Figure 1.21(b) are given by
1 1 1
TÚ
W1 = vRN ¥ iR dt , W2 = Ú vYN ¥ iY dt and W3 = Ú vBN ¥ iB dt (1.52)
T T
where, vRN , vYN , vBN are the instantaneous phase voltages, iR, iY , iB are the instantaneous line or phase
currents and T is the time period of the voltage or current.
Therefore, the total power measured by the wattmeters is given by
W = W1 + W2 + W3
Substituting Eqn. (1.52) in the above equation, we get the total average power measured by the three
wattmeters connected across star-connected unbalanced load as
1
TÚ
W= ((vRN ¥ iR ) + (vYN ¥ iY ) + (vBN ¥ iB )) dt (1.53)
1.8.4 Two-Wattmeter Method [AU May/June, 2013]
Two-wattmeter method is used to measure the total power in a three-phase, three-wire star or delta-connected
balanced or unbalanced load. In this method, the current coils of the wattmeter are connected with any two
lines (i.e., R and Y) and the pressure coil of the wattmeter is connected between the above two lines and the
third line (i.e., B). The different phase systems for which the two-wattmeter method can be used to measure
the power consumed by the load are:
1. Star-connected balanced load
2. Star-connected unbalanced load
3. Delta-connected balanced load
4. Delta-connected unbalanced load
Star-connected Balanced Load

The circuit diagram for two-wattmeter method applied to a three-phase balanced star-connected load is
W1
M L
R R
C V
Zph
N
W2
M L Y Zph Zph
Y B
C V
Figure 1.22 Two-Wattmeter Method for Three-phase Balanced Star-connected Load
The readings of wattmeter shown in Figure 1.22 for a balanced star-connected load is given below:
W1 = | I R ||VRB | cos( I R ^ VRB ) and W2 = | IY ||VYB | cos( IY ^ VYB )
It is known that, VRB = VRN - VBN and VYB = VYN - VBN . The phasor diagram for two-wattmeter method,
applied to a three-phase balanced star-connected load with lagging power factor (inductive load), is shown
in Figure 1.23(a).
VBN
VBN IB
IB
f f
IR
f
VRN VRN
f
IR 30°
30° (30° + f)
f
f (30° – f)
30° VYN
IY
–VBN IY 30°
VRB VRB
VYN –VBN
VYB VYB
(a) (b)
Figure 1.23 Phasor Diagram for Two-Wattmeter Method with (a) Lagging and (b) Leading Power Factor
From the phasor diagram shown in Figure 1.23 (a), the angles VRB ^ I R and VYB ^ IY are (30° – f) and
(30° + f) respectively. Therefore, the total power consumed by the load is given by
W = W1 + W2 = |VRB || I R | cos(30° - f ) + |VYB || IY | cos(30° + f ) (1.54)
But, in a balanced star-connected load, we have

|VRB | = |VYB | = |VBR | = |VL | and | I R | = | IY | = | I B | = | I L | (1.55)
Substituting Eqn. (1.55) in (1.54) and solving, we get
W = |VL || I L | [cos(30° - f ) + cos(30° + f )]
Using cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B sin B sin A in the above equation and solving, we get the total average
power consumed by the load as
W = 3 |VL || I L | cos f (1.56)
Similarly, it is possible to obtain the total active power consumed by the load for a leading power factor.
The phasor diagram for two-wattmeter method applied to a three-phase balanced star-connected load with
leading power factor (capacitive load) is shown in Figure 1.23 (b).
From the phasor diagram shown in Figures 1.23 (b), it can be seen that the angles VRB ^ I R and VYB ^ IY
are (30° + f) and (30° – f) respectively. Therefore, the total power consumed by the load is given by
W = W1 + W2 = |VRB || I R | cos(30° + f ) + |VYB || IY | cos(30° - f ) (1.57)
But, in a balanced star-connected load, we have
|VRB | = |VYB | = |VBR | = |VL | and | I R | = | IY | = | I B | = | I L | (1.58)
Substituting Eqn. (1.58) in (1.57) and solving, we get
W = |VL || I L | [cos(30° + f ) + cos(30° - f )]
Using cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B sin B sin A in the above equation and solving, we get the total average
power consumed by the load as
W = 3 |VL || I L | cos f (1.59)
It is noted from Eqns. (1.56) and (1.59) that, the total active power consumed by the load with lagging or
leading power factor is same.
Star-connected Unbalanced Load

The circuit diagram for two-wattmeter method applied to a three-phase unbalanced star-connected load is
W1
M L
R R
C V
ZR
W2 N
M L Y
Y ZY ZB
B
C V
B
Figure 1.24 Two-Wattmeter Method for Three-phase Unbalanced Star-connected Load
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on no competent evidence, to be
constituted of a degenerate pair of
appendages and a labrum or upper lip.
Each of the three lobes which bounds the
mouth shows the following structures:
firstly, a lappet of external chitinised
integument, overlapping, as the finger-
nail overlaps the finger, a cushion-like lip,
ridged after the fashion of a fine-cut file
in some species, hairy in others, on the
inner surface where the three lips meet to
close the orifice of the mouth. Below this
again is a prominent tooth (Fig. 277, mt),
supported, as are the lips, by a system of
chitinous rods, which are but little
developed in the genus here figured,
though conspicuous and complicated in
others. Transverse ridges run across the
angles where adjacent lips meet, and the
whole mechanism constitutes an efficient
valve, preventing the escape of swallowed
food. The greater portion of the proboscis
is occupied by a masticating or triturating
apparatus, the oesophageal cavity
expanding somewhat and having its walls
densely covered, in three bands
corresponding to the antimeres, with
innumerable minute spines (h) or
needles, sometimes supplemented by
large teeth (t) that point forwards
somewhat obliquely to the axis of the
proboscis.[403]
In the curious East Indian genus
Pipetta (Loman) the sucking and sifting
mechanism is low down in the proboscis,
and the organ is prolonged into a very
fine tube, the lips growing together till
they leave an aperture of only ·007 mm.
for the absorption of liquids.
In some cases, where the proboscis
Fig. 277.—Longitudinal section through one itself is short, as in Pallene, this
“antimere” of the proboscis in Phoxichilus
charybdaeus. G, g′, Principal and secondary mechanism is carried backwards into the
ganglia; h, sieve-hairs; L, lip; mt, oral tooth; N, fore-part of the body; and, in the latter
N′, inner and outer nerve-cords; t, proboscis- genus, the narrow oesophagus which
teeth. (After Dohrn.) succeeds the masticatory apparatus is
likewise provided with extrinsic muscles.
Fig. 278.—Transverse sections through the proboscis of Ph. charybdaeus. A,
Anterior, through the principal ganglionic mass (G); B, posterior, at the level of
the sieve-hairs (h). Coec, Intestinal caeca; Dil. M, dilator muscles; N, inner
nerve-ganglion, with circular commissure; N′, outer nerve; or, chitinous lining of
oral cavity; R M, Ret.M, retractor muscles. (After Dohrn.)
The oesophagus is followed by a long

