Crop Science

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New
m
Curriculu

Emma Gonye
Martha Ndiweni
Course Book
Andrew Tapiwa Kugedera For ZIMSEC Form 5 and 6
 in

Crop Science
Course book

Emmah Gonye

Martha Ndiweni

Andrew Tapiwa Kugedera

Contents

TOPIC 1 CYTOLOGY AND PLANT CLASSIFICATION.................................................................. 1

Unit 1 Plant classification and cell biology............................................................................................. 1

TOPIC 2 PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.................................................................. 19

Unit 2 Plant growth and development................................................................................................... 19
Unit 3 Flower and fruit development..................................................................................................... 34
Unit 4 Seed and seed germination......................................................................................................... 43
Unit 5 Plant-water relations..................................................................................................................... 50
Unit 6 Biological nitrogen fixation.......................................................................................................... 57
Unit 7 Bioenergetics................................................................................................................................. 60
Unit 8 Response of plants to environmental factors............................................................................ 70

TOPIC 3 SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION.................................................................... 74

Unit 9 Soil composition and characteristics.......................................................................................... 74
Unit 10 Plant nutrition.............................................................................................................................. 84
Unit 11 Soil organic matter...................................................................................................................... 88

TOPIC 4 PRINCIPLES OF CROP BREEDING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY......................................... 97

Unit 12 Genetics........................................................................................................................................ 97

TOPIC 5 PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION............................................................................. 125

Unit 13 Weeds, pests and diseases ....................................................................................................... 125

TOPIC 6 CROP PRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 151

Unit 14 Agronomic principles.................................................................................................................. 151

Unit 15 Cereal and legume crop production......................................................................................... 163
Unit 16 Principles and practices.............................................................................................................. 211

Examination l .................................................................................................................................. 225

Examination lI ................................................................................................................................. 229

Index .......................................................................................................................................................... 234

 TOPIC 1: CYTOLOGY AND PLANT CLASSIFICATION

Plant classification and cell

Unit

1
biology

identification and classification of plants and their speciality

Unit objectives embraces problems of evolution and plant geography.

At the end of this unit, you should be able: Classification of plants

•• classify plants. Classification of plants is very important to farmers and
•• draw a plant cell. learners. Most farmers fail to produce good yields due to
•• label parts of a plant cell. failure to identify suitable crops, hence classification of
•• explain functions of cell parts. plants helps farmers to understand the requirements and
•• identify cell organelles. life cycles of the crops they grow. Reasons for classification
•• outline functions of cell organelles. of crops include the following;
•• explain the relationship between organelles. •• It provides fairly accurate base of identifying
•• describe the process of mitosis. plants and easy communication throughout the
•• explain the significance of mitosis in crop production. world using scientific names.
•• describe the process of meiosis. •• Plant classification could provide satisfactory
•• explain the significance of meiosis in plant reproduction. knowledge of propagation of plants by farmers.
•• compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis. •• It makes summarisation of our knowledge of
plants possible hence saves time, one always
Introduction remembers all the characteristics of each plant
in a big group.
Classification of plants has been regarded as an important •• It may eventually be possible to construct the
issue which helps learners and farmers to understand how evolutionary history of the present flora based
plants in different classes are being managed. There is need on a broad knowledge of their taxonomy. Plant
for agriculturalists to understand plant classification because taxonomists do hope that it will be possible to
it helps farmers to know different values brought by different determine which plant characteristics are most
plants. It is vital for learners to be able to draw a plant cell reliable in showing pathways of evolution.
as it is seen under an electron microscope, this help learners •• By understanding the classes and families of
to have an idea about cell organelles and will help them to a particular plant of importance, it would be
understand bioenergetics. possible to find out other plants belonging to
similar classes or families and therefore plant
taxonomy allows for predictions.
Glossary of terms •• Helps farmers to know the growth habit and
climatic requirements of different crops.
Cytology – the study of the structure, function and life
•• Classification helps people to know the
history of cells. It also involves the study of small chambers
economic uses of their produce and the growing
or compartments that make up the plant.
season of different crops.
Taxonomy – the identification, classification and naming
of plants. A taxonomist is concerned with more than

1
A group of homogeneous population of plants with similar, 2. Classification based on uses of crops
sometimes identical genetic constitution. Members of
the same species can reproduce themselves. A species Crops are classified basing on their major agronomic use
has remained the fundamental unit of classification for although many crops have several uses. This classification
taxonomists. helps agronomists to advise farmers on which crops to grow
to meet their day to day uses. For example, a farmer who
Some common crops and their scientific names want to produce oil will basically grow oil crops and those
who want to major in horticulture will grow horticulture
There are a lot of crops which farmers need to know their
crops. Some different uses of crops are described below.
scientific names and this is very important for research and
communication across the world. Some of these crops are Oil seed crops
in Table 1.2 below. These are crops grown primarily for oil production. They
are mainly used for production of food and industrial oil
Table 1.3 Crops and their scientific names
processing. Seeds of these crops are rich in edible oil. They
Common name Genus Species are also used as lubricants and in industrial processing for
Maize Zea Mays example, soya beans, groundnuts, sunflower, castor beans,
maize and oil palm.
Cotton Gossypium Hirsutum
Root crops
Potato Solanum Tuberosum
These are crops with modified, swollen or underground
Groundnuts Arachis Hypogeae roots used as food. The organs are rich in carbohydrates
Sorghum and are used as staple food, livestock feed and or raw
Sorghum Bicolar
materials for industrial processing of products such as
Soyabean Glycine Max starch, alcohol to mention a few. These include such crops
Rice Oryza Sativa as carrot, radish, sweet potatoes cassava, yam and sugar
beet, their true roots are harvested for human food or
Dry beans Phaseolus Vulgaris livestock feed.
Sunflower Helianthus Annus
Tuber crops
Tobacco Nicotiana Tabacum These are crops grown for their underground tubers. A
tuber is not a true root but is a modified and thickened
Wheat Triticum Aestivum
underground stem for example Irish potato and the
Cassava Manihot Esculentum Jerusalem artichoke. These are important as they are a
food source. They are grown for their tubers which are
Broadbeans Vicia Faba
sometimes used as staple food.
Sweet potato Ipomoea Batatas
Sugar crops
Pigeon pea Cajanus Cajan These are crops primarily grown for production of sugar
Pearl millet Pennisetum Typhoides or other sweeteners. They are grown for their sweet juices
from which sucrose is extracted and refined for example,
Sugar cane Saccharum Officinarum syrup from sweet sorghum, sugar cane and sugar beet.
Bambara nut Voandzeia Subterranean Various forms of sugar are derived from various plant parts
such as stems, bulb, leaves, flower, fruits, seeds, sap and
Finger millet Eleusine Coracana resin.
Sugarbeet Beta Vulgaria
Fibre crops
Barley Hordeum Vulgare These are plants grown for their fibre for making textiles,
ropes, twines, bags, cotton and flax for example are used
Castor bean Ricinus Communis
for making linen from fibres contained in lint and stems
Cow pea Vigna Ainensis Or Unguiculata respectively. Fibre is extracted from bark, leaves and other
Field pea Pisum Arvanse organs including husks of coconut. Other examples are
sisal, jute, kenaf and broom corn.
Oats (white) Avena Sativa
Forage crops
Rape (oilseed) Brassica Napus
Are those crops grown for their vegetative matter to feed
Safflower Corthamus Tinctarius livestock, especially ruminants, for example, pastures,
hay crop, silage crop and a soiling crop. Animals consume
leaves, fruits, twigs or roots of these plants.

3
Some other crops which are tolerant to saline conditions
include tamarind, coconut and cashew.
Mesophytes
These are terrestrial plants which grow well in moderate
water availability conditions, that is, not too dry or too wet.
Most field crops are in this group and they include maize or
corn, wheat and groundnuts.
Xerophytes
These are plants which grow well in regions of poor water
conditions, they are drought tolerant. A good example
includes cacti, succulent crops, rapoko, sorghum and pearl
millet. Most of these crops are grown in region IV and V in
Zimbabwe.
Terrestrial plants
These are land based plants which are further divided into
mesophytes, halophytes and other groups. Most agricultural
crops are terrestrial plants.
Epiphytes
These are epiphytic plants that grow above ground on
another plant but are not parasitic. They get physical
support from host plants and other nourishments. These
plants belong to the pineapple, orchid and fern families.
Saprophytes
These are crops which grow on decaying matter and have
no green tissue. A good example is mushroom, a fungi.
Sciophytes
These are plants which grow in low intensity or shade.
These plants include mosses, ferns, black pepper, coffee,
hot pepper, gingers and many orchids can tolerate and want
shade.
Lithophytes
These plants adapted to grow on rocks or in rocky terrain
with little humus. Plants absorb nutrients from the
atmosphere, rain and decaying matter which accumulate on
rocks.
5. Classification according to morphology
Higher plants are classified according to monocots and
dicots. Monocotyledonous plants have one seed leaf
in the embryo and they include grasses and sedges.
Monocotyledonous plants store food in endosperm.
Monocotyledons plants have narrow shaped leaves with
parallel veins. Include crops in the family Gramineae such as
maize and sorghum. Have dense fibrous root system which
can penetrates to greater than 2m deep. The petiole is
replaced by a leaf sheath which is wrapped around the stem
in cereals and grasses.
Dicotyledonous have two leaf in the embryo and these
include legumes and other broadleaved plants.
Most dicotyledonous crops are in the family Fabaceae such
as soyabeans, field beans and groundnuts. They have broad
leaves with netted veins.
Dicotyledonous plants have a single main stem with
primary, secondary and many other branches, for example,
cotton and groundnuts. In dicotyledonous plants, there is
one main root (tap root) and lateral roots arise from a tap
root and fibrous roots also develops in which all roots are
similar, slender and fibre like. Tap roots tend to be sparse
and can be very deep. Flower parts are in two, four or five
units.
Activity 1.1
Field visit
1. Visit a garden or orchard, collect different plants found
in the site. Classify these plants according to scientific
name.
2. Collect different crops. Classify these crops according to
uses, habitat, morphology and life cycle.
Exercise 1.1
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is a subclass of habitat
classification?
A. Saprophyte B. Forage crops
C. Annual crops D. Ecological
2. Which of the following starts in the taxonomic
hierarchy?
A. Genus B. Family
C. Kingdom D. Species
3. Which statement is true?
A. maize is a hydrophytes crop.
B. xerophytes are water loving crops.
C. mushroom is a saprophytic crop.
D. hydrophytes grow well dry areas.
4. Soyabean is in which family?
A. fabaceae B. gramineae
C. malvaceae D. solanaceae
5. Dicotyledonous plants have the following except
___________.
A. netted veins B. two cotyledons
C. parallel veins D. bright-coloured flowers
6. Which of the following is not an oil seed crop?
A. maize B. okra
C. sunflower D. groundnut
7. In which family is cotton?
A. malvaceae B. fabaceae
C. gramineae D. solanaceae
5
8. Which order is correct for taxonomy?
A. k
 ingdom, phylum class, order, family, genus,
species
B. kingdom, animals, mammals, fish, bacteria
C. k
 ingdom, class, genus, species, family, order,
phylum
D. species, genus, family, order, class, phylum,
kingdom
9. What does classification mean?
A. Grouping similar organisms together.
B. Observing living organisms under a microscope.
C. R
 andomly grouping living organisms in order to
investigate their characteristics.
D. Creating a classroom display of the results of an
investigation.
10. What is the scientific name for wheat?
A. Triticum eastivum B. Tagetes munuta
C. Triticum sativum D. Hypogea arachis
Structured Questions
1. Describe the classification of crops according to
different agronomic uses, giving examples of the
crops. [10]
2. (a) E xplain why most agricultural crops are annuals.
[5]
(b) D
 ifferentiate between biennial and perennial
crops. [6]
3. Briefly describe different subclasses which fall under
habitat classification. [15]
4. Outline reasons for classification of crops in
agriculture. [8]
5. Using a table, write down the scientific names of the
following crops: maize, sunflower, wheat, groundnut,
mango, okra and coffee. [14]
6. Discuss why classification according to use is very
important to farmers. [10]
Essay Questions
1. Examine the importance of classifying crops
according to habitat and explain how this helps
farmers in natural region 4 and 5 of Zimbabwe. [20]
2. Classification according to habitat include
saprophytes, lithophytes, mesophytes and
xerophytes. Describe these subclasses giving
examples of crops in each subclass. [20]
3. Using examples, describe horticultural crops as a
subclass of classification according to use, giving
examples in various horticultural crops found in
Zimbabwe. [15]
4. As an agricultural extension officer, explain the
importance of growing annual and perennial crops.
[10]
6
Practical Questions
1. (a) Collect 10 samples of different crops from a
garden or field. Classify them according to all
classes. [10]
(b) Give a brief description of each crop. [10]
2. (a) Give scientific names of two crops which are
found in the following subclasses of habitat
classification: hydrophytes, xerophytes,
mesophytes, halophytes and lithophytes. [10]
(b) D escribe the importance of growing xerophytes
plants in natural region 4 and 5. [10]
3. (a) Describe taxonomic hierarchy and explain the
meaning of family giving examples. [10]
(b) U sing the table below, collect three samples of
crops in each family and give scientific names of
each collected plant. [30]
Family Example of crop
Solanaceae
Gramineae (Poaceae)
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Musaceae
Polygonaceae
Theaceae
Fabaceae
(Leguminoseae)
Convolvulaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Malvaceae
Cell structure
A plant cell is enclosed by cellulose cell wall followed by cell
membrane. Cell membrane is commonly known as plasma
membrane which is partially permeable, allowing nutrients
to move in and waste products to leave out.
Plant cell has many cell organelles which are separated by
specialised membranes. The main organelle is the nucleus
which controls the activity of the cell.
The nucleus, contains the genetic information necessary
for cell growth and reproduction. Each plant cell contains
one nucleus and all other organelles are contained in the
cytoplasm.
These organelles include mitochondria, lysosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum (smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER) and Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER))and the Golgi
apparatus, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole. Cytosol is
the space between the organelles in the cytoplasm. Fig 1.1
shows a typical plant cell and its contents.
It is the site of respiration. It contains all enzymes and lipids.
coenzymes which are responsible for reactions in Krebs
cycle or citric acid cycle. Mitochondrion contain their own Outer
DNA and RNA for reproducing themselves. This is the site Fluid-filled Membrane
Space Chloroplast
for oxidative phosphorylation which produces ATP energy.
Inner Ribosomes
It consists of a matrix with few ribosomes (70S), a Membrane
circular DNA molecule and phosphate granules. In
aerobic respiration, cristae are the sites for oxidative Stroma
phosphorylation and electron transport chain.

