Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Associate Editors
Christopher S. Cooper, MD, FAAP, Alexander Gomelsky, MD
FACS B.E. Trichel Professor and Chairman
Professor and Vice Chairman of Urology Department of Urology
Department of Urology Louisiana State University
University of Iowa; Health Shreveport
Senior Associate Dean of Medical Shreveport, Louisiana
Education Robert M. Sweet, MD, FACS
University of Iowa Carver College Professor, Department of Urology
of Medicine and Surgery (Joint)
Iowa City, Iowa Adjunct Professor, Bioengineering
Kirsten L. Greene, MD, MAS, FACS Chief, Division of Healthcare
Professor and Chair Simulation Science
Department of Urology University of Washington
University of Virginia Seattle, Washington
Charlottesville, Virginia
Elsevier
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v
Contributors
xi
xii CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS OF CAMPBELL-WALSH-WEIN,
12TH EDITION
Sammy E. Elsamra, Erik P. Castle, Christopher E. Wolter, Michael
E. Woods, Jay T. Bishoff, Ardeshir R. Rastinehad, Bruce R. Gilbert,
Pat F. Fulgham, Michael A. Gorin, and Steven P. Rowe
PATIENT HISTORY
Chief Complaint (CC)
The CC is the reason why a patient is seeking urologic care and is
the focus of the visit.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
4
LESS THAN ABOUT HALF MORE THAN ALMOST YOUR
1. Incomplete Emptying
Over the past month, how 0 1 2 3 4 5
often have you had a
sensation of not emptying
your bladder completely
after you finished urinating?
2. Frequency
Over the past month, how 0 1 2 3 4 5
often have you had to
urinate again less than
2 hours after you finished
urinating?
3. Intermittency
Over the past month, how 0 1 2 3 4 5
often have you found you
stopped and started again
several times when you
urinated?
4. Urgency
Over the past month, how 0 1 2 3 4 5
often have you found it diffi-
cult to postpone urination?
5. Weak Stream
Over the past month, how 0 1 2 3 4 5
6. Straining
Over the past month, how 0 1 2 3 4 5
often have you had to push
or strain to begin urination?
NONE 1 TIME 2 TIMES 3 TIMES 4 TIMES 5 TIMES
7. Nocturia
Over the past month, how 0 1 2 3 4 5
many times did you most
typically get up to urinate
from the time you went to
bed at night until the time
you got up in the morning?
5
Continued
Table 1.1 International Prostate Symptom Score—cont’d
6
LESS THAN ABOUT HALF MORE THAN ALMOST YOUR
Performance Status
Determine the functional ability of patient as a benchmark for his
or her tolerance for undergoing challenging or invasive treatments.
Assess a patient’s ability to perform activities of daily living (ADLs),
dressing, eating, toileting, hygiene, preparing meals, shopping,
maintaining a house, and interactions with family and community.
Grading performance status can be completed using the Eastern
Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) score or Karnofsky perfor-
mance status.
Medications
Obtain full medication history including urologic medications and
anticoagulants. Also consider medications with urologic side ef-
fects (Table 1.2).
Social History
Review where the patient lives, who lives at home with patient, and
if there are family/friends in the area. Also obtain occupational
history to give insight on socioeconomic status and possible in-
dustrial exposures. Review sexual history in a non-accusatory
manner such as “Do you partake in sexual relations with men,
women, or both? A single partner or multiple?” Obtain drug use
history including tobacco, alcohol, illicit drug use. This is impor-
tant for considering withdrawal or difficulty coping during possi-
ble procedures/hospitalizations.
Family History
Ask about urologic conditions/diseases/cancers as well as bleeding
disorders, reactions to anesthesia and significant non-urologic
conditions/disease/cancers.
Review of Systems
Comprehensive system-based checklist related to other symptoms
that may or may not be included in HPI or related to CC.
8 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Vital Signs
Obtain temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate,
and pain rating.
General Appearance
Note level of pain or distress, nutritional status, appearance and
self-care, frailty, mobility. Look for stigmata associated with cer-
tain disease states.
Kidneys
The kidneys are located in the retroperitoneum and surrounded by
the psoas and oblique muscles, peritoneum, and diaphragm. For
adults, place the nonexamining hand posteriorly at the costoverte-
bral angle and palpate the kidney with the examining hand through
the anterior abdominal wall (Fig. 1.1). Kidneys are typically difficult
to palpate and not visible on examination (unless large mass or very
thin patient). Assess pain at kidney via percussion by contacting the
patient with the closed hand of the examiner at the CVA. Be gentle;
a simple tap should elicit a positive sign if present.
10 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
Bladder
To examine the bladder, palpate and percuss starting at level of pubic
symphysis and ascend toward umbilicus to determine the level of
distension. The bladder is palpable when it distends to level above the
pubis (,150 cc). The bladder may be visualized when distended at
,500 cc in thin patients. Additionally, A bimanual exam may be
performed to assess mobility of the bladder as well as cancer staging.