gastric cavity, which sends forth caecal
diverticula into the chelophores (when
these are present), and four immensely
long ones into the ambulatory legs. The
caeca are attached to the walls of the limb
cavities, especially at their extremities in
the tarsi, by suspensory threads of
connective tissue, and the whole gut,
central and diverticular, is further
supported by a horizontal septal
membrane, running through body and
legs, which separates the dorsal blood-
vessel and sinus from the gut, the nervous
system and the ventral sinus, giving
support also to the reproductive glands. A Fig. 279.—Transverse section through the basal
short and simple rectum follows the joint of the third leg in Phoxichilus
charybdaeus, ♀. Cut, Cuticle; Hyp, hypodermis;
gastric cavity. Int, intestinal caecum; N, nerve-cord; Ov, ovary;
In Phoxichilus, which lacks the three Sept, septum. (After Dohrn.)
anterior appendages in the female and the
two anterior in the male, two pairs of
caeca run from the gut into the cavity of the proboscis (Fig. 278, B, coec.).[404]
Circulatory System.—The heart has been especially studied by Dohrn in
Phoxichilus. It consists of a median vessel running from the level of the eyes to the
abdomen, furnished with two pairs of lateral valvular openings, and sometimes,
though not always, with an unpaired one at the posterior end. The walls are
muscular, but with this peculiarity that the muscular walls do not extend around the
heart dorsally, in which region its lumen is only covered by the hypodermis and
cuticle of the back. The blood-spaces of the body are separated into dorsal and
ventral halves by the septal membrane already referred to, which is perforated in the
region of the lateral processes by slits placing the two cavities in communication;
this septal membrane runs through the limbs to their tips, and far into the
proboscis, where it is attached to the edge of the superior antimere. The blood is a
colourless plasma with several kinds of corpuscles, of which the most remarkable are
amoeboid, actively mobile, often coalescing into plasmodia. The course of the
circulation is on the whole outwards in the inferior or ventral sinus, inwards towards
the heart in the superior, save in the proboscis, where the systole of the heart drives
the blood forwards in the dorsal channel. The beat is rapid, two or three times in a
second, according to Loman, in Phoxichilidium. Especially in the species with small
body and exaggerated legs, the movement of the circulatory fluid is actuated more
by the movements of the limbs and the contractions of the intestinal caeca than by
the direct impulse of the heart.
Nervous System.—The nerve-chain consists of a fused pair of supra-
oesophageal ganglia, which innervate (at least in the adult) the chelophores, and of
ventral ganglia, whence proceed the nerves to the other limbs. The ganglia of the
second and third appendages are fused with one another, sometimes also with the
ganglia of the first ambulatory legs; the ganglia of the three posterior pairs of legs
are always independent (though the development of their longitudinal commissures
varies with the body-form), and they are succeeded by one or two pairs of ganglia,
much reduced in size, situated in the abdomen, of which the posterior one
innervates the muscles of the abdomen and of the anal orifice. Each lateral nerve
divides into two main branches, which supply the parts above and below the septal
membrane. The nerve-supply of the proboscis is very complicated. Its upper
antimere is supplied from the pre-oral, its two lateral antimeres from the first post-
oral, ganglion, and each of these three nerves divides into two branches, of which the
inner bears six to eight or more small ganglia, which annular commissures passing
round the pharynx connect one to another. Of these ganglia and commissures the
anterior are the largest, and with these the outer lateral nerve-branches of the
proboscis merge. The immediate origin of the nerves to the chelophores is from the
median nerve that springs from the under side of the supra-oesophageal ganglion to
run forward into the proboscis, but it is noteworthy that the chelophores receive
twigs also from the lateral nerves of the proboscis which arise from the post-oral
ganglia.
Eyes.—Eyes are the only organs of special sense known in the Pycnogons. The
deep-water Pycnogons, in general those inhabiting depths below four or five
hundred fathoms, have in most cases imperfect organs, destitute of lens and of
pigment, so imperfect in many cases as to be described as wanting. It is rare for the
eyes to be lacking in shallow-water species, as they are, for instance, in
Ascorhynchus minutus, Hoek, dredged by the Challenger in 38 fathoms, but, on the
other hand, it is no small minority of deep-water species that possess them of
normal character and size, even to depths of about 2000 fathoms.
In all cases where eyes are present, they are simple or “monomeniscous” eyes, four
in number, and are situated in two pairs on an “oculiferous tubercle,” sometimes
blunt and low, sometimes high and pointed, placed on the so-called cephalothorax,
or first, compound, segment of the body. The anterior pair are frequently a little
larger, sometimes, as in Phoxichilidium mollissimum, Hoek, very much larger, than
the posterior. The minute structure of the eye has been investigated by Dohrn,
Grenacher, Hoek, and Morgan. The following account is drawn in the first instance
from Morgan’s descriptions.[405]
The eye of a Pycnogon (Phoxichilidium) is composed of three layers, an outer layer
of specialised ectoderm cells (hypodermis) that secrete the cuticular lens, a middle
layer of visual or retinal elements, and an inner layer of pigment-cells. The elements
of the middle layer consist of much elongated cells, whose branching outer ends are
connected with nerve-fibrils and interwoven in a protoplasmic syncytium, whose
middle parts are occupied by the nuclei and whose inwardly directed ends form the
retinal rods or bacilli. The pigment-cells of the inner layer are of various forms,
those towards the middle of the eye being small and flattened, those at the sides
being, for the most part, long and attenuated, so seeming, as Morgan remarks, to
approximate in character to the retinal elements. The pigment-layer is easily
dispersed and reveals beneath it a median vertical raphe, caused by the convergence
of the cells of the middle layer from either side, and along the line of this raphe the
optic nerve joins the eye, though its subsequent course to its connection with the
retinal elements is obscure. It is at least clear that the retina is an “inverted” retina,
with the nerve-connected bases of its cells lying outwards and their bacillar
extremities directed inwards.
In a longitudinal vertical section of the eye of a larva (Tanystylum), at a stage
when three pairs of walking legs are present, Morgan shows us the pigment-layer
apparently continuous with the hypodermis just below the eye, and in close
connection with the middle layer at the upper part of the eye. From this we are
permitted to infer a development by invagination, in which the long invaginated sac
is bent and pushed upwards till it comes into secondary contact with the hypoderm,
so giving us the three layers of the developed eye. This manner of formation is
precisely akin to that described by Parker, Patten, Locy, and others for the median
eyes of Scorpions and of Spiders, and the organ is structurally comparable to the
Nauplius- or median eye of Crustacea. But neither in these cases nor in that of the
Pycnogon is the whole process clear, in consequence chiefly of the obscurity that
attends the course of the optic nerve in both embryo and adult. For various
discussions and accounts, frequently contradictory, of these phenomena, the reader
is referred to the authors quoted, or to Korschelt and Heider’s judicious summary.
[406]
There seems to be a small structure, of some sort or other, between the ocelli on
either side. Dohrn thought it might be auditory, Loman that it might be secretory,
but its use is unknown.
Integument.—The chitinised integument is perforated by many little cavities,
some of them conical and tapering to a minute external pore, the others more
regularly tubular. Sometimes, but according to Hoek rarely, the tubular pore-canals
communicate with, or arise from, the conical cavities. The pore-canals transmit a
nerve for the supply of sensory hairs, often forked, which arise from the orifice of the
canal in little groups of two or more, sometimes in rosettes of eight or nine. These