Mitochondrial ATP depends on oxygen supply, so more

actively mitochondrion requires more oxygen supply to
stimulate oxidative phosphorylation to produce more ATP.
They convert glucose to ATP energy hence they are called
the power house of the cell.
Thylakoids
matrix

Lipid Starch Grain

outer Stroma Lamellae Globule
Granum
membrane

Figure 1.3 Chloroplast

inner
Thylakoids are suspended in the stroma and is the site
membrane
of chlorophyll which is responsible for light reaction.
Thylakoids are arranging in stacks called grana, each
granum contains 10-20 thylakoids. Thylakoids are in
crista two types namely granal and stoma thylakoids. Granal
thylakoids contains only photosystem 11 proteins whereas
Figure 1.2 Mitochondria stoma thylakoids contain photosystem 1 and ATP synthase
Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix. The matrix contains a lot of protein complexes in stroma.
enzymes responsible for chemical reaction of Krebs cycle.
Functions of chloroplasts
The diagram of mitochondria is shown in Fig 1.2 for easy
understanding of inner folded membrane and matrix. •• Participate in the immune system of the plant,
that is, pathogen defence.
10. Chloroplast •• Synthesis of sugars during photosynthesis for
These are most abundant and important type of plastids. plants.
They play an important role in synthesis of carbohydrates, •• Site of light reaction which occurs in thylakoids.
specifically glucose through photosynthesis. Captures light •• Synthesis of ATP energy.
directly in the light reaction to synthesise ATP and NADPH, •• Production of NADPH2 molecules and oxygen as
which are used to reduce carbon dioxide and combine a result of photolysis of water.
carbon molecules with water to form carbohydrates during •• Site of Calvin cycle (dark reaction) which occurs
dark reaction in the chloroplast. in the stroma.

Chloroplasts found in higher plants are circular, biconvex

or plano-convex with a diameter ranging from 3-10 µm.
Chloroplast is enclosed by double cell membrane and
contains internal interconnected membranes known as
thylakoids, which is embedded protein rich matrix called
stroma.
All chloroplasts found in plant cell contains chlorophyll.
Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma. Stroma contains a
number of substances which are DNA, which is responsible
for coding chloroplastidic proteins; contain ribosomes (70S)
and plastoglobuli (20-220 µm in diameter) which are rich in
11. Microtubules
These are hollow tubes found in the nucleus, cytoplasm
and cell wall. Nucleus microtubules are responsible for
the formation of spindle fibres responsible for directing
chromosomes to the poles and determine orientation of
cellulose microfibrils.
They are made up of proteins called tubulin which is used
to build α and β subunits which have a diameter of 5-10 µm.
microtubule has a diameter of 24-25µm.

9
 Activity 1.2
Drawing plant cell and cell organelles
1. Use bio-viewers and light microscope with slides to view
and draw the structure of the following cell organelles:
(a) Mitochondria,
(b) Chloroplast,
(c) ER (RER and SER),
(d) Golgi bodies.
2. Use bio-viewers and draw a well labelled plant cell.
Exercise 1.2
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following organelles contains larger
ribosomes?
A. cytoplasm B. chloroplast
C. mitochondria D. nucleus
2. Where exactly does the Krebs cycle occur in the cell?
A. matrix B. mitochondria
C. stroma D. cristae
3. Ribosomes are responsible for _________.
A. lipid synthesis B. fat oxidation
C. protein synthesis D. translation
4. Which of the following is correct about chloroplast?
A. They are the largest cell organelles.
B. They are responsible for respiration.
C. Site of Krebs cycle.
D. Site of Calvin cycle.
5. Nucleus contains the following except __________.
A. chromatin B. nucleoplasm
C. DNA D. water
6. Cell wall is made up of ______.
A. glucose B. starch
C. cellulose D. lignin
7. Jelly like fluid found in the cell is called ______.
A. cell sap B. vacuole
C. cytoplasm D. nucleoplasm
8. Checks, makes necessary changes, packages and
secretes proteins.
A. Golgi bodies B. Endoplasmic reticulum
C. Mitochondria D. Cell wall
9. ___________ produces energy to fuel the cell’s
activities.
A. Nucleus B. Golgi bodies
C. Mitochondria D. Cytoplasm
10. Vacuole is responsible for the following
except___________.
A. storage of food B. maintaining cell turgidity
C. acting as lysosomes D. providing energy
10
Structured Questions
1. Draw a well labelled plant cell. [10]
2. Describe the structure and functions of the following
cell parts:
(a) Cell wall, [5]
(b) Cell membrane, [5]
(c) Nucleus, [5]
(d) Vacuole. [5]
3. Explain the functions of the following cell organelles:
(a) Mitochondria, [5]
(b) Golgi apparatus, [5]
(c) Chloroplast. [5]
4. Describe the significance of the inner folded
membrane of the mitochondria. [4]
5. Explain why p  hospholipids are very important in the
cell membrane. [4]
6. Identify any two important reactions which occur in
the cytoplasm and explain their importance to the
plant. [5]
7. Outline the relationship between ribosomes and the
following organelles:
(a) Mitochondria,
(b) Cytoplasm,
(c) Chloroplast. [6]
8. With the aid of a diagram, explain the structure and
functions of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). [8]
Essay Questions
1. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the
chloroplast. [15]
2. Examine the functions of the mitochondria,
highlighting major reactions which take place in the
mitochondria. [10]
3. Examine different types of ribosomes found in plant
cell and explain their importance. [10]
4. “Nucleus is the powerhouse of the cell.” Explain the
statement. [6]
5. Describe the major reasons why the endoplasmic
reticulum is an important organelle of the cell. [6]
6. Describe the structure and functions of the vacuole,
explaining how they help plants to survive during low
rainfall and in the presence of substances such as
pesticides. [15]
Cell division
1. Mitosis cycle
Mitosis is the division of cell into two daughter nuclei that
are genetically identical to their parents and one another.
Two daughter cells are genetically identical and resembles
their parents genotypically. Mitosis is a cell division which
results in increase in cell numbers.
5. Anaphase
Figure 1.8 Anaphase stage
During this stage, sister chromatids separate and each
move to opposite poles of the cell. The centromere divides
to facilitate separation of chromosome into two chromatids.
Sister chromatids are now called daughter chromosomes.
Chromatids move to the poles and maintain a V-shaped
structure because chromatids trail the centromere.
6. Telophase
Figure 1.9 Telophase stage
Daughter chromosomes lengthen and uncoil to form
chromatin. Spindle fibres disintegrates. Nucleoli and nuclear
membrane reforms. Cytoplasm is divided into two by the
newly formed cell plate. This is called cytokinesis. Two
daughters cells which are identical are formed.
Significance of mitosis
(a) T
 he chromosomes and genes in daughter cells are
identical in number and nature to that of the parent. This
helps to maintain desirable characteristics of the plants.
(b) B
 ring an increase in number of cells in plants (cell
division), maintain growth and repair of tissue loss by
injury (regeneration).
(c) Mitosis brings about asexual reproduction.
(d) M
 itosis is a mechanism to maintain the constant
chromosomes number from one cell generation to
12
another in the body and to give rise to daughter cells
identical in structure and function to the parent.
(e) Ensure genetic stability in plants that is no variation
hence this has the capacity to maintain yield from crops.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the reduction division of the nucleus to form a
gametic number of chromosomes from zygotic number
of chromosomes. It takes place in anthers and ovaries in
plants.
It is also called gametogenic division because it reduces
diploid (2n) to haploid (n). It is characterised by DNA
synthesis in the pre-meiotic division.
It is divided into two meiotic divisions with the following
stages; prophase 1 and 2; metaphase 1 and 2; anaphase
1 and 2 and telophase 1 and 2. Prophase 1 is divided into
leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis.
1. Prophase 1
This is the longest stage of meiosis. Chromosomes shorten
and become visible as a single structure. Crossing over
of chromosomes occurs during this stage of meiosis.
Homologous chromosomes pair up during synapses. It is
divided into leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and
diakinesis.
(a) Leptotene
Leptotene
Figure 1.10 Leptotene
Chromosomes are visible as single threads although
chromosomes have replicated. This is not clearly seen even
under an electron microscope. Chromosomes appear as
shown in Figure 1.10.
(b) Zygotene
Homologous chromosomes become closely associated
(synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes (bivalents)
consisting of four chromatids (tetrads). Pairing takes place
during this stage and it occurs to all close association of
3. Anaphase 1 Meiosis II
1. Prophase II

Figure 1.17 Prophase II

The chromosomes appear contracted and chromatids

remain attached at the centromere. The centrioles form
and move toward the poles and the nuclear membrane
Figure 1.15 Anaphase stage dissolves. The nucleoli and the nuclear envelope disappear
and the chromatids, shorten and thicken.
Centromeres of homologous chromosomes moves to
each opposite poles of the cell. Each chromosome is still 2. Metaphase II
composed of two attached chromatids at the centromere.
Cytokinesis also begins in this stage. Chromosomes are still
attached to spindle fibres.

4. Telophase 1
Nucleus is reorganised at each pole of the cell. Daughter
nuclei are now haploid with each containing only one
member of the pair of homologous chromosomes. This is
called reduction division because it results in a haploid. Figure 1.18 Metaphase II

Chromosomes arrange themselves at the equatorial

plane. Spindle fibres are now formed and attached to
the centromere of chromosomes. The orientation or
assortment of chromosomes is at the equator and is
random. Independent assortment occurs at metaphase II.

