Regenerative Braking System

REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM
PROJECT REPORT ON
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
SYSTEM
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contents
Abstract 04
Project Guidance 07
Introduction to the project 08
Working principle 10
Hardware Components 11
PIN Description 23
Battery 28
Battery Lifetime 48
IR Sensors 53
Brakes 59
Chain 65
Sprocket 71
Application 77
Future Study 77
Final Kit 78
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PROJECT REPORT
ON
ABSTRACT
The system will generate electrical energy while the wheel is about is stop when applying
brakes. The model comprises a moving wheel arrangement with induction braking system that
create regeneration of electrical energy to charge the battery. In a regenerative braking system,
the electric motor that is responsible for all or part of an electric or hybrid-electric vehicle’s
propulsion & also does most of the braking. When the driver steps on the brake pedal, instead of
activating a conventional friction-based braking process, it sends an electronic signal to the
electric motor, directing it to run in reverse mode, which creates resistance to slow the vehicle
through a process that is analogous to down-shifting a standard transmission vehicle.
Regenerative Braking System is the way of slowing vehicle by using the motors as
brakes. Instead of the surplus energy of the vehicle being wasted as unwanted heat, the motors
act as generators and return some of it to the overhead wires as electricity. The vehicle is
primarily powered from the electrical energy generated from the generator, which burns
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gasoline. This energy is stored in a large battery, and used by an electric motor that provides
motive force to the wheels. The regenerative braking taking place on the vehicle isa way to
obtain more efficiency; instead of converting kinetic energy to thermal energy through frictional
braking, the vehicle can convert a good fraction of its kinetic energy back into charge in the
battery, using the same principle as an alternator.
battery, using the same principle as an alternator
Definition:
Braking method in which the mechanical energy from the load is converted into electric energy
and regenerated back into the line is known as Regenerative Braking. The Motor operates as
generator.
Brake:-
A brake is a machine element and its principle object is to absorb energy during deceleration. In

vehicle brakes are used to absorb kinetic energy whereas in hoists or elevators brakes are also
used
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toabsorb potential energy. By connecting the moving member tostationary frame, normally brake
converts kinetic energy to heatenergy. This causes wastage of energy and also wearing of
frictional lining material
Braking is not total loss:
Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicle’s kineticenergy into heat. In energy

terms, therefore, braking is a total loss: once heat is generated, it is very difficult to reuse. The
regenerative braking system, however, slows a vehicle down in a different way.
WORKING OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM
Working of the regenerative braking system is completely difference from the conventional
braking system. In the traditional braking systems the brake pads rub against the wheels and this
rubbing generates excessive heat. The heat energy produced dissipates into the air, wasting up to
30% of the power generated by the engine. Over a period of time, friction that counteracts the
forward motion and the wasted heat energy reduces the fuel efficiency of the device. Under such
a situation more energy or power output is required so that the energy wasted or lost during
braking can be replaced.
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INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT:
The system will generate electrical energy while the wheel is about is stop when applying
brakes. The model comprises a moving wheel arrangement with induction braking system that
create regeneration of electrical energy to charge the battery. In a regenerative braking system,
the electric motor that is responsible for all or part of an electric or hybrid-electric vehicle’s
propulsion, also does most of the braking. When the driver steps on the brake pedal, instead of
activating a conventional friction-based braking process, it sends an electronic signal to the
electric motor, directing it to run in reverse mode, which creates resistance to slow the vehicle
through a process that is analogous to down-shifting a standard transmission vehicle.
battery, using the same principle as an alternator.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM:
MOTOR1 VEHICLE BRAKES
BATTERY
a b
MOTOR 2 MOTOR IR
DRIVER SENSORS
NOTE:
MOTOR 1: To rotate engine wheel.
MOTOR 2: Electrical power generator.
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Case a: Brakes applied, IR Receiver receives low signal and drives motor2 with the help of
motor driver circuit.
Case b: Brakes not applied, IR Receiver receives high signal and motor2 does not rotate.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Working of the regenerative braking system is completely difference from the

conventional braking system. In the traditional braking systems the brake pads rub against the
wheels and this rubbing generates excessive heat. The heat energy produced dissipates into the
air, wasting up to 30% of the power generated by the car’s engine. Over a period of time, friction
that counteracts the forward motion and the wasted heat energy reduces the fuel efficiency of the
car. Under such a situation more energy or power output is required so that the energy wasted or
lost during braking can be replaced.
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SCOPE OF THE PAPER:
Regenerative braking just as waste recycling conserves natural resources by reusing

materials such as glass, aluminum, plastics, and newsprint, an emerging technology called
regenerative braking makes it possible to harvest and reuse as much as 30% of the energy that is
consumed to propel a vehicle.
This emission-free stored electrical energy is then available to assist acceleration, power the air
conditioner, operate power steering, or perform other functions, reducing ic engine fuel
consumption and its accompanying emissions.
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An electric motor running backwards also acts as an electric energy generator or dynamo that
can convert the kinetic energy of motion into electrical energy that can be stored for future use.
As an added bonus, regenerative braking with an electric motor takes most of the load off
mechanical brakes, reducing brake maintenance and replacement expense.
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
 L293D Driver IC
 MOTORS
 IR SENSORS
 7805 REGULATOR
 RESISTORS
 CAPACITORS
 BATTERY
 BRAKE
 CHAIN
 SPROCKET
APPLICATIONS:
 FOUR WHEELERS
 INDUSTRIES
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DC MOTORS:
A DC motor is a mechanically commutated electric motor powered from direct current DC). The
stator is stationary in space by definition and therefore so is its current. The current in the rotor is
switched by the commutator to also be stationary in space. This is how the relative angle
between the stator and rotor magnetic flux is maintained near 90 degrees, which generates the
maximum torque.
DC motors have a rotating armature winding (winding in which a voltage is induced) but non-
rotating armature magnetic field and a static field winding (winding that produce the main
magnetic flux) or permanent magnet. Different connections of the field and armature winding
provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can
be controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature or by changing the field current.
The introduction of variable resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed speed
control. Modern DC motors are often controlled by power electronics systems called DC drives.
The introduction of DC motors to run machinery eliminated the need for local steam or internal
combustion engines, and line shaft drive systems. DC motors can operate directly from
rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles. Today DC
motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate
steel rolling mills and paper machines.
Brush:
A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using internal
mechanical commutation, space stationary permanent magnets form the stator field. Torque is
produced by the principle of Lorentz force, which states that any current-carrying conductor
placed within an external magnetic field experiences a force known as Lorentz force. The actual
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(Lorentz) force ( and also torque since torque is F x l where l is rotor radius) is a function for
rotor angle and so the green arrow/vector actually changes length/magnitude with angle known
as torque ripple) Since this is a single phase two pole motor the commutator consists of a split
ring, so that the current reverses each half turn ( 180 degrees).
The brushed electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by
using internal commutation, stationary magnets and rotating electrical magnets.
Like all electric motors or generators, torque is produced by the principle of Lorentz force, which
states that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a
torque or force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial
cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance
and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes
and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator.
These components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the
spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor. Brushes are made of conductors.
Brushless:
Typical brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary
electrical current/coil magnets on the motor housing for the rotor, but the symmetrical opposite is
also possible. A motor controller converts DC to AC .This design is simpler than that of brushed
motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the
spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance,
and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed
controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors"
although they have no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with
normal AC synchronous motors.
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Uncommutated:
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.
 HOMOPOLAR MOTOR– A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of
rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field. The
name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change.
Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very low voltages.
This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.
 BALL BEARING MOTOR– A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that
consists of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common
conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power
supply. An alternative construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner
races are mounted on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an
insulating rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The
direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it
going.
 DC motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brush less, servo, and gear
motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator. The
magnetic field is maintained using either permanent magnets or electromagnetic
windings. DC motors are most commonly used in
 Variable speed and torque.
 Motion and controls cover a wide range of components that in some way are used to
generate and/or control motion. Areas within this category include bearings and bushings,
clutches and brakes, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and resolves,
Integrated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion
components, linear position sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors), orientation
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position sensing, pneumatics and pneumatic components, positioning stages, slides and
guides, power transmission (mechanical), seals, slip rings, solenoids, springs.
Motors are the devices that provide the actual speed and torque in a drive system.
This family includes AC motor types (single and multiphase motors, universal, servo
motors, induction, synchronous, and gear motor) and DC motors (brush less, servo motor,
and gear motor) as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and
starters.
 In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-

carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external
magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and
to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities
(North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is
designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an
external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
 Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet
or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with
a "South" polarization).
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 Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator,
field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see),
the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator
is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more
permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached
commutator) rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally
on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above
diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.
 The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such
that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator
magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the
stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next
commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor,
the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip"
of the rotor's magnetic field, and driving it to continue rotating.
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 In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very
common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can
imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its
rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile,
with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power
supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would
be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well.
 Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of
torque” ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the
rotor).
 So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one
via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):
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 You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but
two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator
contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will
rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the
effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil
windings' series wiring:
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 There's probably no better way to see how an average dc motor is put together, than by
just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the
destruction of a perfectly good motor.
 This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.
PWM technique:
A pulse width modulator (PWM) is a device that may be used as an efficient light
dimmer or DC motor speed controller. A PWM works by making a square wave with a
variable on-to-off ratio; the average on time may be varied from 0 to 100 percent. In this
manner, a variable amount of power is transferred to the load. The main advantage of a
PWM circuit over a resistive power controller is the efficiency, at a 50% level, the PWM
will use about 50% of full power, almost all of which is transferred to the load, a resistive
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controller at 50% load power would consume about 71% of full power, 50% of the power
goes to the load and the other 21% is wasted heating the series resistor. Load efficiency is
almost always a critical factor in solar powered and other alternative energy systems. One
additional advantage of pulse width modulation is that the pulses reach the full supply
voltage and will produce more torque in a motor by being able to overcome the internal
motor resistances more easily. Finally, in a PWM circuits, common small potentiometers
may be used to control a wide variety of loads whereas large and expensive high power
variable resistors are needed for resistive controllers.
 Pulse width modulation consists of three signals, which are modulated by a square
wave. The duty cycle or high time is proportional to the amplitude of the square wave.
The effective average voltage over one cycle is the duty cycle times the peak-to-peak
voltage. Thus, the average voltage follows a square wave. In fact, this method depends on
the motor inductance to integrate out the PWM frequency.
 A very simply off line motor drive can be built using a TRIAC and a control IC. This
circuit can control the speed of a universal motor. A universal motor is a series wound
DC motor. The circuit uses phase angle control to vary the effective motor voltage.
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 A micro controller can also be used to control a triac. A PNP of transistor may be used to
drive the triac. As shown, the MCU ground is connected to the AC line. The gate trigger
current is lower if instead the MCU 5V supply is connected to the AC line. The MCU
must have some means of detecting zero crossing and a timer, which can control the triac
firing. A general-purpose timer with one input capture and one output compare makes an
ideal phase angle control.
L293D DRIVER CIRCUIT:
L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as
current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-
current signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the motors.L293D
contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation, two DC
motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The motor
operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15.
Input logic 00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in
clockwise and anticlockwise directions, respectively.
 Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start
operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled. As a result,
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the outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable
input is low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance
state.
PIN DESCRIPTION:
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Pin No Function Name
1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2
2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1
3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1
4 Ground (0V) Ground
8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Vcc 2
9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4
15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4
16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V) Vcc 1
RESISTORS:
A Resistor is a heat-dissipating element and in the electronic circuits it is mostly used for
either controlling the current in the circuit or developing a voltage drop across it, which could be
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utilized for many applications. There are various types of resistors, which can be classified
according to a number of factors depending upon:
 Material used for fabrication

 Wattage and physical size
 Intended application
 Ambient temperature rating
 Cost
Basically the resistor can be split in to the following four parts from the construction view point.
(1) Base
(2) Resistance element
(3) Terminals
(4) Protective means.
The following characteristics are inherent in all resistors and may be controlled by design
considerations and choice of material i.e. Temperature co–efficient of resistance, Voltage co–
efficient of resistance, high frequency characteristics, power rating, tolerance & voltage rating of
resistors. Resistors may be classified as
(1) Fixed
(2) Semi variable
(3) Variable resistor.
CAPACITORS
The fundamental relation for the capacitance between two flat plates separated by a
dielectric material is given by:-
C=0.08854KA/D
Where: -
C= capacitance in pf.
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K= dielectric constant
A=Area per plate in square cm.
D=Distance between two plates in cm
Design of capacitor depends on the proper dielectric material with particular type of
application. The dielectric material used for capacitors may be grouped in various classes like
Mica, Glass, air, ceramic, paper, Aluminum, electrolyte etc. The value of capacitance never
remains constant. It changes with temperature, frequency and aging. The capacitance value
marked on the capacitor strictly applies only at specified temperature and at low frequencies.
LED (Light Emitting Diodes):

As its name implies it is a diode, which emits light when forward biased. Charge carrier
recombination takes place when electrons from the N-side cross the junction and recombine with
the holes on the P side. Electrons are in the higher conduction band on the N side whereas holes
are in the lower valence band on the P side. During recombination, some of the energy is given
up in the form of heat and light. In the case of semiconductor materials like Gallium arsenide
(GaAs), Gallium phosphate (Gap) and Gallium arsenide phosphate (GaAsP) a greater percentage
of energy is released during recombination and is given out in the form of light. LED emits no
light when junction is reverse biased.
LM7812 AND LM7805:

Features
• Output Current of 1.5A
• Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%
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• Internal thermal overload protection
• Internal Short-Circuit Limited
• No External Component
• Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V,
12V, 15V, 18V, 24V
• Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263
• Direct Replacement for LM78XX
Description:
The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three terminals. The
LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in wide range of applications.
When used as a zener diode/resistor combination
Replacement, the LM78XX usually results in an effective output impedance improvement of two
orders of magnitude, lower quiescent current.
The LM78XX is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263 Packages
Applications:
• Post regulator for switching DC/DC converter
• Bias supply for analog circuits
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BATTERY:
In our prototype, we use 12v battery and they have variety of uses in our daily
life. From consumer electronics to robotics, from health care products to industries, almost every
second device we use has one battery or the other. Batteries have become an indispensible part of
our lives. We cannot comprehend living without cell phones, torches, laptop computers, music
players like the ipod, but how do we power them up? Answer lies in the battries. Similarly cars
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are one of the main modern day necessties which use battries to power the head lamps and
backlights. In electricity, a battery is a device consisting of one or more electromechanical cells
that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery
(or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved
Daniell cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power source for many household and
industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates
US$48 billion in sales each year,[2] with 6% annual growth.
There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are
designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which
are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from
miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy It consists of a
number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode;
the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged
ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery,
cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are
removed) at the anode.[23] The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected
by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between
half-cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
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Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta.[12] Therefore, if the electrodes
have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the
difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would
perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and
the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted
against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to
the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand
the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium
cells emfs of 3 volts or more.
This entire power requirement means that we need a robust, portable and an efficient source of
power. There are a couple of factors one has to look out while choosing the type of 12v battery.
Because a twelve volt battery can be of many types, sizes, form factors, and materials. 12 volt is
just the rating of the battery and it does not specify something physical. Batteries are also
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available in other voltage ratings such as 24, 9 and 5 volt. Its rather a quantity. There are many
types of batteries depending upon the construction.
12 volt lead acid batteries:
One of the most common type of 12V battery is the 12v lead acid battery. It is a dc battery with
lead terminals and an acid, usually hydrochloric acid is used as an electrolyte in lead acid battery.
It is the battery of choice for cars, trucks, tanks, uninterrupted power supplies and other vehicles.
12V lead acid battery is used in cars as there is no risk of handling in cars. 12volt lead acid
battery is also used in battery banks and backup systems at power sensitive systems, such as
telecom switches, like any other 12v dc battery because it’s a source of dc 12volt power.
Lead acid 12V battery is rarely used in home appliances and uses. For example, computer UPS'
rarely use lead acid battery as it is not very easy to handle and can cause potential hazards, such
as a fire etc. Home users generally prefer a solid state battery such as the one used in dry cells
over 12v lead acid batteries or rechargeable battery which provides 12volt power . Those are
found in torch lights, calculators, watches, clocks and toys.
12v Battery Construction:
In a 12 volt lead acid battery, usually hydrochloric acid is used as an electrolyte in lead acid
battery. The casing is usually made up of plastic, rubber or any other hard material in order to
avoid the acid housed inside. Inside, it is made of upmany small cells. Metals are used for
cathodes and anodes (negative and positive terminals respectively for the 12Volt Battery.
12 volt lead acid battery is the 12 volt dc battery for cars, trucks, tanks, uninterrupted power
supplies and other vehicles. This type of battery is also used in battery banks and backup systems
at power sensitive systems, such as telecom switches.
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It is 12v dc battery but is not a portable 12v battery or 12v rechargeable battery and 12v battery
pack due to its size and handling issues. For example, computer UPS' rarely use lead acid battery
as it is not very easy to handle and can cause potential hazards, such as a fire etc.
Lead acid batteries used in the RV and Marine Industries usually consist of two 6-volt
batteries in series, or a single 12-volt battery. These batteries are constructed of several single
cells connected in series each cell produces approximately 2.1 volts. A six-volt battery has three
single cells, which when fully charged produce an output voltage of 6.3 volts. A twelve-volt
battery has six single cells in series producing a fully charged output voltage of 12.6 volts.
A battery cell consists of two lead plates a positive plate covered with a paste of lead dioxide and
a negative made of sponge lead, with an insulating material (separator) in between. The plates
are enclosed in a plastic battery case and then submersed in an electrolyte consisting of water and
sulfuric acid (see figure # 1). Each cell is capable of storing 2.1 volts.
In order for lead acid cell to produce a voltage, it must first receive a (forming) charge
voltage of at least 2.1-volts/cell from a charger. Lead acid batteries do not generate voltage on
their own; they only store a charge from another source. This is the reason lead acid batteries are
called storage batteries, because they only store a charge. The size of the battery plates and
amount of electrolyte determines the amount of charge lead acid batteries can store. The size of
this storage capacity is described as the amp hour (AH) rating of a battery. A typical 12-volt
battery used in a RV or marine craft has a rating 125 AH, which means it can supply 10 amps of
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current for 12.5 hours or 20-amps of current for a period of 6.25 hours. Lead acid batteries can
be connected in parallel to increase the total AH capacity.
In figure # 2 below, six single 2.1-volt cells have been connected in series to make the typical
12-volt battery, which when fully charged will produce a total voltage of 12.6-volts.
Lead Acid Batter Discharge Cycle
In figure # 3, above a fully charged battery is connected to a load (light bulb) and the chemical
reaction between sulfuric acid and the lead plates produces the electricity to light the bulb. This
chemical reaction also begins to coat both positive and negative plates with a substance called
lead sulfate also known as sulfation (shown as a yellow build-up on plates). This build-up of lead
sulfate is normal during a discharge cycle. As the battery continues to discharge, lead sulfate
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coats more and more of the plates and battery voltage begins to decrease from fully charged state
of 12.6-volts (figure # 4).
In figure # 5 the battery is now fully discharged, the plates are almost completely covered with
lead sulfate (sulfation) and voltage has dropped to 10.5-volts.
NOTE: Discharging a lead acid battery below 10.5 volts will severely damage it!
Lead sulfate (sulfation) now coats most of the battery plates. Lead sulfate is a soft material,
which can is reconverted back into lead and sulfuric acid, provided the discharged battery is
immediately connected to a battery charger. If a lead acid battery is not immediately recharged,
the lead sulfate will begin to form hard crystals, which can not be reconverted by a standard
fixed voltage (13.6 volts) battery converter/charger.
NOTE: Always recharge your RV or Marine battery as soon as possible to prevent loss of battery
capacity due to the build-up of hard lead sulfate crystals!
Lead Acid Battery Recharge Cycle:
The most important thing to understand about recharging lead acid batteries is that a
converter/charger with a single fixed output voltage will not properly recharge or maintain your
Page 33
battery. Proper recharging and maintenance requires an intelligent charging system that can vary
the charging voltage based on the state of charge and use of your RV or Marine battery.
Progressive Dynamics has developed intelligent charging systems that solve battery problems
and reduce battery maintenance.
The discharged battery shown in figure # 6 on the next page is connected to a converter/charger
with its output voltage set at 13.6-volts. In order to recharge a 12-volt lead acid battery with a
fully charged terminal voltage of 12.6-volts, the charger voltage must be set at a higher voltage.
During the recharging process as electricity flows through the water portion of the electrolyte
and water, (H2O) is converted into its original elements, hydrogen and oxygen. These gasses are
very flammable and the reason your RV or Marine batteries must be vented outside. Gassing
causes water loss and therefore lead acid batteries need to have water added periodically. Sealed
lead acid batteries contain most of these gasses allowing them to recombine into the electrolyte.
If the battery is overcharged pressure from these gasses will cause relief caps to open and vent,
resulting in some water loss. Most sealed batteries have extra electrolyte added during the
manufacturing process to compensate for some water loss.
Page 34
The battery shown in figure # 7 above has been fully recharged using a fixed charging voltage of
13.6-volts. Notice that some lead sulfate (sulfation) still remains on the plates. This build-up will
continue after each recharging cycle and gradually the battery will begin to loose capacity to
store a full charge and eventually must be replaced. Lead sulfate build up is reduced if battery is
given an Equalizing Charge once every 10 discharge cycles or at least once a month. An
Equalizing Charge increases charging voltage to 14.4 volts or higher for a short period. This
higher voltage causes gassing that equalizes (re-mixes) the electrolyte solution.
Since most RV and Marine craft owners seldom remember to perform this function, Progressive
Dynamics has developed the microprocessor controlled Charge Wizard. The Charge Wizard will
automatically provide an Equalizing Charge every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes, when the
battery is fully charged and not in use. Our 2000 Series of Marine Battery Chargers have the
Charge Wizard feature built-in.
One disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is the recharge
time is very long. A typical 125-AH RV or Marine battery will take approximately 80 hours to
recharge at 13.6 volts. Increasing the charge voltage to 14.4-volts will reduce battery recharge
time for a 125-AH battery to 3-4 hours. Once a battery reaches 90% of full charge, the voltage
must be reduced from 14.4-volts to 13.6-volts to reduce gassing and water loss. The optional
Charge Wizard automatically senses when a battery has a very low state of charge and
automatically selects its BOOST MODE of operation. BOOST MODE increases the voltage of a
Page 35
PD9100 Series converter/charger to 14.4 volts. When the battery reaches the 90% charge level,
the Charge Wizard automatically reduces the charge voltage down to 13.6 volts to complete the
charge. Again, this is a standard feature on our Marine Chargers.
Another disadvantage of recharging a lead acid battery at a fixed voltage of 13.6-volts is that
once it is fully charged, 13.6 volts will cause considerable gassing and water loss. To prevent this
from occurring the charging voltage must be reduced to 13.2-volts. The Charge Wizard will
automatically select its STORAGE MODE of operation (13.2-volts) once the battery reaches full
charge and remains unused for a period of 30 hours. This feature is standard on all of Progressive
Dynamics Marine Battery Chargers.
At a charging voltage of 13.2 volts, the converter/charger will maintain a full charge, reduce
gassing and water loss. However, this lower voltage does not provide enough gassing to prevent
a battery condition called Battery Stratification. Battery Stratification is caused by the fact that
the electrolyte in the battery is a mixture of water and acid and, like all mixtures, one component,
the acid, is heavier than water. Therefore, acid will begin to settle and concentrate at the bottom
of the battery (see figure #8).
Most converter/chargers on the market are set at approximately 13.6-volts. During the battery
recharge cycle lead sulfate (sulfation) begins to reconvert to lead and sulfuric acid.
Page 36
This higher concentration of acid at the bottom of the battery causes additional build-up of lead
sulfate (sulfation), which reduces battery storage capacity and battery life. In order to prevent
Battery Stratification, an Equalization Charge (increasing charging voltage to 14.4-volts) must be
applied periodically. The Charge Wizard automatically selects its EQUALIZATION MODE
(14.4 volts) every 21 hours for a period of 15 minutes. This Equalizing Charge feature is
standard on our Marine chargers.
As you have learned, in order to properly charge and maintain a lead acid battery you must use
an intelligent charging system. Progressive Dynamics, Inteli-Power 9100 Series RV converters
with a Charge Wizard installed, or one of our Inteli-Power Marine Battery Chargers will provide
the intelligent charging system your battery needs for a long life, with low maintenance.
Categories and types of batteries