setae are small or rudimentary in Ascorhynchus and totally wanting in Colossendeis;
they appear to be extremely large and stellate in Paranymphon. The conical cavities
contain proliferated epithelial cells, blood corpuscles, and cells of more doubtful
nature that are perhaps glandular. According to Dohrn, glands exist in connection
with both kinds of integumentary perforations, and he suspects that they secrete a
poisonous fluid in response to stimuli affecting the sensory hairs; Hoek, on the other
hand, is inclined to ascribe a respiratory function to the cavities; but indeed, as yet,
we must confess that their use is undetermined.
Reproductive Organs.—In each sex the generative organs consist of a pair of
ovaries or testes lying above the gut on either side of the heart; in the adult they are
fused together posteriorly at the base of the abdomen, and send long diverticula into
the ambulatory legs. In the female Phoxichilidium, at least, as Loman has lately
shown, the fusion is complete, and the ovary forms a thin broad plate, spreading
through the body and giving off its lateral diverticula. The diverticula of the testes
reach to the third joint of the legs, those of the ovaries to the fourth, or sometimes
farther. The ova ripen within the lateral diverticula, chiefly, and sometimes (Pallene)
exclusively, in the femora or fourth joints of the legs,[407] which, in many forms, are
greatly swollen to accommodate them; the spermatozoa, on the other hand, are said
to develop both within the legs and within the thoracic portions of the testis. The
genital diverticula may end blindly within the leg, or communicate through a duct
with the exterior by a valvular aperture placed on the second coxal joint. Such
apertures occur, as a rule, on all the legs in the females, in Rhynchothorax and
Pycnogonum on the last only. In the males an aperture is present on all the legs in
Decolopoda and Phoxichilidium; on the last three in Nymphon and Phoxichilus; in
most genera on the last two; in Pycnogonum and Rhynchothorax on the last only.
Very commonly the female individuals are somewhat larger than the males, and in
some species (Ammothea, Trygaeus) the latter are distinguished by a greater
development of spines or tubercles on the body and basal joints of the legs (Dohrn).
The act of fecundation has been observed by Cole[408] in Anoplodactylus. The
animal reproduces towards the end of August. Consorting on their Eudendrium
(Hydroid) colony, the male climbs upon the female and crawls over her head to lie
beneath her, head to tail; and then, fertilisation taking place the while, the hooked
ovigerous legs of the male fasten into the extruding egg-masses and tear them away.
The whole process is over in five minutes. The fresh egg-masses are more or less
irregular in shape, and white in colour like little tufts of cotton.
Each ball of eggs that the male carries represents the entire brood of one female,
and in Phoxichilidium Loman has seen a male carrying as many as fourteen balls.
Fertilisation is external, taking place while the eggs are being laid. The spermatozoa
have small rounded heads and long tails, and are thus unlike the spermatozoa of
most Crustacea.
Development.—Until the hatching of the embryo, the eggs of the Pycnogons are
carried about, agglutinated by cement-substance into coherent packets, on the
ovigerous legs of the males. They are larger or smaller according to the amount of
yolk-substance present, very small in Phoxichilidium and Tanystylum (Morgan),
where they measure only ·05 mm. in diameter; larger in Pallene (·25 mm.); larger
still (·5–·7 mm.) in Nymphon. In Pallene each egg-mass commonly contains only
two eggs; in the other genera they are much more numerous, rising to a hundred or
more in Ammothea (Dohrn). The egg-masses may be one or more on each ovigerous
leg, sometimes (Phoxichilidium angulatum, Dohrn) a single egg-mass is held by
both legs; they are extremely numerous in Phoxichilus, and in Pycnogonum they
coalesce to form a broad pad beneath the body. The fact that it is the male and not
the female that carries the eggs was only announced in 1877 by Cavanna;[409] before,
and by some even after his time, the two sexes were constantly confused.[410]
Segmentation is complete, symmetrical
in the forms with smaller eggs, unequal in
those burdened with a preponderance of
yolk (Morgan). In Pallene, as in the
Spider’s egg, what is described as at first a
total segmentation passes into a
superficial or centrolecithal one by the
migration outwards of the nuclei and the
breaking down of the inner ends of the
wedge-shaped segmentation-cells. The
blastoderm so formed becomes
concentrated at the germinal pole of the
egg. A thickened portion of the
blastoderm (which Morgan compares to
the “cumulus primitivus” of the Spider’s
egg) forms an apparently blastoporal
invagination (though Morgan calls it the
stomodaeum), and from its sides are
budded off the mesodermal bands.
Meisenheimer has recently given a
minute account of the early development
of Ammothea, a form with small yolkless
Fig. 280.—Young larva (nat. size ·1 mm.) of
eggs. Here certain cells of the uniform
Ammothea fibulifera, Dohrn. C.G, Brain; gl, gld,
gland and duct of chelophore; pr, proboscis; I, and almost solid blastosphere grow
II, III, IV, appendages. (After Dohrn.) inwards till their nuclei arrange
themselves in an inner layer of what (so
far as they are concerned) is a typical
gastrula, but without any central cavity. The inner layer subsequently, but slowly,
differentiates into the mid-gut, and into dorsal and lateral offshoots, the sources of
the heart and of the muscles and connective tissues respectively. The further
development of the egg takes place, as is usual in Arthropods, by the appearance, in
a longitudinal strip or germ-band which enwraps the yolk, of paired thickenings
which represent the cerebral and post-oral ganglia, and of others from which arise
the limbs. Of these latter, the chelophores are the first to appear, on either side of
the mouth; in Pallene the fourth pair appears next in order, followed by the fifth and
sixth, and by the third and seventh just before the hatching out of the embryo; the
second is lacking in this particular genus. Thus in Pallene (Dohrn, Morgan), and in
some others, e.g. Nymphon brevicollum (Hoek), the free larva is from the first
provided with its full complement of limbs. Certain other species of Nymphon hatch
out in possession of four or five pairs of limbs, but in the great majority of cases
studied the larval Pycnogon is at first provided with three pairs only, the three
anterior pairs of the typical adult.[411] Numerical coincidence, and that alone, has
often led this “Protonymphon” larva to be compared with the Crustacean Nauplius.
In the annexed figure of a young larval Ammothea (Achelia), we see the
unsegmented body, the already chelate chelophores (furnished with the provisional
cement-glands already described), the other two pairs of appendages each with a
curious spine at its base, the gut beginning to send out diverticula (of which the first
pair approach the chelophores) but still destitute of the anus (which is only to be
formed after the development of the abdomen), the proboscis, and one pair of eyes
situated close over the pre-oral ganglia. The subsequent changes are in this genus
extremely protracted, and terminate with the loss of the chelae, a process which
occurs so late in life that the chelate individuals were long looked upon as belonging
to a separate genus, the original Ammothea of Hodge, until Hoek proved their
identity with the clawless Achelia.
The developmental history of Phoxichilidium and Anoplodactylus is peculiar. The
young larvae have the claws of the second and third appendages hypertrophied to
form enormous stiff tendril-like organs, with which they affix themselves to the
bodies of Hydroid Zoophytes (Coryne, Eudendrium, Tubularia, Hydractinia, etc.),
feeding as the adults do: afterwards losing these elongated tendrils in a moult, they
pass into the gastral cavity of the Hydroid; in our native species the larva issues from
the Hydroid and begins its independent life at a stage when three pairs of
ambulatory legs are present and the fourth is in bud.[412] The Phoxichilidium larvae
were first noticed by Gegenbaur in Eudendrium,[413] again by Allman in Coryne
eximia.[414] George Hodge made detailed and important observations,[415] and
showed, in opposition to Gegenbaur, that it was the larva which entered the Hydroid
and not the egg that was laid therein.[416]
Fig. 281.—Larva of Phoxichilidium sp., showing tendril-like appendages of the