3. Anaphase II

Figure 1.16 Telophase 1

After meiosis 1 the cell may enter into a short interphase

but no DNA synthesis occurs. The second meiotic division is
similar to mitotic division. It is very paramount to note that Figure 1.19 Anaphase II
the stages in meiosis II are similar to mitosis.
At this stage centromere divides to give two chromatids,
which are now called chromosomes.

14
The two chromatids move to opposite poles with the help An equatorial division First stage is reduction
of the spindle fibres attached to them. The separated which separates sister division which separates
chromatids now called chromosomes are pulled along the chromatids. homologous chromosomes
centromeres. at first anaphase.
4. Telophase II It enables asexual It enables sexual
reproduction. reproduction.

Activity 1.3

Practical

1. View slides and bio-viewers and draw different stages of

Figure 1.20 Telophase II mitosis and meiosis. Label the stages.
This is the last stage of meiosis II and nuclei starts to form 2. Identify differences in chromosome appearances at each
at the poles around chromosomes. Four haploid daughter stage.
cells are formed from the original cell by cytokinesis. Spindle 3. Identify and label different stages under prophase 1.
fibres disappear and centrioles replicate. Nuclear envelope
reforms and cell wall forms in plant cells. Multiple Choice Questions
Significance of meiosis 1. Which of the following is not a mitotic stage?
A. Leptotene B. Anaphase
1. Meiosis brings variation to plants. This is facilitated by
C. Metaphase D. Interphase
crossing over which causes recombination of genes in
2. Mitosis is also called
homologous chromosomes. Random assortment (mixing)
A. cell division. B. interphase.
of maternal and paternal chromosomes brings variation.
C. cell differentiation. D. G1.
2. Meiosis distributes a complete haploid set of
3. Which of the following occurs in mitotic cycle?
chromosomes and therefore a complete set of genetic
A. DNA synthesis B. Nuclear replication
information into each of the gametes. Gametes are used
C. Prophase1 D. Diakinesis
to unite the chromosome number of the species on
4. Pairing of homologous chromosomes occurs during
fertilisation to form the zygote.
A. zygotene. B. leptotene.
3. Brings about sexual reproduction in plants.
C. anaphase 1. D. telophase II
Table 1.4 The difference between mitosis and meiosis 5. Identify two stages of meiosis.
Mitosis Meiosis A. Anaphase I and Prophase
Genetic content of mitotic Genetic product of meiosis B. Metaphase I and Telophase II
products is identical. differs. C. Prophase and Interphase
D. Interphase and Metaphase II
Normally occurs in all Only occur in specialised
6. During which stage of interphase do cells store
somatic cells. cell such as gametes.
energy in final preparation for use in the mitotic
Begins at zygote stage Occurs only after a higher phase?
through the life of an organism reaches puberty. A. G1 B. S
individual. C. G2 D. interphase
Two daughter cells per Four cellular products 7. Which phase of interphase is the shortest?
cycle. gametes produced per A. G2 B. S
cycle. C. Metaphase D. Prophase
One division per cycle that Two divisions per cycle, 8. Cell division results in the following except _________.
is one cytoplasmic division that is, two cytoplasmic A. repair of cell B. growth
per equatorial division. divisions; one following C. zygote D. asexual reproduction
reduction of chromosomes 9. Chromatids are joined together to form a
and one following chromosome by _______________.
equatorial chromosomal A. chromatin B. centriole
division. C. centromere D. chiasmata

15
10. Sister chromatids moves to opposite poles during •• Mitosis is divided into interphase, prophase,
A. anaphase. B. prophase I. metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
C. telophase. D. metaphase. •• Mitosis brings about asexual reproduction, allows
11. Nuclear membrane reforms during increase in numbers of cells, growth and repair of
A. telophase. B. prophase. worn-out tissues.
C. metaphase. D. diakinesis. •• Meiosis is the reduction process which reduces a
12. Meiosis is responsible for ____________. diploid to a haploid.
A. formation of gametes B. growth •• Four daughter cells are produced from meiosis.
C. repair D. diploid •• It is divided into meiosis 1 and II, of which meiosis
1 is the reduction process and meiosis II is similar
Structured Questions to mitosis.
•• During meiosis I there is crossing over of
1. (a) U sing a diagram, draw and label the mitotic cycle homologous chromosomes which leads to
of a cell. [6] recombination of genes.
(b) D escribe the significance of mitosis in Agriculture. •• Meiosis brings about gamete formation, sexual
[8] reproduction and variation among crops.
2. (a) Briefly describe the stages of mitosis. [15]
(b) E xplain the use of spindle fibres during mitotic
Unit Revision Exercises
division. [4]
Multiple Choice Questions
3. (a) E  xplain why meiosis is called a reduction division.
[5] 1. What does classification mean?
(b) D escribe in details reduction division. [10] A. Grouping similar organisms together
4. When does pairing of chromosomes occur and what B. Observing living organisms under a microscope
are its significances? [8] C. Randomly grouping living organisms in order to
5. Describe the differences between Meiosis 1 and investigate their characteristics
Meiosis II. [10] D. Creating a classroom display of the results of an
6. Explain why meiosis is very important to a maize investigation
breeder. [6] 2. Plants falls under kingdom _______.
7. Discuss the significance of meiosis to heredity. [5] A. plantae. B. grasses.
C. animalia. D. angiospermida.
Essay Questions 3. Glycine max is the genus and species of which fruit?
1. With the aid of a well labelled diagrams, describe A. groundnut B. beans
the process of mitosis. [15] C. soyabeans D. roundnuts
2. Discuss the significance of cell division in crop 4. Which two taxonomic levels are used in the binomial
production. [15] system?
3. Describe the differences between meiosis and A. Genus and phylum B. Family and species
mitosis, highlighting all the necessary stages where C. Genus and species D. Phylum and class
differences occur. [10] 5. What is the scientific name for wheat?
A. Triticum eastivum B. Tagetes munuta
C. Triticum sativum D. Hypogea arachis
Summary of the unit 6. Gymnosperms are ___________.
•• Classification of crops is very important as it helps A. plants that produce flowers.
farmers to have knowledge about the growing B. plants that produces spores.
habits of the crops. C. plants that bear fruits.
•• Crops are classified according to habitat, life cycle, D. plants that lack a true root.
uses, morphology or scientific name. 7. Which of the following organelles contains larger
•• Under scientific names, classification follows ribosomes?
taxonomic hierarchy from kingdom to individual. A. cytoplasm B. chloroplast
•• Crops can be divided into different families by C. mitochondria D. nucleus
relations. 8. Where exactly does the Krebs cycle occurs in the cell?
•• Classification according to life cycle can be annual, A. matrix B. mitochondria
biennial or perennial with perennial being most C. stroma D. cristae
dominant in orchards and plantations. 9. Ribosomes are responsible for __________.
•• Mitosis is commonly known as cell division which A. lipid synthesis. B. fat oxidation.
gives identical daughter cells. C. protein synthesis D. translation.

16
10. Which of the following is correct about chloroplast? B. growth.
A. They are the largest cell organelles. C. repair.
B. They are responsible for respiration. D. chromatids.
C. Site of Krebs cycle. 26. Meiosis is the ___________.
D. Site of Calvin cycle. A. diploid division. B. reduction process.
11. Nucleus contains the following except ___________. C. cell division. D. leptotene division.
A. chromatin B. nucleoplasm 27. Crop classification is important for ___________.
C. DNA D. water A. international communication.
12. Cell wall is made up of ___________. B. increase yield.
A. glucose. B. starch. C. crop production.
C. cellulose. D. water D. establish relationships in plants.
13. Which of the following is not a mitotic stage?
A. Leptotene B. Anaphase
C. Metaphase D. Interphase
Structured Questions
14. Mitosis is also called ___________. 1. (a) Describe reasons for classifying crops in Zimbabwe.
A. cell division B. interphase [10]
C. cell differentiation D. G1
15. Which of the following occurs in a mitotic cycle? (b) S cientific classification is very important to
A. DNA synthesis B. Nuclear replication researcher in Agriculture. Explain, this giving
C. Prophase1 D. Diakinesis example of crops and their scientific names. [5]
16. Identify two stages of meiosis. 2. (a) Describe classification of crops according to
A. Anaphase I and Prophase morphology and life cycle giving examples of crops
B. Metaphase 1 and Telophase II in each class. [15]
C. Prophase and Interphase (b) Describe the following giving examples;
D. Interphase and Metaphase II (i) Family. [5]
17. In meiosis, pairing of homologous chromosomes (ii) Genus. [5]
occurs during ___________. 3. Describe the mitotic cycle with the aid of a diagram.
A. zygotene. B. leptotene. [10]
C. anaphase 1. D. telophase II. 4. Describe the significance of mitosis in Agriculture. [10]
18. During which stage of interphase do cells store energy 5. Describe in detail prophase 1 of meiosis, explaining
in final preparation for use in the mitotic phase? pairing of homologous chromosomes and its
A. G1 B. S significance. [10]
C. G2 D. Interphase 6. Outline the significance of meiosis in Agriculture. [8]
19. Which phase of interphase is the shortest? 7. (a) Describe the functions of the following plant parts
A. G2 B. S of plant cell:
C. Metaphase D. Prophase (i) Cell wall, [3]
20. Cell division results in the following except (ii) Cytoplasm, [5]
A. repair of cell. B. growth. (iii) Nucleus. [5]
C. zygot. D. asexual reproduction. 8. Describe the structure and function of the
21. Which of the following is correct? mitochondria.[10]
A. Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis. 9. (a) Describe three types of the ribosomes, indicating
B. Smooth endoplasmic are responsible for protein the sizes of their subunits. [12]
synthesis. (b) O utline the functions of the endoplasmic reticulum
C. Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the nucleus. and Golgi bodies. [8]
D. Cytoplasm is the site of Calvin cycle. 10. Describe the structure and functions of the vacuole,
22. Which of the following is found in the chloroplast? explaining how they promote plant survival. [10]
A. matrix B. cristae
C. chloroplasts D. glucose
Practical Questions
23. Mitosis causes the following except
A. growth. B. repair of worn cells 1. (a) Draw and label the following organelles of the plant
C. reproduction. D. vegetative reproduction cell:
24. Maize is classified under (i) mitochondria. [5]
A. oil seed crop. B. perennial crop. (ii) Golgi bodies. [2]
C. saprophyte. D. horticultural crop. (iii) rough endoplasmic reticulum. [3]
25. Pairing of homologous chromosomes causes (b) D escribe any three functions of each organelle in
A. recombination of genes. (a). [10]

17
 TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Unit
Plant growth and
development
2
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able:
•• describe the types of plant meristems.
•• describe the phases of plant cell growth.
•• describe the effects of growth regulators on plant
growth and development.
Introduction
Plant morphology and physiology are important aspects in
crop science as they help in the understanding of growth and
development in plants. Growth in plants is due to several
factors including presence of meristems, plant growth
regulators and seeds. Growth in plants allows plants to
reach a stage where they are able to produce flower and
fruits. Growth induces flower and fertilisation in plants which
lead to fruit and seed development. It is very important to
understand how vernalisation and photoperiodism influence
flower initiation. It helps in understanding pollination
mechanisms. This helps to differentiate endospermous and
non-endospermous seed development. Plant physiology
helps in understanding the internal and external parts of the
seeds. It is paramount to understand the properties of water
and how water moves in plants.
Glossary of terms
Growth – permanent and irreversible increase in mass,
length or height, surface area or volume of the plant.
Growth is therefore a quantitative measurable process.
Development – increase in complexity in form, organisation
and function of the plant components. It is a qualitative
process.
Meristem – is a tissue in which cells are capable of repeated
division.
Double fertilisation – is the process in angiosperms
(flowering plants) during reproduction, in which two sperm
nuclei from each pollen tube fertilise two cells in an ovary.
Water potential – is the free energy of water that allows it
to move from regions of high-water potential to regions of
low water potential until equilibrium is attained in a system.
Plant growth and development
Plant growth is dived into three phases. These three phases
are not distinct but merge into each other:
(a) meristematic phase,
(b) cell expansion or elongation phase,
(c) cell maturation and differentiation phase.
Meristems
A meristem is a tissue in which cells are capable of repeated
division. When a meristematic cell divides, some of the new
cells remain part of the meristem while others differentiate
to form other types of tissues with specialised functions in
the plant.
Meristematic regions of the plant have cells which are more
or less isodiametric (almost round with many sides), small
and are packed together without any intercellular spaces
between them. They have thin cell walls, large nuclei and
dense cytoplasm containing many organelles. They have a
few small vacuoles but sometimes lack vacuoles.
Meristems are divided into apical, intercalary, lateral and
basal meristems. All these play a pivotal role in plant
growth. They are responsible for keeping plants growing.
Growth of plants after germination depends on the activities
of meristems.
19
 TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Unit Flower and fruit development