Page 37
List of battery types:
Page 38
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an AAA cell,
an AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3 battery, and a pair of button cells (CR2032 and
LR44).
Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and disadvantages.
 Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to

electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be
readily restored to the battery by electrical means.
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to
operation by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical reaction.
Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials,
loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.
Primary batteries:
Primary cell
Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are
intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that
have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative
power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the
chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original
forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells
Page 39
Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries. In
general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries
do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω).
Secondary batteries:
Rechargeable battery
Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active materials
in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying
electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to
supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery. This battery is notable in that it
contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area
be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during
overcharging. The lead–acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can
supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use
common where a large capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is required or where the weight and
ease of handling are not concerns.
A common form of the lead–acid battery is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver
a peak current of 450 amperes. An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the sealed valve
regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery), popular in the automotive industry as a replacement
for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte,
reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries have the electrolyte
immobilized, usually by one of two means:
 Gel batteries (or "gel cell") contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage.
 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass
matting.
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Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units and
are, therefore, useful in appliances such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this
type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc
(NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells By far, Li-ion has the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios,
and medical equipment. NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well established commercially.
Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which
allows charging an AA cell through a USB connector, and smart battery packs with state-of-
charge monitors and battery protection circuits to prevent damage on over-discharge. low self-
discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be precharged prior to shipping.
Battery cell types:
There are many general types of electrochemical cells, according to chemical processes applied
and design chosen. The variation includes galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells
and voltaic piles.
Wet cell:
A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers
all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet
cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry.
It is often built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how
electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is
important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or
secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell
Page 41
were built as open-topped glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell,
Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell
chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in
industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power
supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These applications
commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.
Dry cell:
"Dry cell" redirects here. For the heavy metal band, see Dry Cell (band).
Page 42
Line art drawing of a dry cell:

1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7.
chemical mixture.
A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in it to allow
current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling as it
contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet
cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top, and
needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and
portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.
A common dry cell battery is the zinc–carbon battery, using a cell sometimes called the dry
Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both
use the same zinc–manganese dioxide combination).
A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode (negative pole), usually in the form of a cylindrical
pot, with a carbon cathode (positive pole) in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is
ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between
the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium
chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some more modern types of
so-called 'high-power' batteries (with much lower capacity than standard alkaline batteries), the
ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.
Molten salt:
Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. Their
energy density and power density give them potential for use in electric vehicles, but they
operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.
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Reserve:
A reserve battery is stored in unassembled form and is activated, ready-charged, when its internal
parts are assembled, e.g. by adding electrolyte; it can be stored inactivated for a long period of
time. For example, a battery for an electronic fuse might be activated by the impact of firing a
gun, breaking a capsule of electrolyte to activate the battery and power the fuse’s circuits.
Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long
storage (years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications
becomes activated on immersion in water.
Battery cell performance:
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to
many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature.
Capacity and discharging
A device to check battery voltage