larval palps and ovigerous legs. (After Dohrn.)
Moseley has the following interesting note in his Challenger Report:[417] “The most
interesting parasite observed was a form found in the gastric cavities of the
gastrozoids of Pliobothrus symmetricus (West Indies, 450 f.), contained in small
capsules. These capsules were badly preserved, but there seemed little doubt that
they contained the remains of larvae of a Pycnogonid, so that the deep-sea
Pycnogonids, which are so abundant, very possibly pass through their early stages in
deep-sea Stylasteridae.... The gastrozoids containing the larvae were partly aborted.”
A Pycnogon larva, doubtfully ascribed to Nymphon, has been found living in
abundance ectoparasitically on Tethys in the Bay of Naples.[418]
Habits.—Of the intimate habits of the Pycnogons we can say little. Pycnogonum
we often find clinging, as has been said, close appressed to some large Anemone
(Tealia, Bolocera, etc.), whose living juices it very probably imbibes. The more
slender species we find climbing over sea-weeds and Zoophytes, where sometimes
similarity of colour as well as delicacy of form helps to conceal them; thus
Phoxichilidium femoratum (Orithyia coccinea, Johnston) is red like the Corallines
among which we often find it, P. virescens green like the filamentous Ulvae, the
Nymphons yellowish like the Hydrallmania and other Zoophytes which they affect.
On the New England coast, according to Cole, the dark purple Anoplodactylus
lentus, Wilson (Phoxichilidium maxillare, Stimpson), is especially abundant on
colonies of Eudendrium, whose colour matches its own, the yellowish Tanystylum
orbiculare frequents a certain yellowish Hydroid, and of these two species neither is
ever found on the Hydroid affected by the other; while, on the other hand, Pallene
brevirostris, whose whitish, almost transparent body is difficult to see, is more
generally distributed.[419] The deep-sea Pycnogons (Colossendeis, Nymphon) are
generally (if not universally) of a deep orange-scarlet colour, a common dress of
many deep-sea Crustacea.
The movements of the Pycnogons are singularly slow and deliberate; they are
manifestly not adapted to capture or to kill a living prey. Linnaeus accepted from J.
C. König the singular statement that they enter and feed upon bivalve shells,
“Mytilorum testes penetrat et exhaurit”; but the statement has never been
reaffirmed.[420]
Loman describes Phoxichilidium as feeding greedily on Tubularia larynx, and
especially on the gonophores. It grasps them with its claws, sucks them in bit by bit
till the proboscis is filled as far as the sieve, whereupon that part of the proboscis
squeezes and kneads the mass, letting only juices and fine particles pass through
into the alimentary canal. The lateral caeca and the rectum are separated by
sphincter muscles from the stomach; the former are in turn filled with food and
again emptied; the contents of the alimentary canal are in constant rolling
movement, and the faeces are eliminated by the action of a pair of levatores ani, in
round pellets.
The Pycnogons, or some of them, can swim by “treading water,” and Pallene is
said by Cole to swim especially well; they more often progress half by swimming,
half by kicking on the bottom. They move promptly towards the light, unless they
have Hydroids to cling to, and Cole points out that when they crawl with all their
legs on the bottom they move forwards towards the light,[421] but backwards when
they swim in part or whole. The legs move mostly in a vertical plane, horizontal
movements taking place chiefly between the first and second joints. Tanystylum is
uncommonly sluggish and inert; it sinks to the bottom, draws its legs over its back
and remains quiet, while Pallene, by vigorous kicks, remains suspended.
The long legs of the Pycnogons are easily injured or lost, and easily repaired or
regenerated. This observation, often repeated, is as old as Fabricius: “Mutilatur
etiam in libertate sua, redintegrandum tamen; vidi enim in quo pedes brevissimi
juxta longiores enascentes, velut in asteriis cancris aliisque redintegratis.” In such
cases of redintegration of a leg, the reproductive organ, the genital orifice, and the
cement-gland are not restored until the next moult.[422]
Systematic Position.—To bring this little group into closer accord with one or
other of the greater groups of Arthropods is a problem seemingly simple but really
full of difficulty.
The larval Pycnogon, with its three pairs of appendages, resembles the Crustacean
Nauplius in no single feature save this unimportant numerical coincidence; nor is
there any significance in the apparent outward resemblance to isolated forms (e.g.
Cyamus) that induced some of the older writers, from Fabricius downwards and
including Kröyer and the elder Milne-Edwards, to connect the Pycnogons with the
Crustacea. To refer them, or to approximate them to the Arachnids, has been a
stronger and a more lasting tendency.[423] Linnaeus (1767) included the two species
of which he was cognisant in the genus Phalangium, together with P. opilio.
Lamarck, who first formulated the group Arachnida (1802), let it embrace the
Pycnogons; and Latreille (1804, 1810), who immediately followed him, defined more
clearly the Pycnogonida as a subdivision of the greater group, side by side with the
subdivision that corresponds to our modern Arachnida (“Arachnides acères”), and
together with a medley of lower Crustacea, Myriapoda, Thysanura, and Parasitic
Insects; he was so cautious as to add “j’observerai seulement, que je ne connais pas
encore bien la place naturelle des Pycnogonides et des Parasites,” and Cuvier, setting
them in a similar position, adds a similar qualification.[424]
Leach (1814), whose great service it was to dissociate the Edriophthalmata and the
Myriapoda from the Latreillian medley, left the group Arachnida as we still have it
(save for the inclusion of the Dipterous Insect Nycteribia), and divided the group
(with the same exception) into four Orders of which the Podosomata, i.e. the
Pycnogonida, are one. Savigny (1816), less philosophical in this case than was his
wont, assumed the Crustacean type to pass to the Arachnidan by a loss of several
anterior pairs of appendages, and appears to set the Pycnogons in an intermediate
grade, marking the pathway of the change. He considered the seven pairs of limbs of
the Pycnogons to represent thoracic limbs of a Malacostracan, and, like so many of
his contemporaries, was much biased by the apparent resemblance of Cyamus to
Pycnogonum. The reader may find in Dohrn’s Monograph a guide to many other
opinions and judgments, some of them of no small morphological interest and
historical value[425]; but it behoves us to pass them by, and to inspect, in brief, the
case as it stands at present. The obvious features in which a Pycnogon resembles a
Spider or other typical Arachnid, are the possession of four pairs of walking legs, and
the pre-oral position and chelate form of the first pair of appendages; we may
perhaps also add, as a more general feature of resemblance, the imperfect
subservience of limbs to the mouth as compared with any of the Crustacea. The
resemblance would still be striking, in spite of the presence of an additional pair of
legs in a few Pycnogons, were it not for the presence of the third pair of appendages
or ovigerous legs of the Pycnogon, whose intercalation spoils the apparent harmony.
We are neither at liberty to suppose, with Claus, that these members, so important
in the larva, have been interpolated, as it were, anew in the Pycnogon; nor that they
have arisen by subdivision of the second pair, as Schimkewitsch is inclined to
suppose; nor that they have dropped out of the series in the Arachnid, whose body
presents no trace of them in embryo or adult. In a word, their presence precludes us
from assuming a direct homology between the apparently similar limbs of the two
groups,[426] and at best leaves it only open to us to compare the last legs of the
Pycnogon with the first abdominal, or genital, appendages of the Scorpion and the
Spider. On the other hand, if we admit the seventh (as we must admit the occasional
eighth) pair of appendages of Pycnogons to be unrepresented in the prosoma of the
Arachnids, then, in the cephalothorax of the former, with its four pairs of
appendages, we may find the homologue of the more or less free and separate part of
the cephalothorax in Koenenia, Galeodes, and the Tartaridae. There is a
resemblance between the two groups in the presence of intestinal diverticula that
run towards or into the limbs, as in Spiders and some Mites, and there are certain
histological and embryological resemblances that have been in part referred to
above; but these, such as they are, are not adequate guides to morphological
classification. We must bear in mind that such resemblances as the Pycnogons seem
to show are not with the lower Arachnids but with the higher; they are either
degenerates from very advanced and specialised Arachnida, or they are lower than
the lowest. Confronted with such an issue, we cannot but conclude to let the
Pycnogons stand apart, an independent group of Arthropods[427]; and I am inclined
to think that they conserve primitive features in the usual presence of generative
apertures on several pairs of limbs, and probably also in the non-development of any
special respiratory organs. But inasmuch as the weight of evidence goes to show that
subservience of limbs to mouth is a primitive Arthropodan character, the fact that
the basal elements of the anterior appendages have here (as in Koenenia) no such
relation to the mouth must be taken as evidence, not of antiquity, but of
specialisation. In like manner the suctorial proboscis cannot be deemed a primitive
character, and the much reduced abdomen also is obviously secondary and not
primitive.
Classification.—No single genus more than another shows signs of affinity with
other groups, and no single organ gives us, within the group, a clear picture of
advancing stages of complexity. On the contrary, the differences between one genus
and another depend very much on degrees of degeneration of the anterior
appendages, and we have no reason to suppose that these stages of degeneration
form a single continuous series, but have rather reason to believe that degeneration
has set in independently in various ways and at various points in the series. But
while we are unable at present to form a natural classification[428] of the Pycnogons,
yet at the same time a purely arbitrary or artificial classification, conveniently based
on the presence or absence of certain limbs, would run counter to such natural
relationships as we can already discern.
The classification here adopted is a compromise between a natural system, so far
as we can detect it, and an artificial one.
Two forms, separated from one another by many differences, show a minimum of
degeneration, namely Decolopoda on the one hand, and the Nymphonidae on the
other. The former genus has five pairs of legs, and this peculiarity is shared by
Pentanymphon. In both groups the three anterior limbs are all present and well
formed, save only that the ovigerous legs, which have ten joints in Decolopoda, are
reduced to five joints in the Nymphons, and their denticulate spines, of which
several rows are present in the former, are reduced to one row in the latter; on the
other hand, a greater or a less degeneration of these limbs marks each and all of the
other families.
Decolopoda is very probably the most primitive form known, though it has
characters which seem to be the reverse of primitive in the dwarfish size of its
chelophores and the crowded coalescent segmentation of the trunk. Colossendeis, in
spite of its vanished chelophores, is probably closely allied: the shape and
segmentation of the body and the several rows of smooth denticles on the ovigerous
legs are points in common. The Eurycydidae are closely allied to Colossendeidae;
they agree with Decolopoda in the two-jointed scape of the chelophore, and with
Ammotheidae in the deflexed mobile proboscis. The true position of Rhynchothorax
is very doubtful.
The Nymphonidae and Pallenidae are closely allied, and the Phoxichilidiidae have
points of resemblance, especially with the latter. Nymphon compares with
Decolopoda in the completeness of its parts, and is more typical in its long well-
segmented body, and in its highly-developed chelae; but it already shows reduction
in the scape of the chelophore, in the palps, and in the armature of the ovigerous
legs.
The Phoxichilidae and Pycnogonidae (Agnathonia, Leach; Achelata, Sars), though
differing greatly in aspect, are not improbably allied to one another; and whether
this be so or not, the complete absence of chelophores and of palps affords an
arbitrary character by which they are conveniently separated from all the rest.
The following table epitomises the chief characters of the several families:—
Pycnogonida. Proboscis. Chelophores. Palps. Ovigerous Teeth Legs. Trunk- Genital
legs. on do. segments. Openings.
♂ ♀
(Cryptochelata,
Sars)—
Decolopodidae Fixed, Complete, 10 joints 10 joints ♂, Four 5 Condensed, 1, 2, 1, 2,
decurved small, scape 2– ♀ rows, coalescent 3, 4, 3, 4,
jointed simple 5, 5
Colossendeidae Somewhat 0 10 10 ♂, ♀ Many 4 Coalescent 1, 2, 1, 2,
mobile, rows, 3, 4 3, 4
sometimes simple
decurved
Eurycididae Mobile, Scape 2– 10 10 ♂, ♀ More 4 Well 3, 4 1, 2,
stalked, jointed, chelae than one segmented 3, 4
deflexed rudimentary row,
serrate
Hannonia „ Rudimentary 0 10 ♂, ♀ Scattered 4 „ „ „
spines
Ammotheidae Mobile, „ 4–9 10 (or less) Few, 4 Condensed, „ „
deflexed ♂, ♀ scattered, segmented
serrate or
smooth
? Large, 0 8 (5) 10 ♂, ♀ Toothed 4 „ 4 4
Rhynchothoracidae fixed, tubercles
aberrant
(Euchelata, Sars)—
Nymphonidae Large, fixed Large, scape 1– 5 (7) 8–10 ♂, ♀ One row, 4–5 Well 2, 3, 1, 2,
jointed serrate segmented 4 3, 4
(5) (5)
Pallenidae „ „ 0 or 10 ♂, ♀ „ 4 „ (1, „
rudimentary 2),
3, 4
Phoxichilidiidae „ „ 0 5–6 ♂ One row, 4 „ 1, 2, „
simple 3, 4
(Achelata, Sars)—
Phoxichilidae Large, fixed 0 0 7♂ Scattered, 4 Well 2, 3, 1, 2,
simple segmented 4 3, 4
Pycnogonidae „ 0 0 9♂ Small, 4 Segmented, 4 4
irregular condensed
CLASS PYCNOGONIDA.[429]
Marine Arthropoda, with typically seven (and very exceptionally eight) pairs of
appendages, of which none have their basal joints subservient to mastication, the
first three are subject to suppression, the first (when present) are chelate, the second
palpiform, the third ovigerous, and the rest form ambulatory limbs, usually very
slender and long; with a suctorial proboscis, a limbless, unsegmented abdomen, and
no manifest respiratory organs.
Fig. 282.—Decolopoda australis, Eights. A, × 1: from a specimen obtained at the
South Shetlands by the Scotia Expedition. B, First appendage, or chelophore. (A,
original; B, after Hodgson.)
Fam. 1. Decolopodidae.—Appendage I. dwarfed, but complete and chelate,