3
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
•• explain how vernalisation and photoperiodism
influence flower initiation.
•• describe gamete formation in plants.
•• describe pollination mechanisms in plants.
•• explain the concept of double fertilisation in plants.
•• describe the structural changes that occur after
fertilisation in plants.
•• differentiate endospermous and non-endospermous
seed development.
Introduction
After pollination and fertilisation, carpels develop into the
fruit tissue we eat (ovary) and the seeds within (ovules). Fruit
development is initiated by growth regulating hormones
produced by developing seeds. Flowers with one carpel only
require fertilisation of one of the two ovules to produce fruit.
qualitatively dependent on exposure to low temperature
and this is known as vernalisation.
Vernalisation is a means by which plants prevent precocious
reproductive development late in the growing season,
ensuring instead that seed production does not begin until
the beginning of the next growing season so that the seed
will have sufficient time to reach maturity.
Vernalisation refers to the promotion of flowering by a
period of low-temperature and should not be confused with
other miscellaneous effects of low-temperature on plant
development (Hopkins and Huner, 2008).
Vernalisation is the ability of cold treatment to make winter
cereal crops mimic the behaviour of spring cereal in terms
of flowering. This scenario is common in winter annuals and
biennials such as wheat, barley and rye. Low temperatures
stimulate flower initiation in these cereals.
Vernalisation renders plants sensitive to long days. Most of
these plants fail to flower when planted in spring since their
genes require low or cold temperatures to initiate flowering.

If spring strains are sown in winter, they germinate but

Glossary of terms
Initiation – to cause or facilitate the beginning of flower
growth.
Fertilisation – occurs when one of the sperm cells fuses
with the egg inside of an ovule.
Vernalisation – the cooling of seed during germination in
order to accelerate flowering when it is planted.
Flower initiation and fertilisation
Vernalisation
There are plants which flowering is either quantitatively or
flower initiation will take long to occur, similarly, sowing
winter strains in spring allow them to take more months to
mature due to delayed flowering.
The only way to stimulate them is to vernalise them at 1°C
for weeks to stimulate flowering. The issue of vernalisation
does not initiate flower development in plants but also
render plants sensitive to photoperiod.
Exposing winter annuals like wheat to a temperature of
30°C, the plant will fail to initiate flowering. Increasing
duration of cold temperatures decreases days to flowering.
If winter annuals are exposed to cold days for longer period,
they quickly flower as compared to those exposed for short
period.

34
Nutrients from the plant travel through the phloem of the
vascular system to the funiculus and outer integument and
from there apoplastically and symplastically through the
growth
chalaza to the nucellus inside the ovule. Inner cell grows nourished
Embryo sac by nucleus
Ovule development Mother Cell
Degenerate
(diploid)

Ovule consists of a mass of cells called the nucellus which

is carried on a short stalk called funicle. The nucellus is Megaspore or Mitosis
four Embryo Sac
completely surrounded by two protective integuments (Haploid)
haploid
except the micropyle. One cell of the nucellus becomes cells
End nearest
larger and more conspicuous than the rest and is called micropyle
embryo an sac or mother cell.

The embryo sac mother cell divides by meiosis to produce Mature Embryo
Sac
four haploid megaspore cells. Three cells closer to the (Female
micropyle degenerate while the remaining one enlarges to Gametophyte) female gametophyle
Just before Three antipodal cells or Embryo
form the embryo sac. fertilisation:
seven nuclei
present,
Three antipodal cells Six are haploid, Two Mitosis
one is diploid Polar
Nuclel
Pollen Tube Nuclear
Fusion Ovam
(Female
Generative Gamete)
nucleus Mitosis

Two Synergids
Tube
nucleus Figure 3.3 Ovule development

Activity 3.2
Polar Nuclei
Describe formation of gametes and pollination
Egg mechanisms.
Sperm nuclei
Synergids

Figure 3.2 Ovule development (Source: Purves et al., Life: The

Science of Biology, 4th Edition)
Embryo sac nucleus divide by mitosis and the resultant
nuclei migrate to the opposite poles. Each nucleus
undergoes two mitotic divisions to give a group of four
haploid nuclei at each pole.
One nucleus from each polar group moves to the centre
of the embryo sac, called polar nuclei. The remaining
nuclei develop into cytoplasm around them and become
separated by cell walls, leaving two groups of three cells at
each pole.
Three cells at opposite end of micropyle are called antipodal
cells and play no further role in the process. Out of the
three cells at the end of micropyle, the egg remains and
synergids degenerate.
Pollination
The transfer of pollen from the anther to the female stigma
is termed pollination. This is accomplished by a variety of
methods. Entomophily is the transfer of pollen by an insect.
Anemophily is the transfer of pollen by wind.
Other pollinators include birds, bats, water, and humans.
Some flowers (for example garden peas) develop in such a
way as to pollinate themselves. Others have mechanisms to
ensure pollination with another flower.
Flower colour is thought to indicate the nature of pollinator:
red petals are thought to attract birds, yellow attract bees,
and white attracts moths. Wind pollinated flowers have
reduced petals, such as oaks and grasses. A successful

37
Endospermic seeds
The endosperm is present in the mature seed and serves
as food storage organ. Testa and endosperm are the two
covering layers of the embryo.
The amount of endosperm in mature seeds is highly
species-dependent and varies from an abundant
endosperm layer (Nicotiana tabaccum) to a single layer
(Arabidopsis thaliana).
Non-endospermic seeds
The scutellum is homologous to the leaf blade of the
cotyledon and the coleoptile to the leaf sheath of the
cotyledon.
After germination, the scutellum functions in absorbing the
nutrients from the starchy endosperm and delivering them
to the growing seedling. After germination, the coleoptile
protects the shoot meristem and plumule when growing
through the soil. The coleorhiza has a similar function
for the radicle prior to germination. The coleorhiza is the
first structure that grows through the pericarp, it is then
ruptured by the radicle (the completion of germination).

Seed Coat C D
A B
Testa + Pericarp

r
e
Cotyledon

ay
el
on
ur

rm
Endosperm

e
Shoot apex

pe
Al

s
do
Starchy endosperm

en
Aleurone layer

hy
a rc
Root apex

St
Coleoptile
Embryo Plumule
Coleoptile Scutellum
Scutellum Mesocotyl
Radicula Side roots

Endosperm Colleorrhiza Radicula

E
F

Embryo:
Figure 3.6 Structure of two dicot seeds, a non-endospermic
Coleoptile (shoot sheath)
dicot (bean), left, and an endospermic (castor), right (Source: Plumule (foliage leaves)
Shoot apical meristem
Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition)
Scutellum
The cotyledons serve as sole food storage organs as in the
Radicula (embryonic root)
case of pea (Pisum sativum). During embryo development Calyptra (root cap)
the cotyledons absorb the food reserves from the Coleorrhiza (root sheath)
Wheat ear
endosperm.

The endosperm is almost degraded in the mature seed and Figure 3.7 Structure and germination of a cereal grain
the embryo and cotyledons are enclosed by the testa. (endospermous seed)

Endospermic seed structure (Monocots):
Poaceae (cereal grain, caryopsis) – wheat
and other cereals
Monocot species like wheat (see figure 2.23) and other
cereal species have caryopses (cereal grains) as
propagation units. Caryopses are single-seeded fruits
in which the testa (seed coat) is fused with the thin
pericarp (fruit coat).
Cereal grains have highly developed embryos and in cereal
grains the triploid endosperm consists of the starchy
endosperm (dead storage tissue) and the aleurone layer
(living cells).
Germination and seedling establishment of cereal grains is
hypogenous. After the primary root emerges, the coleoptile
is pushed upward by elongation of the mesocotyl. The
coleoptile elongates and reaches the soil surface. Here
it ceases to elongate and the first leaves of the plumule
emerge through an opening at its tip.
Mobilisation of the food storage in the starchy endosperm
is a post-germination event and requires an embryo signal
(gibberellin) which induces the production and secretion of
hydrolytic enzymes from the aleurone layer.

Organs of the cereal embryo are the coleoptile (shoot

sheath), the scutellum, the radicula and the coleorrhiza
(root sheath).

40
 •• The endosperm is present in the mature seed and serves as food storage organ.
•• Testa and endosperm are the two covering layers of the embryo.
•• The cotyledons serve as sole food storage organs as in the case of pea (Pisum sativum).

Unit Revision Exercises

Structured Questions
1. (a) D
 escribe vernalisation and how it induces flowering in plants. [6]
(b) E
 xplain how vernalisation treatment is done in plants by farmers. [3]
2. Describe photoperiodism in detail. [20]
3. Elaborate on the following aspects of pollination and seed development in angiosperms:
(a) pollen stigma compatibility, [5]
(b) pollen tube growth, [5]
(c) double fertilisation, [5]
(d) 
formation of endospermous and non-endospermous seed. [5]
4. Describe ovule development in plants. [10]
5. Describe how fruit development occurs in flowering plants. [10]

Essay Questions
1. Briefly discuss how vernalisation and photoperiodism initiate flowering in plants. [15]
2. Explain gamet genesis in plants. [15]
3. Differentiate between endospermous and non-endospermous seeds. [10]
4. With the aid of a diagram, describe double fertilisation. [15]

Practical Questions
1. (a) Draw and label fully the structure of female gametophyte. [10]
(b) U
 sing diagrams, describe stages of growth and development of an embryo. [10]
2. (a) Describe the formation of endospermous and non- endospermous seeds. [10]
(b) Dissect, draw and label endospermous seeds. [10]

42
 TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Unit Seed and seed germination

4
Unit objectives Seed structure
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Cereals
•• describe the internal and external parts of a seed.
•• describe functions of seed parts. remains of style
•• discuss requirements for seed germination.
•• describe the processes of seed germination. fused pericap Aleurone
and testa layer
•• describe the processes of seed germination.
•• distinguish epigeal and hypogeal germination.
cotyledon

coloeoptile
Introduction A
position sheathing
Seed germination may be defined as the fundamental of embryo leaves
process by which different plant species grow from a single endosperm
Plumule
seed into a plant. This process influences both crop yield
radicle
and quality. A common example of seed germination is the
sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or
root cap
gymnosperm.
C epithelial
B coleorhiza layer
Glossary of terms
Germination – the process by which an organism grows Figure 4.1 Cereal seed structure
from a seed or a spore.
Legumes
Enzyme – a biological catalyst and is almost always a
protein.
Seed Coat Epicotyl