Penis
Inspect the skin for hair distribution, lesions, presence/absence of
foreskin (in adults, retract foreskin to evaluate glans), and Tanner
stage. Evaluate the urethral meatus (location, stenosis, presence of
urethral discharge). Palpate for any subcutaneous plaques or curva-
ture. Remember to reduce the foreskin at the end of the examination.
FIG. 1.2 Examination of the inguinal canal. (From Swartz MH. Textbook of
physical diagnosis. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1989:376.)
the index finger over testis and invaginating the scrotum up to-
ward external ring (Fig. 1.2).
LABORATORY TESTS
Urinalysis
The urinalysis (UA) is a fundamental test performed on patients
presenting with urinary symptoms. For collection, adults should
clean the urethral meatus and surrounding area thoroughly and
collect a midstream voided urine sample. Catheterized specimens
are preferred for infants and neonates.
UA Evaluation
The evaluation of the UA involves gross examination (Table 1.3),
dipstick chemical analysis, and microscopic analysis.
Specific Gravity and Osmolality. Related to patient’s hydration or
amount of material dissolved in the urine or renal concentrating
ability.
• Normal specific gravity 1.001–1.035
• ,1.008 5 dilute, .1.020 5 concentrated
• Normal osmolality 50–1200 mOsm/L
pH. Urinary pH ranges from 4.5–8. Typically reflects serum pH.
• Average urinary pH 5 5.5–6.5
• Acidotic urinary pH 5 4.5–5.5
• Alkalotic urinary pH 5 6.5–8
CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient 13
Table 1.4 G
lomerular Disorders in Patients With Glomerular
Hematuria
DISORDER PATIENTS
Urine Cytology
Ordered when urologic malignancy is suspected. Do not order as
a screening tool or during initial workup for gross/microscopic
hematuria. This test is highly specific for high-grade urothelial cell
carcinoma (UCC).
SERUM STUDIES
Creatinine and Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
Obtained to evaluate baseline or current renal function and can aid
in investigating renal compromise in the context of urinary tract
obstruction.
Endocrinologic Studies
Total testosterone, free testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH),
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin (PRL), and thyrox-
ine T4 may be ordered in the workup of the male patient with
suspected hypogonadism.
16 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
Parathyroid Hormone
Ordered for patients with hypercalcemia and calcium-based neph-
rolithiasis.
Cystourethroscopy
This procedure allows for direct visualization and evaluation of the
lower urinary tract using a flexible cystoscope.
FIG. 1.3 KUB demonstrating residual stone fragments (arrows) adjacent to a right
ureteral stent 1 week after right extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy.
Right #2
Right
A B
FIG. 1.4 (A) Right retrograde pyelogram performed using an 8-Fr cone-tipped
ureteral catheter and dilute contrast material. The ureter and intrarenal collecting
system are normal. (B) Left retrograde pyelogram using an 8-Fr cone-tipped
ureteral catheter. A filling defect in the left distal ureter (arrow) is a low-grade
transitional cell carcinoma. The ureter demonstrates dilation, elongation, and
tortuosity, the hallmarks of chronic obstruction.
18 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
A B
Postdrain
C
FIG. 1.5 Loopogram in a patient with epispadius/exstrophy and ileal conduit
urinary diversion. (A) Plain film prior to contrast administration. (B) After contrast
administration via a catheter placed in the ileal conduit, free reflux of both ure-
terointestinal anastomoses is demonstrated. (C) A postdrain radiograph demon-
strates persistent dilation of the proximal loop indicating mechanical obstruction
of the conduit (arrows).
CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient 19
Balloon
Bladder
Prostatic
Membranous
FIG. 1.6 Normal retrograde urethrogram demonstrating (A) the balloon tech-
nique for retrograde urethrography, (B) Brodney clamp (arrowhead) technique;
note the bulbar urethral stricture (arrow), and (C) normal structures of the male
urethra.
20 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
A B
FIG. 1.7 A voiding cystourethrogram performed for the evaluation of recurrent
urinary tract infection in this female patient. (A) An oblique film during voiding
demonstrates thickening of the midureteral profile (arrows). (B) After interruption
of voiding, a ureteral diverticulum is clearly visible extending posteriorly and to
the left of the midline (arrows).
Diuretic Scintigraphy
A renal scan using 99m Tc-MAG3 can provide information regard-
ing differential renal function and obstruction. The patient should
be well hydrated the day of the study.
Phamacokinetics. Peak cortical uptake of the 99m Tc-MAG3 radio-
tracer is typically observed 3 to 5 minutes after intravenous
injection, shortly followed by the renal collecting system. By
10 to 15 minutes, the bladder can be visualized as the radiotracer
is excreted in the urine.