scape with two joints; II. 9–10–jointed; III. well developed in both sexes, 10–
jointed, the terminal joints with about four rows of teeth; five pairs of legs, destitute
of accessory claws; genital apertures on all the legs (Bouvier).
Decolopoda australis, Eights[430] (1834), a remarkable form from the South
Shetlands, recently re-discovered by the Scotia expedition. The animal is large,
seven inches or more in total span, in colour scarlet; it was found in abundance in
shallow water and cast upon the shore. The body is greatly condensed, the proboscis
is “clavate, arcuated downwards,” and beset with small spines. A second Antarctic
species, D. antarctica, has been described by Bouvier. The presence of a fifth pair of
legs distinguishes Decolopoda from all known Pycnogons, except Pentanymphon.
Stebbing would ally Decolopoda with, or even include it in, the Nymphonidae; but
the presence of a second joint in the chelophoral scape, the number of joints in, and
the armature on, the ovigerous legs, and the deflexed proboscis, are all characters
either agreeing with or tending towards those of the Eurycididae; while the
Colossendeidae would be very like Decolopoda were it not for the complete
suppression of the chelophores. It seems convenient to constitute a new family for
this remarkable form.
Fam. 2. Colossendeidae (Pasithoidae, Sars).—Appendage I. absent in adult;
appendage II. very long, 10–jointed; appendage III. 10–jointed, clawed, with many
rows of teeth; auxiliary claws absent; segments of trunk fused; proboscis very large,
somewhat mobile; genital apertures, in at least some cases, on all the legs.
Pasithoe, Goodsir (1842), which Sars assumes as the type of the family, is here
relegated to Ammothea.[431] Colossendeis, Jarszynsky (1870) (Anomorhynchus,
Miers (1881), Rhopalorhynchus, Wood-Mason (1873)), remains as the only genus
commonly accepted: large, more or less slender short-necked forms; world-wide,
principally Arctic, Antarctic, and deep-sea; about twenty-five species.[432] The largest
species, C. gigas, Hoek, from great depths in the Southern Ocean, has a span of
about two feet. The North Atlantic C. proboscidea and Antarctic C. australis are very
closely related to one another. Carpenter would retain the genus Rhopalorhynchus
for R. kröyeri, W.-M. (Andamans), R. clavipes, Carp. (Torres Straits), and R.
tenuissimus, Haswell (Australia), all more or less shallow-water species, excessively
attenuated, with the second and third body-segments elongated, the caudal segment
excessively reduced, the club-shaped proboscis on a slender stalk, and other
common characters. Pipetta weberi, Loman (1904), is a large and remarkable form
from the Banda Sea, apparently referable, in spite of certain abnormal features, to
this family; the proboscis is extraordinarily long and slender; the palps have eight
joints, the ovigerous legs eleven.
Fam. 3. Eurycididae (Ascorhynchidae, Meinert).—Appendage I. more or less
reduced; appendage II. 10–jointed (absent in Hannonia); appendage III. 10–
jointed, clawed, with more than one tow of serrated teeth; proboscis movably
articulated and more or less bent under the body; auxiliary claws absent.
Eurycide, Schiödte (1857) (Zetes,
Kröyer, 1845): Appendage I. with two-
jointed scape, without chelae in adult;
one species (E. hispida, (Kr.)), from the
North Atlantic and Arctic, and two others
from the East Indies, recently described
by Loman. Barana arenicola, Dohrn
(1881), is nearly allied. Ascorhynchus, G.
O. Sars (1876) (Gnamptorhynchus,
Böhm, 1879; Scaeorhynchus, Wilson,
1881), very similar to Eurycide, with Fig. 283.—Eurycide hispida, Kr.; side view.
which, according to Schimkewitsch, it
should be merged, includes large,
smooth, elongated forms, with long neck and expanded frontal region, and a long
proboscis lacking the long scape that supports the proboscis in Eurycide; about
twelve species, world-wide, mostly deep-water. Barana castelli, Dohrn, from Naples
is akin to the foregoing genera, but seems to deserve generic separation from B.
arenicola. Ammothea longicollis, Haswell, from Australia, is, as Schimkewitsch has
already remarked, almost certainly a Eurycide, as is also, probably, Parazetes
auchenicus, Slater, from Japan.
Hannonia typica, Hoek (1880), from Cape Town, is a remarkable form, lately
redescribed by Loman. The chelophores are much reduced, the palps are absent; the
ovigerous legs are 10–jointed, and clawed; the terminal joints of the latter bear long
straight spines, scattered over their whole surface; the proboscis is borne on a
narrow stalk, and sharply deflexed. The eggs form a single flattened mass, as in
Pycnogonum. While the lack of palps would set this genus among the Pallenidae, the
remarkable proboscis seems to be better evidence of affinity with Ascorhynchus and
Eurycide.[433]
Nymphopsis, Haswell (1881), is a genus of doubtful affinities, placed here by
Schimkewitsch. The first appendage is well-developed and chelate; the palps are 9–
jointed, the ovigerous legs are 7–jointed, none of the joints being provided with the
compound spines seen in Nymphon and Pallene. It is perhaps an immature form.
Schimkewitsch has described another species, N. korotnevi, and Loman a third, N.
muscosus, both from the East Indies.
Fam. 4. Ammotheidae.—Akin to Eurycididae in having the proboscis more or
less movably jointed to the cephalic segment, and appendage I. reduced, non-chelate
in the adult; the body is compact and more or less imperfectly segmented;
appendage II. 4–9–jointed; appendage III. clawless, and the number of joints
sometimes diminished, with a sparse row of serrated spines; auxiliary claws usually
present.
Ammothea, Leach (1815) (including Achelia, Hodge (1864) = the old non-chelate
individuals): appendage I. very small, 2–jointed; appendage II. 8–9–jointed; caudal
segment fused with last body-segment; about eighteen species, four from the South
Seas, two or three from the East Indies, the rest mostly Mediterranean and North
Atlantic, in need of revision. Ammothea longipes, Hodge, is the young of Achelia
hispida, Hodge; and Ammothea magnirostris, Dohrn, is apparently the same
species. A. fibulifera, Dohrn, seems identical with Achelia echinata, Hodge (of
which A. brevipes, Hodge, is the young), and so probably is A. achelioides, Wilson;
Endeis didactyla, Philippi (1843), is very probably the same species. A.
uniunguiculata, Dohrn (? Pariboea spinipalpis, Philippi (1843)), has no auxiliary
claws. Leionymphon, Möbius (1902), contains nine Antarctic forms, allied to
Ammothea (including A. grandis, Pfeffer, and Colossendeis gibbosa, Möb., which
two are probably identical), with characteristic transverse ridges on the body, a large
proboscis, a 9–jointed palp, and somewhat peculiar ovigerous legs. Cilunculus,
Fragilia, and Scipiolus are new genera more or less allied to Leionymphon,
described by Loman (1908) from the Siboga Expedition.[434] Tanystylum, Miers
(1879) (including Clotenia, Dohrn (1881), and Discoarachne, Hoek (1880)), has
appendage I. reduced to a single joint or a small tubercle, and appendage II. 4–6–
jointed; world-wide; about eight species. Austrodecus glacialis and Austroraptus
polaris are two allied Antarctic species, described by Hodgson (1907), the former a
curious little form with a pointed, weevil-like proboscis, no chelophores, and 6–
jointed palp. Trygaeus communis, Dohrn (1881), from Naples, has a 7–jointed, and
Oorhynchus aucklandiae, Hoek (1881), a 9–jointed palp; the former has only seven
joints in the ovigerous leg. Lecythorhynchus armatus, Böhm (1879), with
rudimentary 2–jointed chelophores, and L. (Corniger) hilgendorfi, Böhm, with
small tubercles in their place, both from Japan, have also 9–jointed palps: the
former, at least, is apparently an Ammothea. Several insufficiently described genera,
Phanodemus, Costa (1836), Platychelus, Costa (1861), Oiceobathes, Hesse (1867),
and Böhmia, Hoek (1880), seem to be referable to this group; all have chelate
mandibles, and may possibly be based on immature forms.
Goodsir’s Pasithoe vesiculosa[435] is, in my opinion, undoubtedly Ammothea
hispida, Hodge, and so also, I believe, is his Pephredo hirsuta; P. umbonata,
Gould[436] (Long Island Sound), is, with as little doubt, Tanystylum orbiculare,
Wilson.
Fam. 5. Rhynchothoracidae.—The animal identified by Dohrn as
Rhynchothorax mediterraneus, Costa (1861), is a minute and very remarkable form,
without chelophores, with large 8–jointed palps, reduced by fusion to five joints,
and 10–jointed, clawed ovigerous legs, which last are provided on the last five joints
with peculiar toothed tubercles. The general aspect of the body is somewhat like that
of an Ammothea, which genus it resembles in the ventral insertion of the ovigerous
legs and the somewhat imperfect segmentation of the body. It differs from
Ammotheidae in the possession of a claw on appendage III. It is highly peculiar in
the structure of the mouth, in having a long forward extension of the oculiferous
tubercle jutting out over the proboscis, in the extreme shortness of the intestinal
caeca and ovaries which scarcely extend into the legs, and in the absence of cement-
glands from the fourth joint of the legs; these last are present only in the third joint
of the penultimate legs. A single pair of generative orifices are found on the last legs.
A second species, R. australis, Hodgson, comes from the Antarctic.
Fig. 284.—Rhynchothorax mediterraneus, Costa. A, Body and bases of legs; B,