Hypocotyl
Radicle

Cotylededons

Figure 4.2 Legume seed structure

43
2. Dormancy due to internal factors
This is due to physiologically dormant embryos. Dormant
embryos do not resume active growth even though all
environmental conditions are favourable, unless the
seeds are subject to moist and chilling treatments. A good
example is freshly harvested seeds of apple, grapes, peach
and apricot.
Methods of breaking dormancy
1. Priming
Pre-sowing treatment to control the level of water within
the seeds to enable germination to occur. Priming has
many benefits which are speeding germination time,
plant uniformity, enabling seeds to germinate over a
wider temperature range as well as increase resistance to
diseases. Seeds are soaked in water or chemical primer is
used to start germination.
2. Seed scarification
Used to break hard seed coats that do not easily allow water
and air to enter for example Leucaena leucocephala seeds.
Seeds will not germinate until the seed coat is weathered
either by winter weather, soil organisms or passed through
animal stomach where the seed coat is weathered by
hydrochloric acid.
Seed are dipped in sulphuric acid and washed with tap
water to remove the acid and seed coat easily removed
by hands. Some farmers use sand paper to rub seed coat,
chip with knife or prick with a needle so that the radicle can
escape.
3. Seed stratification
There are plant seeds which need a period of moisture
and cold after harvest before they will germinate. Seed
dormancy is controlled in the internal seed tissues. This
treatment simulates winter conditions in breaking down
seed coat.
Cold stratification treatment requires temperature of 5ºC for
3 – 5 weeks in a refrigerator to be very effective for example
Linaria (3 weeks), pansy (2 weeks), Acer, Berberis, Cotoneaster
and Pyracantha. In some cases, chilling and heating is
required for example lilies.
4. Seed acidification
Seeds are soaked in acid between a few minutes and
24 hours. The acid wears away the hard seed coat and
softens it to allow embryo to imbibe water. Sulphuric acid is
commonly used. After removing the seeds from acid, wash
them with running water to wash away the acid to prevent
embryo damage.
48
5. Leaching with water
The method is commonly used where dormancy is due to
chemical factors such as coumarin. Hot water leaching is
done at 67 – 88ºC and it is more effective compared to cold
water leaching. Boiling or too hot water damages seeds and
it may fail to germinate.
Tomato and strawberry seeds do not germinate in fruit due
to presence of inhibitors. Soaking in water washes away
the chemical inhibitor and provides the seed with enough
water for germination and survival until first root and leaves
develops.
Activity 4.3
Field trip
1. Learners must visit a nearby farmer or school garden
to observe germination processes.
2. Learners must draw diagrams to illustrate epigeal and
hypogeal germination.
Exercise 4.1
1. (a) Outline the functions of the following seed parts:
(i) Testa. [3]
(ii) Embryo. [3]
(iii) Hilum. [1]
(iv) Endosperm. [5]
(b) B riefly describe the requirements of seed
germination. [9]
2. (a) Describe the hydration phase of seed
germination. [5]
(b) E xplain briefly the genetic events during
germination. [5]
3. Describe epigeal and hypogeal germination. [10]
4. Describe tests used for seed viability in plants. [10]
5. Define seed dormancy and describe any two types of
seed dormancy. [8]
6. Describe ways used to break seed dormancy. [15]
Summary of the unit
•• Seeds have of plants are grouped into
monocotyledons and dicotyledons seeds which
germinate by epigeal and hypogeal germination.
•• Dicotyledonous seeds expose cotyledons during
germination which will become first photosynthetic
leaves.
 TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Unit Plant-water relations
5
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
•• describe water properties in relation to its functions.
•• discuss factors that affect water uptake.
•• explain the mechanisms of water uptake.
•• explain the components of water potential.
•• carry out experiments on osmotic potential.
•• describe water flow pathways from cell to cell.
•• describe environmental factors affecting the rate of
transpiration.
Introduction
Water is important to the physiology of plants because of
its crucial role in all physiological processes and because of
the large quantities that are required. Plant-water relations
concern how plants control the hydration of their cells,
including the collection of water from the soil, its transport
within the plant and its loss by evaporation from the leaves.
Flow of water through plant and soil over macroscopic
distances is driven by gradients in hydrostatic pressure.
Glossary of terms
Vaporisation – the process of becoming a vapour.
Cohesion – the act or state of sticking together tightly.
Adhesion – the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces
to cling to one another.
Water
Water is an essential element in life and for plants to exist
they need water. It is important for all living organisms since
50
it is a vital chemical constituent of living cells and habitat for
many organisms.
Importance of water
Water contributes to the structure of plants with most
growing plants containing 70% to 90% water. Water
maintain the structure of constituents in plants such as
carbohydrates, proteins and enzymes; they lose their
physical and chemical properties in absence of water.
Water in vacuoles maintain turgidity of cells, and maintain
proper life as turgidity helps in the elongation of cells for
growth. Water is used as a reagent of hydrolysis, medium
of diffusion; role in osmosis; role in transpiration and
translocation of organic compounds.
Water also provides support to aquatic plants. It plays
an important role in germination of seeds as seeds must
imbibe water to initiate enzyme activity for germination to
occur.
Properties of water
1. High heat of fusion
This is a measure of heat energy required to melt a solid.
Due to high heat of capacity, water requires relatively large
amounts of heat energy to thaw.
Liquid water must lose relatively large amounts of heat
energy to freeze. Contents of cells are therefore less likely to
freeze. If ice develop inside plant cells it damages cells and
water will not move.
2. High heat of vaporisation
This is due to the presence of hydrogen bonding in water
molecules. This is the heat energy required to vaporise
liquid water. Large s of energy is required to vaporise water
because of the strong cohesive bonds between water
molecules.
The energy transferred to water molecules for water to
vaporise causes loss of energy from their surroundings for
cooling to take place. High heat of vaporisation also means
that large amount of heat can be lost with minimal loss of
water from the body.
It allows dissipation of large amounts of heat from the
plant leaves when water evaporates from leaf surfaces
during evapotranspiration. This helps plants to maintain
temperature.
3. High specific heat
Hydrogen bonding in water is responsible for high specific
heat or high heat capacity. This allows plant tissues to
undergo considerable cooling or heating with small changes
in plant tissue temperature. Specific heat is the amount of
heat energy (kJ) required to increase the temperature of 1kg
of a substance by 1ºC.
Water has high specific heat, so large increase in heat
energy results in a small rise in temperature because much
of the energy is used to break down hydrogen bonds in
water. This causes biochemical processes which take place
in water to operate over a small temperature range.
The density of water decreases below 4ºC hence, ice water
floats in liquid water.
Solid water is less dense than liquid water. When
temperature drops, coldest water is at surface and slightly
warmer water is lower down hence ice forms at the surface
first and later on the bottom. Organisms that live towards
the bottom of fresh water are protected from freezing due
to this property of water.
4. High surface tension
Strong cohesion between water molecules ensures that
water has a very high surface tension. So, it is not easy for
the surface of water to be broken or deformed.
This property is important for structural integrity of
the plant. The structure of plant parts and organs are
maintained because of the forces created by water in the
cells of the plant (turgor).
5. Universal solvent
Ability of water to form hydrogen bonds and its polarity
makes it capable of dissolving many substances. Water
becomes an excellent solvent for polar substances such as
ionic substances like salts and non-ionic substances such as
sugars and simple alcohols.
Non-polar substances such as lipids are repelled by water.
Since water is a solvent hence it can act as a transport
medium in xylem and phloem of plants. This allows plants
to absorb nutrients in solution.
Water also act as a medium in which all reactions in plants
takes place.
6. Cohesion and adhesion
Charges on water molecules ensure that water molecules
attract each other due to hydrogen bonds by cohesion. The
charges ensure that water molecules are attracted to other
charged surfaces by adhesion.
Strong cohesive bonds between water molecules and
its ability to bind to plant cell surfaces are important
characteristics in the formation of continuous water
columns in the plant.
These help in transpiration and lead to transpirational
cohesion theory which states that continuous water
columns are required for the transport of water, mineral
and organic nutrients in the plant.
Activity 5.1
1. Describe water properties in relation to its functions.
2. Demonstrate water properties in relation to its
functions.
Water movement
Factors affecting water uptake
1. Salt concentration in soil
Presence of salts in soil solution contributed a lot to water
movement. If salt concentration in soil is more compared
to concentration in plants, soil becomes a region of lower
water potential and water does not move easily from soil to
plants.
This is common where farmers apply excess fertiliser in
the soil, this contributes to wilting and dying off of plants.
Absorption of water decreases with increase in salt solution
concentration in soil.
2. Soil temperature
Soil temperature contribute immensely to movement of
water. If soil temperature is low or cool soil water becomes
semi-solid and affects elongation, cell expansion and other
metabolic processes hence this decreases water movement
into plant cells.
If soil temperatures are too high, water in the soil
evaporates decreasing water movement into plant
cells. Favourable soil temperatures 20-30ºC allows easy
absorption of water into plant cells and this promotes
elongation and other metabolic activities in plants.
51
 TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Unit Biological nitrogen fixation
6
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
•• describe biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in legumes.
•• describe the role of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in
symbiosis with legumes.
•• outline the importance of biological nitrogen fixation
as an alternative to inorganic fertilisers.
Introduction
All plants, including forage crops, need relatively large
amounts of nitrogen (N) for proper growth and development.
Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is the term used for a
process in which nitrogen gas (N2 ) from the atmosphere is
incorporated into the tissue of certain plants. Only a selected
group of plants is able to obtain N this way, with the help
of soil microorganisms. Among forage plants, the group
of plants known as legumes (plants in the botanical family
Fabaceae) are well known for being able to obtain N from air
N2.
Glossary of terms
Nitrogen – the chemical element with the symbol N and
atomic number 7.
Fixation – the preservation of biological tissues from decay
due to autolysis or putrefaction.
Microorganisms – are microscopic organisms that exist as
unicellular, multicellular, or cell clusters.
Biological nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in soil and is required
in large quantities to increase crop production. Nitrogen is
one of the most expensive fertiliser nutrients which farmers
cannot afford to buy in large quantities.
The use of legumes which practice biological nitrogen
fixation is one of the cheapest ways of increasing nitrogen in
soil. Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) is a process by which
legumes fixes atmospheric nitrogen and deposits it in the
soil to increase the N content.
This is a sustainable way to increase soil fertility and
increase crop productivity. BNF offers an economic means
of reducing environmental problems and improving the
internal resources.
BNF is a process that allows microorganisms to convert
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) assimilable by
associated plants.
N2 + 6 H+ +ATP NH3 + ADP +Pi
Several symbiotic associations occur and it also occurs in
legumes. In legumes Rhizobium-legume symbiosis mostly
occurs.
There are six main genus of rhizobia which include
Allorhizobium (fast growing), Azorhizobium (fast growing),
Bradyrhizobium (slow growing), Mesorhizobium (intermediate
growing), Rhizobium (fast growing) and Sinorhizobium (fast
growing).
Legumes and rhizobia communicate through the gene
expression by reciprocally transmitting signals for the
activation of the symbiotic genes in two partners. Flavonoids
are released by host plant roots into the rhizosphere and
act as a chemo-attractant for bacteria to the plant roots and
eventually colonies of rhizobia attach to the root hairs.
Flavonoids signal activates expression of nodulation genes.
In rhizobial strains there are numerpous nodulation genes
which include nod genes nod ABC and nod. Flavonoids are
recognised by nod protein on surface of rhizobia. The nod
binds to promoter DNA sequence to activate transcription
57
 TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Unit Bioenergetics

7
Unit objectives Factors affecting photosynthesis
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Rate of photosynthesis is an important factor in crop
production as it affects plant yields. Knowledge of factors
•• explain the factors affecting photosynthesis. affecting photosynthesis allows farmers to improve crop
•• describe light dependent and light-independent management leading to improved yields.
reactions.
Rate of photosynthesis is affected by both environmental
•• describe photosynthetic electron transport.
and internal factors. Environmental factors include light
•• describe the structure and synthesis of ATP.
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature,
•• explain the role of ATP as the energy ‘currency’.
water supply, inhibitors and pollution as well as oxygen
•• describe the structural differences between C3 and C4
concentration in the atmosphere.
biochemical pathways.
•• discuss crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) Internal factors include chlorophyll content, accumulation of
pathways. photosynthetic products, and resistance in the leaf to free
•• describe the process of respiration. gaseous diffusion.
•• describe the two distinct pathways for the breakdown
of starch. 1. Water supply
•• explain the universal role of ATP as the energy
Water is critically needed by plants for survival and as a
‘currency’ in all living organisms.
raw material for photosynthesis. If plant leaves are wilted,
photosynthesis rate is reduced to zero. Wilted leaves cause
closure of stomatal openings which reduces carbon dioxide
Introduction absorption.
Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistry concerned with the About 0.1% of water absorbed by plants is used in
energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds photosynthesis as a source of hydrogen hence limited
in the molecules found in biological organisms. It can also supply of water reduces rate of photosynthesis.
be defined as the study of energy relationships and energy
Unavailability of water indirectly reduces total
transformations and transductions in living organisms.
photosynthesis through closure of stomata, reduced leaf
area due to reduced growth and this may affect enzyme
Glossary of terms action due to reduced water content in protoplasm.