Page 44
A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can store. The more electrolyte and
electrode material there is in the cell the greater the capacity of the cell. A small cell has less
capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, and they develop the same open-circuit
voltage.
Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the
discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current (which may vary with time), the
allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors. The available capacity
of a battery depends upon the rate at which it is discharged. If a battery is discharged at a
relatively high rate, the available capacity will be lower than expected.
The capacity printed on a battery is usually the product of 20 hours multiplied by the constant
current that a new battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F° (20 C°), down to a specified terminal
voltage per cell. A battery rated at 100 A·h will deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room
temperature. However, if discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower capacity.
The relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery is
approximated (over a certain range of current values) by Peukert's law:
Where
is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.
is the current drawn from battery (A).
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
is a constant around 1.3.
For low values of I internal self-discharge must be included.
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Internal energy losses and limited rate of diffusion of ions through the electrolyte cause the
efficiency of a real battery to vary at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the
battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates, but if the rate is very
low, it will partly self-discharge during the long time of operation, again lowering its efficiency.
Installing batteries with different A·h ratings will not affect the operation of a device (except for
the time it will work for) rated for a specific voltage unless the load limits of the battery are
exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can result in delivery of less total energy, as
happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2000 mAh for a 10- or 20-hour
discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.
Crates:
The C-rate signifies a discharge rate relative to the capacity of a battery in one hour. A rate of 1C
would mean an entire 1.6Ah battery would be discharged in 1 hour at a discharge current of
1.6A. A 2C rate would mean a discharge current of 3.2A
Fastest charging, largest, and lightest batteries:
As of 2012 Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries were the fastest-charging and
discharging batteries (super capacitors, in some ways comparable to batteries, charge faster). The
world's largest battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. Sodium–sulfur
batteries were being used to store wind power, Lithium–sulfur batteries have been used on the
longest and highest solar-powered flight. The speed of recharging of lithium-ion batteries can be
increased by manufacturing changes.
Battery lifetime:
Page 46
Primary batteries
Disposable (or "primary") batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge every
year at room temperature (20°–30°C This is known as the "self discharge" rate, and is due to
non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions which occur within the cell even if no load is
applied. The rate of the side reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at lower temperature,
although some batteries can be damaged by freezing. High or low working temperatures may
reduce battery performance. This will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline
battery, this initial voltage is approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts.
Discharging performance of all batteries drops at low temperature.
Secondary batteries:
Storage life of secondary batteries is limited by chemical reactions that occur between the battery
parts and the electrolyte; these are called "side reactions". Internal parts may corrode and fail, or
the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms. Since the active material on the
battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle, active material
may be lost due to physical changes of volume; this may limit the cycle life of the battery.
Page 47
RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES:
Old chemistry rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline
batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery
loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a
month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern
lithium designs have reduced the self-discharge rate to a relatively low level (but still poorer than
for primary batteries). Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and
must be charged before first use Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased,
and have only 15% discharge in a year.
Although rechargeable batteries have their energy content restored by charging, some
deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1700–2000
mA·h) can be charged for about 1000 cycles, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500
mA·h) can be charged for about 500 cycles NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1000 cycles
before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Under normal
circumstances, a fast charge, rather than a slow overnight charge, will shorten battery lifespan.
Also, if the overnight charger is not "smart" and cannot detect when the battery is fully charged,
then overcharging is likely, which also damages the battery. Degradation usually occurs because
electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material falls off the electrodes.
NiCd batteries suffer the drawback that they should be fully discharged before recharge. Without
full discharge, crystals may build up on the electrodes, thus decreasing the active surface area
and increasing internal resistance. This decreases battery capacity and causes the "memory
effect". These electrode crystals can also penetrate the electrolyte separator, thereby causing
shorts. NiMH, although similar in chemistry, does not suffer from memory effect to quite this
extent. A battery does not suddenly stop working; its capacity gradually decreases over its
lifetime, until it can no longer hold sufficient charge.
Page 48
An analog camcorder battery [lithium ion].
Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries have a much harder life. Because of vibration,
shock, heat, cold, and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six
years of regular use. Automotive starting (SLI: Starting, Lighting, Ignition) batteries have many
thin plates to provide as much current as possible in a reasonably small package. In general, the
thicker the plates, the longer the life of the battery. They are typically drained only a small
amount before recharge. Care should be taken to avoid deep discharging a starting battery, since
each charge and discharge cycle causes active material to be shed from the plates.
"Deep-cycle" lead–acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker
plates to aid their longevity. The main benefit of the lead–acid battery is its low cost; the main
drawbacks are its large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Lead–acid batteries
should never be discharged to below 20% of their full capacity, because internal resistance will
cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle lead–acid systems often use a low-
Page 49
charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that
will shorten the battery's life.
Extending battery life:
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a refrigerator or
freezer, which slows the chemical reactions in the battery. Such storage can extend the life of
alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer,
depending upon type. To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room
temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0°C is only half as efficient as it is at
20°C Alkaline battery manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.
Imagine a world where everything that used electricity had to be plugged in. Flashlights, hearing
aids, cell phones and other portable devices would be tethered to electrical outlets, rendering
them awkward and cumbersome. Cars couldn't be started with the simple turn of a key; a
strenuous cranking would be required to get the pistons moving. Wires would be strung
everywhere, creating a safety hazard and an unsightly mess. Thankfully, batteries provide us
with a mobile source of power that makes many modern conveniences possible.
While there are many different types of batteries, the basic concept by which they function
remains the same. When a device is connected to a battery, a reaction occurs that produces
electrical energy. This is known as an electrochemical reaction. Italian physicist Count
Alessandro Volta first discovered this process in 1799 when he created a simple battery from
metal plates and brine-soaked cardboard or paper. Since then, scientists have greatly improved
upon Volta's original design to create batteries made from a variety of materials that come in a
multitude of sizes.
Today, batteries are all around us. They power our wristwatches for months at a time. They keep
our alarm clocks and telephones working, even if the electricity goes out. They run our smoke
detectors, electric razors, power drills, mp3 players, thermostats -- and the list goes on. If you're
Page 50
reading this article on your laptop or smartphone, you may even be using batteries right now!
However, because these portable power packs are so prevalent, it's very easy to take them for
granted. This article will give you a greater appreciation for batteries by exploring their history,
as well as the basic parts, reactions and processes that make them work. So cut that cord and
click through our informative guide to charge up your knowledge of batteries.
Disadvantages of 12 volt battery:
The main disadvantage 12volt lead acid is that it has one of the lowest energy to weight ratio.
This means that this type of 12v battery also has a low energy to volume ratio, which in turn
means that the size of the battery has to be big in order to provide significant amount of power.
Secondly its not portable.
Another major concern about lead acid 12v battery, which is a 12volt power source, is that about
environment. Almost all the batteries used in vehicles are lead acid and this means that the
disposal of these batteries can beome a big hurdle. Since there are alot of cars, this mean alot of
old batteries need to be dumped somewhere and improper disposal means damaged
environment.The automotive industry is now looking for alternatives to replace lead acid battery
in automative applications towards a environmentally safe option
Note: Please do note that the current rating is VERY important. DONOT plug in a battery which
has higher amperage than your modem or router can handle. Most modems and routers are
usually rated at around 1 ampere. So a 12V Battery of that rating should be used.
IR SENSORS:
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IR LED and IR sensor:
IR LED is used as a source of infrared rays. It comes in two packages 3mm or 5mm. 3mm is
better as it is requires less space. IR sensor is nothing but a diode, which is sensitive for infrared
radiation.
This infrared transmitter and receiver is called as IR TX-RX pair. It can be obtained from
any decent electronics component shop and costs less than 10Rs. Following snap shows 3mm
and 5mm IR pairs.
Color of IR transmitter and receiver is different. However you may come across pairs
which appear exactly same or even has opposite colors than shown in above pic and it is not
possible to distinguish between TX and RX visually. In case you will have to take help of
multimeter to distinguish between them.
Principle:
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IR LED emits infrared radiation. This radiation illuminates the surface in front of LED.
Surface reflects the infrared light. Depending on reflectivity of the surface, amount of light
reflected varies. This reflected light is made incident on reverse biased IR sensor. When photons
are incident on reverse biased junction of this diode, electron-hole pairs are generated, which
results in reverse leakage current. Amount of electron-hole pairs generated depends on intensity
of incident IR radiation. More intense radiation results in more reverse leakage current. This
current can be passed through a resistor so as to get proportional voltage. Thus as intensity of
incident rays varies, voltage across resistor will vary accordingly.
This voltage can then be given to OPAMP based comparator. Output of the comparator
can be read by uC. Alternatively, you can use on-chip ADC in AVR microcontroller to measure
this voltage and perform comparison in software.
An infrared detector is a detector that reacts to infrared (IR) radiation. The two main
types of detectors are thermal and photonic (photo detectors).
The thermal effects of the incident IR radiation can be followed through many temperature
dependent phenomena. Bolometer and micro bolometer are based on changes in resistance.
Thermocouples and thermopiles use the thermoelectric effect. Golay cells follow thermal
expansion. In IR spectrometers the pyroelectric detectors are the most widespread.
The response time and sensitivity of photonic detectors can be much higher, but usually these
have to be cooled to cut thermal noise. The materials in these are semiconductors with narrow
band gaps. Incident IR photons can cause electronic excitations. In photoconductive detectors,
the resistivity of the detector element is monitored. Photovoltaic detectors contain a p-n junction
on which photoelectric current appears upon illumination. A few detector materials:
Types:
TYPE SPECTRAL WAVENUMBER(CM-