terminal joints of palp. (After Dohrn.)
Fam. 6. Nymphonidae.—Appendage I. well-developed, chelate; II. well-
developed, usually 5–jointed; III. well-developed in both sexes, usually 10–jointed,
the terminal joints with one row of denticulated spines.
Nymphon, Fabr. (1794), about forty-five recognised species, of which some are
but narrowly defined. Closely allied are Chaetonymphon, G. O. Sars (1888),
including thick-set, hairy species, about eight in number, from the North Atlantic,
Arctic, and Antarctic; and Boreonymphon, G. O. Sars (1888), with one species (B.
robustum, Bell, Fig. 276), also northern, in which the auxiliary claws are almost
absent. Nymphon brevicaudatum, Miers (= N. horridum, Böhm), an extraordinary
hispid form from Kerguelen,[437] is also peculiar. Pentanymphon, Hodgson (1904),
from the Antarctic (circumpolar), differs in no respect save in the presence of a fifth
pair of legs; one species.
The only other genus is Paranymphon, Caullery (1896) (one species, Gulf of
Gascony, West of Ireland, Greenland), in which the palp is (6–)7–jointed, the
ovigerous leg 8–jointed, and the auxiliary claws are absent.
Fam. 7. Pallenidae.—As in Nymphon, but appendage II. absent or rudimentary.
Pallene, Johnston (1837): about ten species (Mediterranean, North Atlantic,
Arctic, Australia). P. languida, Hoek, Australia, lacks auxiliary claws, and is
otherwise distinct; but P. novaezealandiae, G. M. Thomson, is typical.
Pseudopallene, Wilson (1878):[438] appendage III. clawed; auxiliary claws absent;
four (or more) species (North Atlantic, Arctic, Antarctic). P. (Phoxichilus) pygmaea,
Costa (1836), and P. spinosa, Quatref., seem to belong to this genus or to Pallene.
Cordylochele, G. O. Sars (1888): closely allied, but with front of cephalic segment
much expanded and chelae remarkably swollen, includes three very smooth,
elongated, northern species, to which Bouvier has added one from the Antarctic;
Pallene laevis, Hoek, from Bass’s Straits, is somewhat similar. Neopallene, Dohrn
(1881): as in Pallene, but with a rudimentary second appendage in the female, and
no generative aperture on the last leg in the male (one species, Mediterranean).
Parapallene, Carpenter (1892): as in Pallene, but without auxiliary claws, and with
the two last segments of the trunk (which in Pallene are coalesced) independent
(about ten species, East Indies and Australia); Pallene grubii, Hoek (Phoxichilidium
sp., Grube, 1869), is probably congeneric. Pallenopsis, Wilson (1881): appendage I.
2–jointed; appendage II. rudimentary, 1–jointed; appendage III. clawless; auxiliary
claws present; slender forms, including some formerly referred to Phoxichilidium;
about fifteen species, world-wide. Pallene dimorpha, Hoek, from Kerguelen, with 4–
jointed palps, deserves a new generic appellation. P. longiceps, Böhm, from Japan,
with rudimentary 2–jointed palps in the male, is also peculiar.
Fig. 285.—Pallene brevirostris, Johnston, ♀ ,
Plymouth.
Fig. 286.—Phoxichilidium femoratum, Rathke, Britain. A, The animal with its
legs removed; B, leg and chela.
Fam. 8. Phoxichilidiidae.—Appendage I. well-developed; II. absent; III.