Water availability increases growth, enzyme functioning

Synthesis – the combination of components or elements to
form a connected whole.
Energy – how things change and move.
and allows stomatal opening which leads to more
carbon dioxide being absorbed, hence increased rate of
photosynthesis.

Respiration – a chemical reaction that happens in all living

cells, including plant cells and animal cells.

60
The light dependent reactions follow a sequence which
include the synthesis of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) with
photophosphorylation. This is followed by splitting of water
by photolysis to give hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen.
Energy for this reaction is from the sun and the process
is called photolysis. Electrons from chlorophyll and
hydrogen ions from water are then transferred to a
hydrogen acceptor molecule NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate) to produce reduced NADP (NADPH
+ H+).
Synthesised ATP and reduced NADP (NADPH + H+) are then
used in the light independent stage (Calvin cycle). This is
achieved through photophosphorylation whereby light
energy is harvested and converted to chemical energy that
can be stored in the form of starch.
Light energy is harvested through the chlorophyll which
captures the light energy and raises the energy level of
electrons higher until a flow of electrons is initiated in
photosystem II.
Photolysis of water
Oxygen released from photosynthesis comes from water.
Light absorbed by photosystem II (P680) activates the
electrons of chlorophyll which are boosted to a higher
energy level and later escape from chlorophyll molecule.
These electrons must fall back into the photosystem but
they are held temporarily by an electron acceptor molecule
(Y). Escaped electrons in photosystem II are replaced by
electrons from the splitting of water. Water then break
down into oxygen, hydrogen ions and electrons.
Photophosphorylation
Light-independent reactions
The dark reactions use the ATP and NADPH produced by
the light reactions to reduce carbon atoms from their fully
oxidised state as carbon dioxide to a more reduced state as
a hexose.
Carbon dioxide is thereby trapped in a form that is useful
for many processes and most especially as a fuel. Together,
the light reactions and dark reactions of photosynthesis
cooperate to transform light energy into carbon fuel.
Because ATP and NADPH are produced mostly during the
day so light independent reactions also occur mostly during
the day.
The reactions are commonly known as Calvin Cycle named
after Melvin Calvin. Calvin cycle starts with the fixation
of carbon dioxide which diffuses into leaves and present
between photosynthetic cells.
It is divided into stages as describe below:
1. Carbon dioxide combines with a 5C compound known
as ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) to form an unstable 6C
compound. This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme
ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RUBISCO).
2. The 6C compound breaks down to form 2 molecules
of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) or phosphoglyceric acid
(PGA) which is a 3C compound and first product of
photosynthesis.
3. GP is then converted to triose phosphate using ATP and
reduced NADP from light dependent reactions. This is the
first carbohydrate made from photosynthesis process.
4. Triose phosphate molecules combine to form 6C hexose
sugar that polymerise to produce starch.

This is a process which generate ATP from ADP through the 6 ATP
addition of an inorganic phosphate molecule. High energy
6 ADP
electrons held in electron receptor (Y) move downwards 6C3
towards the nearby lower charged photosynthetic site P700 PGA
(photosystem I). CO2
[ 3 C6 ] P
6C3 6 NADP
When electrons move to P700, the move past electron unsuitable
intermediate
carriers such as cytochrome f (Cf) and their movement uses fixation 6 NADP+
energy to change ADP to ATP (ADP + Pi = ATP). This ATP will
CO2 Calvin-Benson P
be used in the dark reaction (Calvin cycle). 6C3
Cycle
3 C5
PGAL
As free electrons reach P700 they receive second charge of RuBP
light and this allows electrons to move up to the electron (3×C5= 15 C)
acceptor molecule (X). The electrons move from X down
electron carriers which contain protein and iron. 1 PGAL for
5C3 P synthesis
These electrons combine with hydrogen ions and NADP of glucose
3 ADP PGAL
to form reduced NADP. Photosystem I use light energy to (5×C3= 15 C) C3 P
generate reduced ferredoxin (Fd) a powerful reductant. ATP
Ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase converts NADP+ to reduced
NADP (NADPH + 2H+).
Figure 7.2 Calvin Cycle

62
 C3 pathways C4 pathways
Alternative C4 Photosynthesis: Evolved multiple times!
PEP carboxykinase type Bundle sheath cells are Bundle sheath cells are
absent. present.
Mesophyll cell Bundle Sheath cell
RuBISCO is present in the RuBISCO is present in the
mesophyll cells. bundle-sheath cells.
First stable product is First stable product is
phosphoenol 3-phosphoglycerate. Oxaloacetic acid.
phosphoenol
pyruvate pyruvate Photorespiration does not
Photorespiration occurs.
phosphoenol occur.

plasmodesmata
Calvin
pyruvate cycle
rubisco
HCO3-
pepc Pi CO2 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)
pathway
oxaloacetate
carbonic aspartate Shortly after the discovery of the C4 cycle the Crassulacean
anhydrase aspartate acid metabolism (CAM) pathway was dissected and
oxaloacetate elucidated as a C4 variant. This pathway is found in desert
succulents and epiphytes.

In the typical C4 cycle, the fixation reaction occurred in a

atm
CO2 The C4 and C3 reactions are sepetated
Figure 7.5 (b) Hatch-slack reactions
Differences between C4 and C3 plants
Leaves of C4 plants have small intercellular spaces,
frequent veins and large bundle sheath cells with abundant
chloroplasts, while in C3 plants, chloroplast is present in all
mesophyll cells.
C4 plant operate efficiently at high temperatures making
them more adaptable for tropical plants. C4 plants
show no or little photorespiration and this makes them
more efficient for photosynthesis. This is because PEP-
carboxylase does not accept oxygen as compared to
RuBP-carboxylase which accept oxygen in C3 plants causing
photorespiration.
Table 7.1 Differences between C3 and C4 pathways
mesophyll cell and the decarboxylation reaction occurred
in a bundle sheath cell, in CAM plants the two reactions are
separated temporally rather than spatially.
The fixation step occurs at night with the guard cells open
to receive carbon dioxide during the cool night. This process
is driven by use of starch to make the PEP required for
PEP-carboxylase activity. The malic acid is transported to the
vacuole and accumulates there at night. This causes shifts in
pH, with low pH at night and higher pH during the day.
Accumulation of malate and other organic acids causes
increase in acidity and the process occurs in all Crassulaceae
hence the name Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).
During the night when conditions are least conducive
to transpiration, the stomata of CAM plants open,
carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf and is fixed by PEP-
carboxylation system to Oxalo-acetate (OAA) and malate as
in C4 plants but the products are stored in the vacuoles of
mesophyll cells.

During the day, stomata close to reduce water loss, malate

C3 pathways
Primary acceptor of CO2
is RUBP-a six carbon
compound.
First stable product is
3-phosphoglycerate.
Occurs only in mesophyll
cells of the leaves.
Slower process of
carbon fixation and
photorespiration causes
high losses.
Leaf anatomy
C4 pathways
accumulated and other organic acids are decarboxylated to
Primary acceptor of CO2 is
supply carbon dioxide which is fixed via Calvin cycle using
phosphoenolpyruvate – a
RuBP carboxylase.
three carbon compounds.
First stable product is Two cycles CAM and C3 occurs in mesophyll cells but
Oxaloacetic acid. biochemical events of CAM-pathway are similar to those
of Hatch-slack pathway but PEP and Calvin systems are
Occurs in both mesophyll
separated by time.
and bundle sheath cells.
Faster process of
carbon fixation and
photorespiration losses are
low.
Leaf anatomy

64
Stage 1: Formation of glucose-6- products of cleavage are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
phosphate
Glucose is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate which Aldolase
is a more reactive molecule. The reaction is catalysed by a Fructose 1.6 biophosphate Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
phosphorylase enzyme, hexokinase which is specific for Triose phosphate isomerase
hexose sugars and glucokinase which is specific for glucose.
Cation divalent, Mg2+ is required to increase the activity for Dihydroxyacetone phosphate

the reaction. Energy from ATP is needed.

Stage 2: Oxidation of glyceraldehyde

ATP ATP
Glucose Glucose-6-phosphate
Hexokinase enzyme
Isomerisation of glucose-6-phosphate
Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-6-
phosphate through the action of isomerase enzyme,
phosphoglucoisomerase enzyme and this reaction does
not need ATP energy. This isomerisation is the conversion of
aldose to a ketose. This is a conversion of a six-sided ring to
a five-sided ring. This reaction is reversible.
3-phosphate
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is oxidised and phosphorylated
to 1.3 diphosphoglycerate (glycerate-1.3 diphosphate).
The reaction is catalysed by glyceraldehyde 3-phopshate
dehydrogenase enzyme.
The reaction is an oxidative dehydrogenation reaction. NAD+
is the hydrogen acceptor. The reaction is an example of a
substrate level phosphorylation where there is no need for
ATP by integration of an inorganic phosphate.
Pi , NAD+ NADH

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate 1.3 Diphosphoglycerate

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
Phosphoglucoisomerase
Glucose-6-phosphate Fructose-6-phosphate

Synthesis of ATP from 1.3 diphosphoglycerate

Phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate 1.3 diphosphoglycerate is catalysed by an enzyme,

This is the second priming reaction where fructose-6-
phosphate is phosphorylated and this reaction is the
pacemaker for glycolysis. This reaction yields a diphosphate
or biphosphate, that is, fructose-1.6-diphosphate or
fructose-1.6-biphosphate.
The reaction is catalysed by phosphofructokinase. Carbon
atom number 1 is phosphorylated to allow cleavage to take
place so that both ends are phosphorylated. The reaction is
non-reversible and inhibited by high ration of ATP to AMP,
citrate at high concentration.
The reaction is activated by low ratio of ATP to AMP, high
need of ADP production and low citrate concentration.
ATP ADP
Fructose-6-phosphate
Phosphofructokinase
Fructose 1.6 phosphate
dephosphorylase, phosphoglycerate kinase. It transfers
phosphate group from carbon atom 1 to ADP. The reaction
has less free energy of hydrolysis than ATP. Two molecules
of 3 phosphoglycerate are formed.
ADP ATP
1.3 biphosphoglycerate 3 phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate kinase
Isomerisation of glycerate 3-phosphate (3
phosphoglycerate)
3 phosphoglycerates are isomerised to 2-phosphoglycerate
by the action of an enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase
enzyme which requires glycerate-2.3-diphosphate as a
co-factor. This enzyme transfers phosphate group from the
carbon atom 3 of glycerate diphosphate to carbon atom 2 of
glycerate 3-phosphate.