Page 53
RANGE(ΜM) 1)
Indium gallium
photodiode 0.7-2.6 14300-3800
arsenide(InGaAs)
Germanium photodiode 0.8-1.7 12500-5900
Lead sulfide (PbS) photoconductive 1-3.2 10000-3200
Lead selenide (PbSe) photoconductive 1.5-5.2 6700-1900
Indium antimonide
photoconductive 1-6.7 10000-1500
(InSb)
Indium arsenide
photovoltaic 1-3.8 10000-2600
(InAs)
Platinum silicide
photovoltaic 1-5 10000-2000
(PtSi)
Indium antimonide
photodiode 1-5.5 10000-1800
(InSb)
Mercury cadmium
telluride (MCT, photoconductive 0.8-25 12500-400
HgCdTe)
Mercury zinc
telluride (MZT, photoconductive
HgZnTe)
Lithium tantalate
pyroelectric
(LiTaO3)
triglycine sulfate
pyroelectric
(TGS and DTGS)
The range of pyroelectric detector is determined by the window materials used in their
construction.
Vanadium pentoxide is frequently used as a detector material in uncooled microbolometer

arrays.
Page 54
Infrared Sensors or IR Sensors:

Infrared radiation is the portion of electromagnetic spectrum having wavelengths longer than
visible light wavelengths, but smaller than microwaves, i.e., the region roughly from 0.75µm to
1000 µm is the infrared region.
Infrared waves are invisible to human eyes. The wavelength region of 0.75µm to 3 µm is called
near infrared, the region from 3 µm to 6 µm is called mid infrared and the region higher than 6
µm is called far infrared. (The demarcations are not rigid; regions are defined differently by
many).
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There are different types of IR sensors working in various regions of the IR spectrum but the
physics behind "IR sensors" is governed by three laws:
1. Planck’s radiation law:

Every object at a temperature T not equal to 0 K emits radiation. Infrared radiant energy is
determined by the temperature and surface condition of an object. Human eyes cannot detect
differences in infrared energy because they are primarily sensitive to visible light energy from
400 to 700 nm. Our eyes are not sensitive to the infrared energy.
2. Stephan Boltzmann Law

The total energy emitted at all wavelengths by a black body is related to the absolute temperature
as
3. Wein’s Displacement Law
Page 56
Wein’s Law tells that objects of different temperature emit spectra that peak at different
wavelengths. It provides the wavelength for maximum spectral radiant emittance for a given
temperature.
The relationship between the true temperature of the black body and its peak spectral exitance or
dominant wavelength is described by this law
The world is not full of black bodies; rather it

comprises of selectively radiating bodies like rocks, water, etc. and the relationship between the
two is given by emissivity (E).
Emissivity depends on object

color, surface roughness, moisture content, degree of compaction, field of view, viewing angle &
wavelength.
An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits and/or detects infrared radiation in order to
sense some aspect of its surroundings. Infrared sensors can measure the heat of an object, as well
as detect motion. Many of these types of sensors only measure infrared radiation, rather than
emitting it, and thus are known as passive infrared (PIR) sensors.
All objects emit some form of thermal radiation, usually in the infrared spectrum. This radiation
is invisible to our eyes, but can be detected by an infrared sensor that accepts and interprets it. In
a typical infrared sensor like a motion detector, radiation enters the front and reaches the sensor
itself at the center of the device. This part may be composed of more than one individual sensor,
each of them being made from pyroelectric materials, whether natural or artificial. These are
materials that generate an electrical voltage when heated or cooled.
These pyroelectric materials are integrated into a small circuit board. They are wired in such a
way so that when the sensor detects an increase in the heat of a small part of its field of view, it
will trigger the motion detector's alarm. It is very common for an infrared sensor to be integrated
into motion detectors like those used as part of a residential or commercial security system.
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Most motion detectors are fitted with a special type of lens, called a Fresnel lens, on the sensor
face. A set of these lenses on a motion detector can focus light from many directions, giving the
sensor a view of the whole area. Instead of Fresnel lenses, some motion detectors are fitted with
small parabolic mirrors which serve the same purpose.
An infrared sensor can be thought of as a camera that briefly remembers how an area's infrared
radiation appears. A sudden change in one area of the field of view, especially one that moves,
will change the way electricity goes from the pyroelectric materials through the rest of the
circuit. This will trigger the motion detector to activate an alarm. If the whole field of view
changes temperature, this will not trigger the device. This makes it so that sudden flashes of light
and natural changes in temperature do not activate the sensor and cause false alarms.
Infrared motion detectors used in residential security systems are also desensitized somewhat,
with the goal of preventing false alarms. Typically, a motion detector like these will not register
movement by any object weighing less than 40 pounds (18 kg). With this modification,
household pets will be able to move freely around the house without their owners needing to
worry about a false alarm. For households with large pets, sensors with an 80-pound (36 kg)
allowance are also made.
BRAKES:
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. The rest of this article is dedicated to
various types of vehicular brakes.
Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of
energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the
energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic
energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy
Page 58
current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake
disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic
energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as
the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination
of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or
airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.
Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity ( ), an object moving at

10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and
consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as
long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises
quickly with speed.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts
may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes
on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in
flight. Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some
fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe
speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air
brake.
Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking
then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines
to brake.
When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston
pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is
similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel
down.
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Types:
Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake
may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create
friction:
 Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad"
brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes,
which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term
"friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes,
even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often
rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common
configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such
as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum,
commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and
pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake
configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat
shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a
rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs
with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand
laterally.
 Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For
example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then
internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve
override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can
dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir
called a hydraulic accumulator.
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 Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part
of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric
motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some
diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is
then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit
buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is
effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are
eddy current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically
driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called “electromagnetic brakes” as
well).
Characteristics:
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:
 Peak force – The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained.
The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake
can cause a wheel skid.
 Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the
temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can
be dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation.
Continuous power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of
ambient cooling air.
 Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs
are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use
considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.
 Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying
brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and
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friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases
maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.
 Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force
leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This
notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be
confusing in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake
application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.
 Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output
as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the
brake and other factors.
 Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on
design of the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that
exists under braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in
the off-brake condition.
 Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear
surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be
tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear
quickly.
 Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further,
brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction
in some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional
support structure.
 Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or
grinding noises that are quite loud.
Brake boost:
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Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the force
applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator.[1] This additional force is supplied by the manifold
vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the throttle on a running engine. This force is
greatly reduced when the engine is running at fully open throttle, as the difference between
ambient air pressure and manifold (absolute) air pressure is reduced, and therefore available
vacuum is diminished. However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle; the driver takes the
right foot off the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot braking is used.
Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often accompanied
by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving engine, having an open throttle,
is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the brake booster. This problem is exacerbated in
vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions as the vehicle will automatically downshift upon
application of the brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the driven-wheels in contact
with the road surface.
Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice a significant
amount may be converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing to noise pollution.
For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly with tire construction, road surface,
and the magnitude of the deceleration.[2] Noise can be caused by different things. These are signs
that there may be issues with brakes wearing out over time.
Inefficiency:
A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative braking
which is not perfectly efficient. Therefore a good metric of efficient energy use while driving is
to note how much one is braking. If the majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction
instead of braking, one is squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake
use is one of the fuel economy-maximizing behaviors.
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While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences efficiency is
"off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not intentionally actuated. After a braking
event, hydraulic pressure drops in the system, allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract.
However, this retraction must accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as
well as thermal distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until
the contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the rubbing
surface. During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake drag can lead to
significant parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and vehicle performance.
We all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a stop. But how does this
happen? How does your car transmit the force from your leg to its wheels? How does it multiply
the force so that it is enough to stop something as big as a car?
When you depress your brake pedal, your car transmits the force from your foot to its brakes
through a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply with
your leg, your car must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways:
 Mechanical advantage (leverage)