Phases of Dynamic Renal Imaging. Dynamic renal imaging is
performed in the perfusion and functional phases (Fig. 1.9).
• Perfusion phase – Renal plasma blood flow (RPF) to each indi-
vidual renal unit is measured and compared with flow within the
aorta. A curve with a slow rise to peak suggests poor flow to the
kidney and likely underlying poor renal function.
• Functional phase – A comparison of the individual renal curves
allows for the determination of relative RPF or renal function.
A healthy kidney will spontaneously clear the radiotracer within
15 minutes of initial injection. An obstructed renal unit will
show retention of radiotracer in the collecting. Some patients
22 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
B
FIG. 1.8 (A) Technetium 99m -mercaptoacetyltriglycine (99m Tc-MAG3) perfusion images
demonstrate normal, prompt, symmetric blood flow to both kidneys. (B) Perfusion
time-activity curves demonstrating essentially symmetric flow to both kidneys. Note
the rising curve typical of 99m Tc-MAG3 flow studies. Dynamic function images dem-
onstrate good uptake of tracer by both kidneys and prompt visualization of the
collecting systems. This renogram demonstrates prompt peaking of activity in both
kidneys. The downslope represents prompt drainage of activity from the kidneys.
Printout of quantitative data shows the differential renal function to be 47% on the
left, 53% on the right. The normal half-life for drainage is less than 20 minutes when
99m
Tc-MAG3 is used. The half-life is 5 minutes on the left and 7 minutes on the right,
consistent with both kidneys being unobstructed.
CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient 23
A
FIG. 1.10 99m Tc-MAG3 renogram of a patient with right-sided renal obstruction.
(A) In the 2-second–per–frame flow images at the top of the panel, the left
kidney appears much better perfused than the right kidney. This is borne out in
the time-activity curve in the upper half of the panel in which the teal curve
representing the left kidney has a significantly sharper upstroke relative to the
purple curve of the right kidney. The white curve of the aorta is irregular and
unreliable because of the abnormal course of the aorta caused by the patient’s
scoliosis. In the bottom half of the panel, the 2-minute–per–frame images dem-
onstrate normal transit of radiotracer through the left kidney parenchyma and
into the collecting system, with drainage to the bladder. This is shown by the teal
curve of the left kidney on the time-activity curve. The right kidney, which ap-
pears smaller and has a central photopenic area corresponding to a dilated renal
pelvis, demonstrates increasing uptake throughout the study with very slow
transit into the collecting system. This is shown by the purple curve of the right
kidney in the time-activity curve. A markedly abnormal split function is present,
measuring 79% on the left and 21% on the right (red rectangle).
CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient 25
FIG. 1.10, cont’d (B) Given the obstructive pattern of the right kidney, 40 mg of
intravenous furosemide was administered. The 1-minute–per–frame images in
the upper portion of the panel demonstrate no significant clearing of radiotracer
from the left renal collecting system after furosemide administration. This is also
seen in the time-activity curve, where the teal curve representing the left kidney
is nearly horizontal. The lack of response to furosemide is diagnostic of an ob-
structed collecting system.
Urologic Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is a versatile and relatively inexpensive imaging
modality that utilizes sound waves (Fig. 1.11) to provide real-time
evaluation of urologic organs and structures without the need for
ionizing radiation.
Renal Ultrasonography. This study is completed using a curved or
linear transducer. In adults, the cortex is hypoechoic with respect
to the liver (Fig. 1.12). The central band of echoes in the kidney is
a hyperechoic area that contains the renal hilar adipose tissue,
blood vessels, and collecting system. Renal ultrasonography can be
challenging in the context of patient obesity, presence of
intestinal gas, or other anatomic abnormalities. Renal ultrasonog-
raphy has poor sensitivity for renal masses ,2 cm.
26 CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient
Transducer/
receiver
Pulse
generator
Object
Master
clock Monitor
Time-gain Scan
Amplifier
compensation converter
FIG. 1.11 In this simplified schematic diagram of ultrasound imaging, the ultra-
sound wave is produced by a pulse generator controlled by a master clock. The
reflected waves received by the transducer are analyzed for amplitude and transit
time within the body. The scan converter produces the familiar picture seen on
the monitor. The actual image is a series of vertical lines that are continuously
refreshed to produce the familiar real-time, gray-scale image.
RT kidney
long
Liver
C
P
FIG. 1.12 Midsagittal plane of the kidney. Note the relative hypoechogenicity of
the renal pyramids (P) compared with the cortex (C). The central band of echoes
(B) is hyperechoic compared with the cortex. The midsagittal plane will have the
greatest length measurement pole to pole. A perfectly sagittal plane will result in
a horizontal long axis of the kidney.
CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient 27
BL BL
U U
A B
FIG. 1.13 (A) Transverse view of the bladder (BL) in this female patient demon-
strates the uterus (U). (B) Sagittal view of the bladder shows the uterus posterior
to the bladder.
phallus reveals the two corpora cavernosa dorsally and the urethra
ventrally (Fig. 1.15). The sagittal view of the phallus demonstrates
the corpora cavernosa with a hyperechoic, double linear structure
representing the cavernosal artery. The corpus spongiosum is
isoechoic to slightly hypoechoic and contains the coapted urethra.
Transperineal/Translabial Ultrasound. This study allows for visual-
ization of the female bladder, urethra (urethral diverticula, tumors,
or foreign bodies), and pelvic floor (Fig. 1.16). This technique can
also be used to assess cases of stress urinary incontinence and pelvic
organ prolapse in real time and evaluate complications of urethral
slings and pelvic reconstruction (sling failure, erosion, de novo void-
ing dysfunction).
Transrectal Ultrasonography of the Prostate (TRUS). Indications
for this study include measurement of prostate volume, abnormal
DRE or elevated PSA, ultrasound-guided prostate biopsy, evalua-
tion of cysts, prostatitis, prostate abscess, congenital abnormality,
lower urinary tract symptoms, pelvic pain, hematospermia, or
CHAPTER 1 Evaluation of the Urologic Patient 29
Ca++
Rt CC Lt CC
CS
Proximal
Ca++
CC Distal
CS
B
FIG. 1.15 (A) In the transverse plane scanning from the dorsal surface of the
midshaft of the penis, the corpora cavernosa (CC) are paired structures seen
dorsally, whereas the corpus spongiosum (CS) is seen ventrally in the midline.
A calcification (Ca11) is seen between the two CC with posterior shadowing.
(B) In the parasagittal plane, the CC is dorsal with the relatively hypoechoic
CS seen ventrally. Within the CC, the cavernosal artery is shown with a Ca11 in
the wall of the artery and posterior shadowing.
FIG. 1.16 Normal transperineal ultrasound of the female pelvis in the midsagittal
plane. The anterior compartment comprises the bladder (BL) and urethra, apical
compartment comprises the vagina and uterus (UT), posterior compartment is
the rectum. (Image courtesy Lewis Chan, MD.)
Mutta minä, minä tiesin… Tiesin kaiken tämän, kun hääpäivä tuli.
Luontoni oli aina noussut näitä tympäiseviä tapoja vastaan, mutta
etenkin tänä vaarallisena aikana, jolloin aistini pettivät minut niin
surkuteltavasti, oli minulle tärkeää saada estetyksi tämä synkkä
ilveily.
Mutta nämä hetket olivatkin viimeiset, mitkä meidän oli sallittu elää
yhdessä. Ihmisvihan hyökyaalto lähestyi meitä.
Se oli eräs kreikkalainen, joka kerran oli ollut ystäväni, mutta tuli
nyt ilmiantajana ja rikoksellisena.
Seisoen kaikki kolme auki jääneen oven edessä, edes hyvää iltaa
toivottamatta, petturi otti ensimäisenä sananvuoron. Minua osoittaen
hän sanoi romaniankielellä:
*****
KIRA KIRALINA
Niin, elämä oli ihanaa, paitsi niinä päivinä, jolloin isä tai hänen
poikansa tai molemmat yhdessä syöksähtivät sisään keskelle juhlaa,
pieksivät äitiä, iskivät nyrkeillään Kiraa ja taittoivat keppinsä minun
pääkallooni, sillä nyt otin minäkin osaa tanssiin. Kun puhuimme
sujuvasti turkinkieltä, nimittivät he molempia naisia patshura'ksi ja
minua kitshuk pezevengh'iksi [portto; pieni makrilli]. Nuo onnettomat
heittäytyivät kiduttajiensa jalkoihin, syleilivät heidän polviaan,
rukoillen, että he säästäisivät heidän kasvojaan.
»Isä!… Pelastautukaa!…»
*****
Näin kului vielä kaksi tai kolme vuotta, ainoat lapsuuteni vuodet,
joiden muisto on säilynyt mielessäni selvänä. Olin yksitoistavuotias,
ja Kira, josta en hetkeksikään tahtonut erota, oli viisitoista.
Aistihurma, joksi sen myöhemmin käsitin, sitoi minut häneen.
Seurasin häntä kaikkialle kuin koira, katselin salaa hänen
pukeutumistaan, suutelin hänen vaatteitaan, joissa viipyi hänen
ihonsa tuoksu. Ja tyttö-parka torjui minua luotaan heikosti ja
hellävaroen, pitäen minua viattomana eikä ollenkaan vaarallisena.
Minulla ei toden totta ollutkaan mitään selviä aikeita, en tietänyt, mitä
tahdoin. Minä riuduin kaipuusta ja hänen läheisyytensä huumasi
minua.