Cleavage of fructose 1.6 biphosphate

Phosphoglycerate mutase
This is the splitting of fructose 1.6 biphosphate to a 3C 3 phosphoglycerate 2 phosphoglycerate
keto acid and 3C aldose. The reaction is interconventional
and catalysed by aldolase enzyme and is reversible. The

66
 •• This ATP energy is required for many processes Structured Questions
which are important for plant growth.
•• Photosynthesis is one of the major process which 1. (a) Discuss factors affecting photosynthesis. [15]
negatively affects yields if it ceases to take place. (b) D
 escribe the light dependent reactions of
•• Bioenergetic processes such as light dependent and photosynthesis. [5]
light independent are important for survival and 2. Describe the process of photophosphorylation in
biochemical activities in plant cells. plants. [5]
•• This helps plants to survive during day and night. 3. Describe photolysis of water. [5]
Oxidative phosphorylation which occurs in plants 4. Briefly describe electron transport in plants. [5]
also plays an important role in producing ATP used
by plants and reduced NAD used dark reaction Essay Questions
(Calvin cycle).
1. Describe the link between light dependent and light
independent reactions. [20]
2. Describe how carbon dioxide and oxygen
Unit Revision Exercises concentration affects photosynthesis. [20]
3. Describe the structure and roles of ATP. [15]
Multiple Choice Questions
4. Discuss the processes of glycolysis and Krebs cycle.
1. Which of the following is the first product of [30]
photosynthesis? 5. Discuss the CAM pathways in plants. [15]
A. Phosphoglyceric acid B. Triose sugar
C. Glucose D. Pyruvate Practical Questions
2. Glycolsis occurs in the ..........of a cell
A. Cytoplasm B. Vacuole 1. (a) Obtain two plants which are different from the
C. Nucleus D. Matrix school garden and label them C3 and C4plants.
3. Calvin cycle is as ........... reaction [3]
A. Dark B. Light (b) O utline the differences between C3 and C4 plants.
C. Light dependent D. Fast [7]
4. Krebs cycle occurs in the (c) Explain how the carbon dioxide concentration
A. Mitochondria B. Cristae affects photosynthesis in C3 and C4 plants. [5]
C. Matrix D. Cytoplasm 2. (a) Explain the differences between the Calvin cycle
5. Whichof the following is a hydrogn carrier? and the Krebs cycle. [7]
A. NADH B. FADH (b) D escribe photolysis of water with the aid of a
C. reduced NAD D. NAD diagram. [8]
6. Pyruvate is reduced to Acetyl CoA by the following
process
A. decarboxylation and dehydrogenase
B. decarboxylation and oxidation
C. dehydrognation and decarboxylation
D. oxidative
7. Pyruvate is a product of
A. Oxidation B. Glycolysis
C. Calvin Cycle D. Krebs cycle
8. Photolysis is a process which .............water
A. forms B. splits
C. breakdown D. mould
9. Phosphorylation is the addition of ........
A. phosphate B. inorganic phosphate
C. ATP D. ADP
10. Energy used in plants is called
A. GTP
B. ADP
C. ATP
D. Adenine

69
 TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Response of plants to
Unit
8
environmental factors
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
•• describe responses of plants to environmental factors.
•• outline physiological responses of plants to adverse
environmental factors.
•• explain the effects of environmental factors on crop
productivity.
Introduction
Environmental stress weakens a plant and makes it more
susceptible to disease or insect attack. Environmental
factors that affect plant growth include light, temperature,
water, humidity and nutrition. It is important to understand
how these factors affect plant growth and development.
Plants regulate the rate of transpiration by the opening and
closing of the stomata. There are, however, a number of
external factors that affect the rate of transpiration, namely:
temperature, light intensity, humidity and wind. Different
environmental conditions trigger both the opening and
closing of stomata.
Glossary of terms
Environmental management – offers research and
opinions on use and conservation of natural resources,
protection of habitats and control of hazards and spanning.
Humidity – a measure of the amount of water vapour in the
air.
Moisture – the presence of a liquid, especially water, often
in trace amounts.
Drainage – the removal of excess water either from the
ground surface or from the root zone.
70
Environmental factors
Environmental factors include humidity, temperature,
moisture, soil fertility, drainage and light intensity. These
factors affect plants negatively and positively.
Plants respond well when environmental factors are
favourable for example, when temperatures are favourable,
chemical reactions in plants occur well and an increase in
temperature increases chemical reactions. Availability of
moisture in soil allows plants to absorb nutrients and water,
this promotes plant growth.
Plant productivity is usually high when environmental
factors are well. When environmental factors are not
favourable plant productivity becomes poor. Plants may
acclimatise and adapt to adverse environmental effects.
Plant response to adverse
environmental factors
1. Soil fertility stress
Mineral stress is defined as the sub-optimal availability
of mineral nutrients, acidity, alkalinity, salinity and metal
toxicity. Edaphic stress includes physical factors such as soil
depth shallowness, poor drainage and poor water retention.
Plants display a remarkable array of physiological
adaptations to edaphic stress. Some plants develop long tap
roots so that they can break the shallowness of the soil.
Some traits permit conservative use of all nutrients such
as slow growth while other traits represent adaptations
to specific stresses such as the induction of organic acid
exudation to protect root tips exposed to aluminium (Al)
stress the induction of strategy 1 and 2 mechanisms to
mobilise rhizosphere iron (Fe) in response to Fe deficiency
and the regulation of root architecture to optimize soil
exploration in response to phosphorous (P) deficiency.
(b) High temperature
It causes high evapotranspiration rate leading to wilting,
drying and premature death of plants. This reduces plant
yields. High temperatures also improve fruit quality
especially in pineapple and lengthens the growing season in
areas which are negatively affected by low temperatures.
High temperatures during grain filling and flowering cause
moisture stress which reduces yields of most field crops.
High temperatures increase chemical reactions in plants
and absorption of nutrients.
3. Drought
Under drought stress, biochemical and physiological
metabolisms are altered, and cellular aqueous and ionic
equilibrium are disrupted leading to reprogramming of
genes at transcriptional and post transcriptional.
Plants have evolved delicate mechanisms to adapt to
drought stress and their physiological and molecular
changes are usually considered as adaptive responses to
the diverse environment.
Plants have drought-inducible genes with most of these
genes involved in the synthesis of dehydrins and osmolytes,
enzymes for anti-oxidation and components for abscisic
acid (ABA) synthesis or response.
A large group of specific genes coding for transcription
factors (TFs) are shown to be activated by drought stress.
TFs participate in various plant responses to abiotic stress.
Plants synthesis transcription factors such as CmMYB2
which enhance tolerance to drought and saline stress
and AtMYB96 transcription factor mediate abscisic acid
signalling during drought stress response in Arabidopsis.
Phytohormone ABA regulates numerous developmental
processes and stress responses in plants. Under adverse
conditions, ABA serves as a signal molecule to sense abiotic
stress. ABA regulates stomatal closure in plants to avoid the
loss during the water stress periods.
4. Moisture or water stress
Water is one of the most required environmental factors
by plants. Availability of moisture in soil promotes chemical
activities to occur in plants and promotes plant growth and
higher productivity. Plants response to water stress in many
ways which include the following:
(a) Reduction in cellular growth due to reduction in cell wall
synthesis.
(b) P rotein synthesis will be reduced and only observed in
tissues that are normally growing rapidly.
(c) Inhibits formation of protochlorophyll.
72
(d) R
 eduction in activities of enzymes for example NO3
reductase decreases sharply due to water stress and
only amylase and ribonulease enzymes increases their
activities.
(e) Nitrogen fixation and reduction drops and cell division
also drops.
(f) C
 losure of stomata which reduces transpiration and
photosynthesis.
(g) Y
 ields decreases due to water stress caused by drought.
Mechanisms of plant response to water stress
(a) Solutes concentration increase as water is lost and this
will allow plants to absorb water when it is available.
(b) W
 ater stress can change turgor pressure within the plant
cells and allows plants to absorb water.
(c) Water stress might result in special changes in
membranes.
5. Light intensity
Low light intensity reduces photosynthetic rate and
transpiration rates. Low light intensity decreases above and
underground biomass such as root density, stems and leaf.
Low intensities increase plant height and reduce incidence
of diseases. Excessive light intensity causes leaf burn and
reduces crop growth due to high rates of transpiration
which may cause wilting of crops.
6. High humidity
Humidity influences plant diseases especially fungi and
moulds that grow and spread rapidly under humid
conditions. High humidity causes blossom end rot in fruiting
tomatoes hence reducing quality of fruits.
High humidity reduces transpiration rate and increase plant
growth. Low humidity causes high evapotranspiration rates
leading to moisture stress and wilting of crops. This reduces
quality and quantity of yields.
Activity 8.1
1. Describe responses of plants to environmental factors.
2. Outlining physiological response of plants to adverse
environmental factors.
3. Explain the effects of environmental factors on crop
productivity.
Summary of the unit
•• Environmental factors have both positive and
negative effects on plants.
 TOPIC 3: SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION
Soil composition and
Unit
9
characteristics
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able:
•• describe primary and secondary minerals of soil.
•• describe the importance of soil texture and soil
structure.
•• describe the significance of soil colour and organic
matter.
•• describe different horizons of the soil profile.
•• outline the importance of plant nutrients and identify
deficiency symptoms of such.
•• describe different characteristics of clay minerals.
•• compare and contrast clay minerals.
Introduction
Soil fertility is an important parameter in crop production
as it determines the yield potential of soils. There is need for
farmers to maintain soil fertility as a means of improving
grain production. Fertile soils have the capacity to produce
more grain yields than infertile soils. There is need to add
soil organic matter as a means of improving soil fertility.
Farmers also need to have knowledge about soil colours
and their significance as means of coming up with proper
crop production. Different soils colours have different
agronomic potentials. Plant nutrition is also important and
farmers need to do soil sampling and analysis as a way of
establishing fertiliser requirements for different crops.
Glossary of terms
Primary minerals – these are naturally occurring minerals
in soils such as mica, feldspar and quartz.
Soil structure – the arrangement of soil particles in to
different aggregates or peds.
74
Macro – nutrients – these are plant nutrients required in
large quantities by plants such as nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Soil organic matter – this is a mixture of plant and animal
remains which are found on soils either decomposed or
partly decomposed to release nutrients.
Soil profile – vertical arrangement of soil into layers called
horizons.
Main constituents of soil
Primary minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring solids with defined
chemical composition and crystal structure. Silica
tetrahedron is the fundamental building block for mineral
formation. Original components of rocks are called primary
minerals.
Primary minerals include feldspar, mica, hornblende, olivine
and biotite. Important constituents from these primary
minerals include Olivine (Fe, Mg); Biotite (K, Fe, Mg, Al and
OH); Muscovite (K, Al and OH); Pyroxenes (Ca, Na, Fe, and
Mg) and Amphiboles (Ca, Na, Fe, Mg, Al and OH). These
are referred to as ferro-magnesium minerals. Non-ferro-
magnesium minerals include feldspar, anorthite (Ca, Al);
Albite (Na, Al), quartz and orthoclase (K, Al).
(a) Mica
It occurs extensively in soils and originate from parent rocks
which the soil is derived from. Soils are inherited from well-
ordered and imperfectly ordered micas and are derived
from sedimentary rocks.
Common well-ordered micas include muscovite, biotite,
paragonite and phlogopite (trioctahedral). Imperfectly
ordered mica contain less K and more water compared to
well-ordered micas.
 TOPIC 4: PRINCIPLES OF CROP BREEDING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Unit Genetics
12
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
•• describe the structure of the chromosome.
•• describe protein synthesis starting from DNA.
•• examine the role of mitosis and meiosis in crop
production.
•• outline Mendelian laws of inheritance and their
application in crop production.
•• determine genotype and phenotype ratios using genetic
diagrams.
•• discuss the types of gene expression, describe effects of
to the environment on gene expression.
•• explain the role of plant introduction to crop breeding.
•• examine the merits and demerits of plant selection.
•• discuss the methods of hybridisation in crop production.
•• discuss the concept of genetic engineering as a tool for
modern crop breeding.
Introduction
The major problem that third world countries are facing is
that of food security due to recurrent droughts as a result
of climate change. In order to keep pace with the ever-
increasing needs for food and the ever-increasing population
plant breeding has to be at the centre of all our activities.
Learners in crop science need to understand the principles of
genetics, protein synthesis and DNA structure which form the
basis of all breeding programs. A firm background on plant
introduction, plant selection and germplasm collection are
needed for the production of a hybrid and Open pollinated
varieties (OPVs). Learners need to understand that besides
the natural methods of crop breeding, modern breeding is
now utilising biotechnology, a set of tools that include tissue
culture and genetic engineering as we are living in a global
village. It is important that learners are exposed to the
methods of breeding so as to develop their own varieties or
better still, be able to manage the existing ones.
Glossary of terms
Allele – alternative forms of a gene that occupy a specific
locus on a specific gene.
Biotechnology – a set of tools that uses living organisms (or
parts of organisms) to make or modify a product, improve
plants, trees or animals, or develop microorganisms for
specific uses.
Cytokinesis – refers to the division of the cytoplasm which
takes place at the end of the telophase.
Dominant – describes a trait that is expressed both in
homozygous and heterozygous condition (form).
Gene – the smallest unit of inheritance that occupies a
specific locus on the chromosome.
Genome – the total number of genes contained in one cell.
Genetic engineering – a term used for the directed
manipulation of genes, for example the transfer of genes
between organisms or changes in the sequence of a gene.
Genotype – complete genetic constitution of an individual
(TT).
Genotype – complete genetic constitution of an individual.
Homozygous – having two identical alleles for a given gene,
for example, TT or tt.
Heterozygous – having two different alleles for a given gene
(Tt).
Hybridisation – the crossing of two genetically divergent
individual plants
Inheritance – the passing on of genetic material from the
parent to the offspring or from one generation to the other.
Mutation – sudden heritable change in genetic material
(DNA).
97
Mendelian inheritance
Gregor Mendel was the first scientist to observe that
characteristics were inherited as separate units (genes),
each of which was inherited independent of the others.
Mendel suggested that each parent has pairs of genes but
contributes only one of each pair to the offspring. Mendel
recognised that a gene can exist in different forms (alleles),
and he concluded that when an organism has two different
alleles, one of the two may be dominant (represented by
a CAPITAL letter -T) and the other is said to be recessive
(represented by a small letter- t). Mendel also demonstrated
that the patterns of inheritance observed in his experiments
with single traits also apply to cases involving more complex
gene combinations.
Mendel’s laws
Mendel crossed homozygous tall (TT) pea plants with
homozygous dwarf pea plants (tt) and produced all tall
(Tt) pea plants in the F1 generation. This was a case
in which one character was involved and when the F1
generation offspring were selfed (allowed to self-pollinate)
they produced one homozygous tall offspring (TT), two
heterozygous offspring (Tt) and one homozygous dwarf
offspring (tt) showing that the dominant and recessive
characters appear in a ratio of 3:1 in all cases as shown in
Figure 12.17.
Example of Monohybrid inheritance:
Mendel observed the following ratios:
Genotype ratio is 1:2:1 meaning 1 homozygous Tall
offspring, 2 heterozygous tall and 1 homozygous dwarf.
The ratios confirm that characters are determined by genes
which occur in pairs and separate during meiosis so that a
single allele is present in a particular cell or gamete.
The gametes will unite at random as shown in Figure 12.18
above. The gene for tallness exhibits dominance over the
dwarfness as the gametes fuses during fertilisation.
The experiment serves to confirm that in forming a
monohybrid, two different alleles fuse together without any
mixing or blending between them. When the gametes are
produced in F1, they separate to give two different kinds of
gametes which will recombine to form zygotes of the next
generation and control the expression of traits as shown
above.
Law of segregation
Contrasting forms of character are controlled by pairs
of unlike alleles which separate or segregate into equal
numbers into different gametes as shown in Figure 12.18.
A pair of alleles Tt is separated from each other during the
anaphase 1 of meiosis as sister chromatids separate and
move to the poles. In other words, alleles brought together
in the F1 generation can be segregated in the F2 generation
giving a ratio of 1:1.