 Hydraulic force multiplication
The brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that force to the
road using friction also. Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake system,
we'll cover these three principles:
 Leverage
 Hydraulics
 Friction
CHAIN:
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Chain is a series of connected links which are typically made of metal. A chain may
consist of two or more links.
Chains are usually made in one of two styles, according to their intended use:
 Those designed for lifting, such as when used with a hoist; for pulling; or for securing,
such as with a bicycle lock, have links that are torus shaped, which make the chain
flexible in two dimensions (The fixed third dimension being a chain's length.)
 Those designed for transferring power in machines have links designed to mesh with the
teeth of the sprockets of the machine, and are flexible in only one dimension. They are
known as roller chains, though there are also non-roller chains such as block chain.
Two distinct chains can be connected using a quick link which resembles a carabiner with a
screw close rather than a latch.
Uses for chain:
Uses for chain include:
 Bicycle chain, transfers power from the pedals to the drive-wheel of a bicycle thus
propelling it
 Chain drive, the main feature that differentiated the safety bicycle
 Chain gun, type of machine gun that is driven by an external power source, sometimes
connected by a chain, to actuate the mechanism rather than using recoil
 Chain pumps, type of water pump where an endless chain has positioned on it circular
discs
 Chain-linked Lewis, lifting device made from two curved steel legs
 Chainsaw, portable mechanical, motorized saw using a cutting chain to saw wood.
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 Chain steam shipping
 Curb chain, used on curb bits when riding a horse
 Door chain, a type of security chain on a door that makes it possible to open a door from
the inside while still making it difficult for someone outside to force their way inside
 Keychain, a small chain that connects a small item to a keyring
 Lead shank (or "Stud chain"), used on horses that are misbehaving
 Lavatory chain, the chain attached to the cistern of an old-fashioned W.C. in which the
flushing power is obtained by a gravity feed from above-head height. Although cisterns
no longer work like that, the phrase "pull the chain" is still encountered to mean "flush
the toilet".
 O-ring chain, a specialized type of roller chain
 Roller chain, the type of chain most commonly used for transmission of mechanical
power on bicycles, motorcycles, and in industrial and agricultural machinery
 Snow chains, used to improve traction in snow
 Timing chain, used to transfer rotational position from the crankshaft to the valve and
ignition system on an internal combustion engine, typically with a 2:1 speed reduction.
 Ball and chain, phrase that can refer to either the actual restraint device that was used to
slow down prisoners, or a derogatory description of a person's significant other
 Bicycle lock (or "Bicycle Chain"), lockable chain
 Security chain, chain with square edges to prevent cutting with bolt-cutters.
 High-tensile chain (or "Transport chain"), chain with a high tensile strength used for
towing or securing loads.
 Leg iron chains (Fetters), an alternative to handcuffs
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 Chain link fencing, fencing that utilizes vertical wires that are bent in a zig zag fashion
and linked to each other
 Chain of office, collar or heavy gold chain worn as insignia of office or a mark of fealty
in medieval Europe and the United Kingdom
 Chain weapon, a medieval weapon made of one or more weights attached to a handle
with a chain
 Omega chain, a pseudo-chain where the 'links' are mounted on a backing rather than
being interlinked
 Pull switch, an electrical switch operated by a chain
 Flat chain, form of chain used chiefly in agricultural machinery.
Chain Construction:
Chains have a surprising number of parts. The roller turns freely on the bushing, which is
attached on each end to the inner plate. A pin passes through the bushing, and is attached at each
end to the outer plate. Bicycle chains omit the bushing, instead using the circular ridge formed
around the pin hole of the inner plate.
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Chain Dimensions:
Chain types are identified by number; ie. a number 40 chain. The rightmost digit is 0 for chain of
the standard dimensions; 1 for lightweight chain; and 5 for rollerless bushing chain. The digits to
the left indicate the pitch of the chain in eighths of an inch. For example, a number 40 chain
would have a pitch of four-eighths of an inch, or 1/2", and would be of the standard dimensions
in width, roller diameter, etc.
The roller diameter is "nearest binary fraction" (32nd of an inch) to 5/8ths of the pitch; pin
diameter is half of roller diameter. The width of the chain, for "standard" (0 series) chain, is the
nearest binary fraction to 5/8ths of the pitch; for narrow chains (1 series) width is 41% of the
pitch. Sprocket thickness is approximately 85-90% of the roller width.
Plate thickness is 1/8th of the pitch, except "extra-heavy" chain, which is designated by the suffix
H, and is 1/32" thicker.
Page 68
ANSI Standard Chain Dimensions
Chain Roller Roller Sprocket Working

Pitch
No. Diameter Width thickness Load
25 1/4" 0.130" 1/8" 0.110" 140 lbs
35 3/8" 0.200" 3/16" 0.168" 480 lbs
40 1/2" 5/16" 5/16" 0.284" 810 lbs
41 1/2" 0.306" 1/4" 0.227" 500 lbs
50 5/8" 0.400" 3/8" 0.343" 1400 lbs
60 3/4" 15/32" 1/2" 0.459" 1950 lbs
80 1" 5/8" 5/8" 0.575" 3300 lbs
Bicycle and Motorcycle Chain Dimensions
Roller Roller Sprocket