present only in the male, having a few simple spines in a single row. The last
character is conveniently diagnostic, but nevertheless the Phoxichilidiidae come very
near to the Pallenidae, with which, according to Schimkewitsch and others, they
should be merged; the two families resemble one another in the single row of spines
on the ovigerous legs and in the extension of the cephalic segment over the base of
the proboscis.
Phoxichilidium, M.-E. (1840): appendage III. 5–jointed; five or six species
(Mediterranean, North Atlantic, Arctic, Australia, Japan). Anoplodactylus, Wilson
(1878): appendage III. 6–jointed; auxiliary claws absent or very rudimentary; about
twelve species, cosmopolitan, of which many were first referred to Phoxichilidium.
A. neglectus, Hoek, comes from 1600 fathoms off the Crozets. Oomerus
stigmatophorus, Hesse (1874), from Brest, seems to belong to one or other genus,
but is unrecognisable. Anaphia, Say (1821), is in all probability identical with
Anoplodactylus, and if so the name should have priority. Halosoma, Cole (1904), is
an allied genus from California.
Fig. 287.—Anoplodactylus petiolatus, Kr., Britain. A, Dorsal view; B, side view.
Fam. 9. Phoxichilidae.[439]—Appendage I. and II. absent; appendage III.

present only in the males, 7–jointed, with minute scattered spines; auxiliary claws
well-developed; body and legs slender. The only genus is Phoxichilus (auctt., non
Latreille, Chilophoxus, Stebbing, 1902); the type is P. spinosus, Mont. (non
Quatrefages), from the N. Atlantic, and P. vulgaris, Dohrn, P. charybdaeus, Dohrn,
and P. laevis, Grube, are all very similar. Endeis gracilis, Philippi (1843), is probably
identical with P. spinosus, or one of its close allies. There are also known P.
meridionalis, Böhm, P. mollis, Carp., and P. procerus, Loman, from the East Indies;
P. australis, Hodgson, from the Antarctic; P. böhmii, Schimk., of unknown locality;
and forms ascribed to P. charybdaeus by Haswell and by Schimkewitsch from
Australia and Brazil.
Fam. 10. Pycnogonidae.—Appendages I. and II. absent; appendage III. present
only in the male, 9–jointed, with small, simple spines; auxiliary claws absent or
rudimentary; body and legs short, thick-set.
The only genus is Pycnogonum, Brünnich (1764) (Polygonopus, Pallas, 1766); the
type is P. littorale, Ström, of the N. Atlantic (0–430 fathoms), to which species have
also been ascribed forms from various remote localities, e.g. Japan, Chile, and
Kerguelen. P. crassirostre, G. O. Sars, a northern and more or less deep-sea form, is
distinct, and so also are P. nodulosum and P. pusillum, Dohrn, from Naples. P.
stearnsi, Ives, from California, is like P. littorale, except for the rostrum, which
resembles that of P. crassirostre. P. magellanicum, Hoek, P. magnirostre, Möbius,
both from the Southern Ocean; P. microps, Loman, from Natal, and four others
described by Loman from the East Indies, are the other authenticated species. Of P.
philippinense, Semper, I know only the bare record; and P. australe, Grube, is
described only from a larval form with three pairs of legs. P. orientale, Dana (first
described as Astridium, n.g.), is also described from an immature specimen, and
more resembles a Phoxichilus.

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R. Rengaraj is Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical and Electronics

G.R. Venkatakrishnan is Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

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1. AC Circuits and Power Systems 1

2.9 Effect of Winding Resistances 89

5. Measurement and Instrumentation 321

1.2 THREE-PHASE SUPPLY

120° 120° 120°

Figure 1.1 Three-phase Power System of an Electrical Quantity

1.2.1 Advantages of a Three-phase Power System

1.3 BASICS OF A THREE-PHASE POWER SYSTEM

connected together is known as neutral.

phase is called as phase voltage. It is represented as VRB = VRN - VBN or simply VR , VY , VB .

phase current. It is represented as I RY , IYB and I BR and is given by I RY = I R - IY , IYB = IY - I B and

it is said to be a three-phase source.

then it is said to be a three-phase load.

current of a three-phase source or a three-phase load is known as a phasor diagram. In a star-connected

Figure 1.2 Schematic Diagram of a Star-connected Three-phase System

Figure 1.3 Schematic Diagram of a Delta-connected Three-phase System

1.4 GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

Therefore, VRN + VYN + VBN = 0 (1.4)

1.5 ANALYSIS OF THE THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

1.5.1 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]

The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced star- R IR

|VRY | = |VRN |2 + |VYN |2 + 2 |VRN ||VYN | cos 60∞

|VRY | = 3 |Vph| (1.9)

|VYB| = 3 |Vph| and |VBR| = 3 |Vph| (1.10)

|VL| = 3 |Vph| (1.11)

S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.15)

1.5.2 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]

VL3 IBR VL1

Figure 1.7 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Source

Relationship Among Line and Phase Quantities

| I R| = | I RY |2 + | I BR|2 + 2 | I RY || I RB| cos 60∞

| IY | = 3 | I ph| and | I B| = 3 | I ph| (1.17)

Using Eqns. (1.18) and (1.20), we get

Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f (VAR) (1.23)

S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.24)

1.5.3 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Load [AU April/May, 2015]

Figure 1.9 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Star-connected Load

Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

I ph = I L ; |VL| = 3 |Vph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

VBR VBN –VYN

1.5.4 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Load

Figure 1.11 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Load

Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

Vph = VL ; | I L| = 3 | I ph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

1.5.5 Three-Phase Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load [AU May/June, 2014]

Figure 1.13 Three-phase Unbalanced Delta-connected Load

1.5.6 Three-Phase Unbalanced Four-Wire Star-Connected Load [AU May/June, 2014]

Figure 1.14 Three-phase Four-wire Unbalanced Star-connected Load

The phase voltages in this system are given by:

1.5.7 Three-Phase Unbalanced Three-Wire Star-Connected Load

The circuit diagram for a three-phase three-wire unbal- IR

Applying mesh analysis to Figure 1.15, we get

Figure 1.16 Milliman’s Theorem Representation

Figure 1.17 Application of Milliman’s Theorem to Unbalanced Three-wire Star-connected Load