Chain No. Pitch
Diameter Width thickness
Bicycle, with Derailleur 1/2" 5/16" 1/8" 0.110"
Bicycle, without
1/2" 5/16" 3/32" 0.084"
Derailleur
420 1/2" 5/16" 1/4" 0.227"
425 1/2" 5/16" 5/16" 0.284"
428 1/2" 0.335" 5/16" 0.284"
520 5/8" 0.400" 1/4" 0.227"
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525 5/8" 0.400" 5/16" 0.284"
530 5/8" 0.400" 3/8" 0.343"
630 3/4" 15/32" 3/8" 0.343"
Selecting a Chain
Two factors determine the selection of a chain; the working load and the rpm of the smaller
sprocket. The working load sets a lower limit on pitch, and the speed sets an upper limit.
Maximum Pitch = (900 ÷ rpm ) 2/3
The smaller the pitch, the less noise, wears, and mechanical losses will be experienced.
SPROCKET:
A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, cogs, or even sprockets[ that mesh
with a chain, track or other perforated or indented material. The name 'sprocket' applies generally
to any wheel upon which are radial projections that engage a chain passing over it. It is
distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never meshed together directly, and differs from a
pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys are smooth.
Sprockets are used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, and other machinery either to
transmit rotary motion between two shafts where gears are unsuitable or to impart linear motion
to a track, tape etc. Perhaps the commonest form of sprocket is found in the bicycle, in which the
pedal shaft carries a large sprocket-wheel which drives a chain which in turn drives a small
sprocket on the axle of the rear wheel. Early automobiles were also largely driven by sprocket
and chain mechanism, a practice largely copied from bicycles.
Page 70
Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of efficiency being claimed for each by its
originator. Sprockets typically do not have a flange. Some sprockets used with timing belts have
flanges to keep the timing belt centered. Sprockets and chains are also used for power
transmission from one shaft to another where slippage is not admissible, sprocket chains being
used instead of belts or ropes and sprocket-wheels instead of pulleys. They can be run at high
speed and some forms of chain are so constructed as to be noiseless even at high speed.
Transportation
In the case of bicycle chains, it is possible to modify the overall gear ratio of the chain drive by
varying the diameter (and therefore, the tooth count) of the sprockets on each side of the chain.
This is the basis of derailleur gears. A 10-speed bicycle, by providing two different-sized driving
sprockets and five different-sized driven sprockets, allows up to ten different gear ratios. The
resulting lower gear ratios make the bike easier to pedal up hills while the higher gear ratios
make the bike faster to pedal on flat roads. In a similar way, manually changing the sprockets on
a motorcycle can change the characteristics of acceleration and top speed by modifying the final
drive gear ratio.
In the case of vehicles with caterpillar tracks the engine-driven toothed-wheel transmitting
motion to the tracks is known as the drive sprocket and may be positioned at the front or back of
the vehicle, or in some cases, both. There may also be a third sprocket, elevated, driving the
track.
Film and paper:
Page 71
Moving picture mechanism from 1914. The sprocket wheels a, b, and c engage and transport the
film. a and b move with uniform velocity and c indexes each frame of the film into place for
projection.
Sprockets are used in the film transport mechanisms of movie projectors and movie cameras. In
this case, the sprocket wheels engage film perforations in the film stock. Sprocket feed was also
used for punched tape and is used for paper feed to some computer printers.
A sprocket is a toothed wheel upon which a chain rides. Contrary to popular opinion, a sprocket
is not a gear.
Page 72
Sprockets:
There are four types of sprocket;
 Type A: Plain Plate sprockets

 Type B: Hub on one side
 Type C: Hub on both sides
 Type D: Detachable hub
Sprockets should be as large as possible given the application. The larger a sprocket is, the less
the working load for a given amount of transmitted power, allowing the use of a smaller-pitch
chain. However, chain speeds should be kept under 1200 feet per minute.
The dimensions of a sprocket can be calculated as follows, where P is the pitch of the chain, and
N is the number of teeth on the sprocket;
Pitch Diameter = P ÷ sin (180° ÷ N)
Page 73
Outside Diameter = P × (0.6 + cot ( 180° ÷ N) )
Sprocket thickness = 0.93 × Roller Width - 0.006"
Proceedure for Laying Out a Sprocket
The first thing you need to know to lay out a sprocket is the dimensions of the chain which is to
run upon it, specifically the pitch, roller diameter, and the roller width of the chain. The second
thing you need to know is the number of teeth in the sprocket, which will depend entirely on
your application. From these numbers, the outside diameter and thickness of the required blank
can be calculated.
You'll also need to know the angle between teeth - this is simply the 360° divided by the number
of teeth.
1. Start by drawing
a three radial lines
from the center of
the blank to the
edge, separated by
an angle equal to
the angle between
teeth.
2. Draw lines
parallel to these
lines, at a distance
equal to the pitch
of the chain.
3. A roller will be
located at each
Page 74
intersection of the
parallel lines and
the pitch circle.
Draw a circle equal
to the roller
diameter of the
chain.
4. Draw lines
between the roller
centers.
5. Draw circles
around the roller
centers, that pass
through the
intersection of the
other roller and the
line between
centers.
6. The tooth profile
is as shown.
The sprocket teeth are usually truncated one chain pitch above the bottom of the seat; this is not
shown here. Note that this shape is not the only one that will work - bicycles in particular use
various tooth shapes for different circumstances.
Page 75
Application:
Sprockets should be accurately aligned in a common vertical plane, with their axes parallel.
Chain should be kept clean and well lubricated with a thin, light-bodied oil that will penetrate the
small clearances between pins and bushings.
Center distance should not be less than 1.5 times the diameter of the larger sprocket, nor less
than 30 times the chain pitch, and should not exceed 60 times the chain pitch. Center distance
should be adjustable - one chain pitch is sufficient - and failing this an idler sprocket should be
used to adjust tension. A little slack is desirable, preferably on the bottom side of the drive.
The chain should wrap at least 120° around the drive sprocket, which requires a ratio of no more
than 3.5 to 1; for greater ratios, an idler sprocket may be required to increase wrap angle.
FUTURE STUDY:
The project “regenerative braking system” has been successfully designed and tested. It
has been developed by integrating features of all the hardware components used. Presence of
every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of
the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s and sensors and with the help of growing
technology the project has been successfully implemented.
Page 76
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Regenerative Braking System

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Regenerative Braking System

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REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

Introduction to the project 08

REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

A brake is a machine element and its principle object is to absorb energy during deceleration. In

Braking is not total loss:

Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicle’s kineticenergy into heat. In energy

WORKING OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

MOTOR1 VEHICLE BRAKES

MOTOR 1: To rotate engine wheel.

MOTOR 2: Electrical power generator.

Working of the regenerative braking system is completely difference from the

SCOPE OF THE PAPER:

Regenerative braking just as waste recycling conserves natural resources by reusing

Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

 Variable speed and torque.

 In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-

L293D DRIVER CIRCUIT:

Pin No Function Name

1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2

2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1

3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1

4 Ground (0V) Ground

5 Ground (0V) Ground

6 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 2

7 Input 2 for Motor 1 Input 2

8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Vcc 2

9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4

10 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 3

11 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 3

12 Ground (0V) Ground

13 Ground (0V) Ground

14 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 4

15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4

16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V) Vcc 1

 Material used for fabrication

(2) Resistance element

(4) Protective means.

A=Area per plate in square cm.

D=Distance between two plates in cm

LED (Light Emitting Diodes):

LM7812 AND LM7805:

• Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%

• Internal thermal overload protection

• Internal Short-Circuit Limited

• Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V,

12V, 15V, 18V, 24V

• Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263

• Direct Replacement for LM78XX

The LM78XX is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263 Packages

• Post regulator for switching DC/DC converter

• Bias supply for analog circuits

12 volt lead acid batteries:

12v Battery Construction:

Lead Acid Batter Discharge Cycle

Lead Acid Battery Recharge Cycle:

Categories and types of batteries

List of battery types:

 Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to

Battery cell types:

Line art drawing of a dry cell:

Battery cell performance:

Capacity and discharging

A device to check battery voltage