In a cross between a pure bred tall (TT) pea and dwarf (tt) Tt Tt Monohybrid

pea plants as parent, the following results were obtained Meiosis

Parent phenotypes: Tall X Short

Parent genotypes: TT X tt parents

produce gametes equal with equal chances of mating
T t gametes
Gametes: T T X t t
Figure 12.18 Segregation of alleles

Law of Independent Assortment:

F1 Phenotype: Tt Tt Tt Tt
Mendel also made crosses between peas which were
pure breeding for two characters to produce a Dihybrid. A
F1 phenotype: Tall Tall Tall Tall results in all dihybrid is a cross between two homozygous parents that
tall off springs differ in two pairs of alleles as follows
Crossing F1 generation we observe the following:
Example of a Dihybrid cross:
Parent phenotypes: Tall X Tall
A cross between a Round Yellow pure bred and Wrinkled
Parent genotypes: Tt X Tt Green pure bred of peas seed produced all Round Yellow
Gametes: T t X T t seeds in the F1 generation. The F1 generation was self-
pollinated to produce the phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 in the
F2. Only two phenotypes resembled the parents while the
other two were recombinants as shown in:
F1 Phenotype: TT Tt Tt tt
Parent phenotypes: Round Yellow X Wrinkled Green
F2 phenotype Tall Tall Tall short Parent genotypes: RRYY X rryy parents
Figure 12.17 Monohybrid F1and F2 genetic diagrams produce gametes equal with equal chances of mating

104
3. Lethality
Some genes manifest their phenotypic effects by causing
death of the individual, these genes are said to be lethal.
Lethal genes can be dominant or recessive meaning that
they either kill the organism in the dominant or recessive
condition.
These genes are easily wiped out of the population since the
dominant lethal gene kills organisms in both homozygous
and heterozygous condition. In plants the gene for albinism
is lethal. Lack of chlorophyll is controlled by a lethal gene
that causes death of albino plants soon after emergence
because of failure of the plant to photosynthesise.
4. Gene mutations
These are sudden heritable changes in genetic material
resulting from errors in DNA replication. Mutation is a major
source of evolution and genetic variability.
Variability is useful in adaptation of species to different
environmental conditions. Mutation can be induced by
agents (mutagens) such as ionising radiation and mutagenic
chemicals which alter the composition of the DNA. This can
be due to addition, deletion or substitution.
Kinds of mutation
1. Samesense mutation
It is a base substitution in a DNA triplet codon which does
not alter the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide.
2. Missense mutations
It is a base-pair substitution in a gene which results in
one amino acid being changed for another at a particular
position in a polypeptide resulting in replacement of amino
acids along a peptide chain.
3. Nonsense mutations
It is a mutation which involves substitution, addition or
deletion of nucleotide base pairs that change an amino
acid specifying codon into a chain terminating codon. This
results in premature termination of a polypeptide chain
before synthesis of the normal gene.
4. Frameshift mutations
These are mutations that alter the reading frame so that the
gene is “misread”.
Types of mutations
as shape, size and colour of an organism, for example,
wrinkled seeds, dwarf and albinism often noticed in
variegated plants.
2. Lethal mutations
These are mutations that kill the organism carrying them as
in the case of the albino seedling discussed prior
3. Biochemical mutations
These are mutations which arise due to some defects in the
biochemical pathway.
4. Regulatory mutations
These mutations occur in genes which control activities
of other genes resulting in abnormal behaviour of the
organism.
5. Conditional mutations
These mutations only express themselves under certain
conditions for example when cold or hot or exposed to
shade conditions
Effects of mutations
Mutations are recessive and harmful. There are major
sources of variation and evolution that exist in the
population.
Chromosomal mutations
Chromosome mutations often arise due to changes in
the number of chromosomes. There are two sources of
variation in number of chromosomes, these are euploidy
and aneuploidy.
Euploidy
It is variation or change in the whole sets of chromosomes.
The normal set of chromosomes consists of one set of
chromosomes of a diploid organism in haploid condition
termed monoploid.
However, several species of organisms particularly plants
contain three or more sets of chromosomes known as
polyploids with 35% of them being angiosperms (flowering
plants) these are illustrated in Table 12.2 below.
Table 12.2 variations involving whole sets of chromosomes
Number of
Euploid Example
homologues
Monoploid One (n) ABC

Mutations are classified according to observable effects. Diploid Two (2n) AABBCC

Triploid Three (3n) AAABBBCCC

1. Morphological mutations
Tetraploid Four (4n) AAAABBBBCCCC
These are mutations that affect the morphology such

107
2. Dark markings found in the nucleus of the cell are
A. ribosomes B. chomosomes
C. RNA D. chloroplasts
3. In dihybrid test crosses what is the expected
phenotypic ratio?
A 1:1 B 3:1
C 1:1:1 D 9:3:3:1
4. Select the statement that explains ribonucleic acid
(RNA) interference.
A. RNA is double stranded.
B. RNA targets mRNA not to produce protein.
C. RNA allows for production of protein.
D. RNA does not target the breakdown of mRNA.
5. What is the site of protein synthesis?
A. Mitochondria B. Ribosomes
C. Cytoplasm D. Lysosomes
5. Which is the correct pairing order of the bases in the
DNA structure?
A. Adenine- Guanine (A-G)
B. Adenine-Cytosine (A-C)
C. Adenine-Thymine (A-T)
D. Guanine-Thymine (G-T)
7. Which one of the following is not a base in the DNA
structure?
A. Casinine B. Adenine
C. Thymine D. Guanine
8. Which type of mutation results in defects in
organisms?
A. Biochemical B. Regulatory
C. Conditional D. Morphological
9. Which statement best describe a polyploid?
A. An organism with a single set of chromosomes
B. An organism with two sets of chromosomes
C. An organism without a single set of chromosomes
D. an organism with more than two sets of
chromosomes
10. An example of an allopolyploid is
A. amaranthus hybridus.
B. zea mays.
C. nicotiana tabacum.
D. glycine max.
Structured Questions
1. Describe the structure of a chromosome. [8]
2. Describe the structure of the DNA. [8]
3. Describe the process of DNA replication. [10]
4. Discuss protein synthesis. [15]
5. Distinguish between transcription and translation. [7]
6. Outline Mendelian laws of inheritance. [8]
7. Discuss the application of mitosis and meiosis in crop
science. [6]
8. What are the causes of mutation in plants? [5]
9. Compare and contrast dominance and co-
dominance. [5]
10. Outline the effects of environment on gene
expression. [5]
Essay Questions
1. (a) What is the result of a cross between a tall maize
variety and a dwarf maize variety? [2]
(b) What is an allele? [2]
(c) Identify the alleles in the cross. [2]
(d) D
 raw a genetic diagram showing the results of the
F2 generation. [10]
(e) State the genotype and the phenotype ratios. [4]
2. A cross between Round Yellow peas and wrinkled
green peas produced all Round Yellow peas in the F1
generation.
(a) Which gene is dominant? [2]
(b) Draw a genetic diagram showing the results of
selfing the F1 and F2 generation. [10]
(c) State the phenotype and genotype ratios of the
F2 [4]
(d) What is the difference between phenotype and
genotype? [4]
3. Citing specific examples. discuss the types of
mutation in plants. [20]
Practical Exercises
1. Design a model of the chromosome structure
showing sections of the gene. [20]
2. Prepare a model of the DNA structure showing the
double helix and the process of DNA replication. [20]
3. Carryout an experiment to observe mitotic division in
onion cells under a microscope.
Materials: dried onion bulb, glass jar, water, tooth
pics.
Procedure
Fill the transparent glass jar with water to the three-
quarter mark. Insert a tooth pick on either sides of the
onion bulb just above the base. Place the bulb on top
of the glass jar and leave the jar for at least 14 days at
room temperature until you observe long adventitious
roots inside the glass.
Use the following materials: microscope, scapel,
methyl blue, iodine, glass strip, glass cover strip,
medicine dropper, water, paper towel to conduct the
experiment.
(a) Using the squashing technique, squash the long
roots of the onion bulb, add methyl blue and place
on the cover strips. Observe the cells under a
microscope and draw a sketch diagram of the cell.
[10]
(b) R emove a thin slice of the onion leaf and place it on
the glass, observe under a microscope and draw a
sketch diagram of the cell. [10]
109
Demerits
The main demerit of this method is that there are chances
of the entry of new diseases, insects and weeds in the
country along with the introduced material.
(a) The weeds like Mexican weed and Lantana have been
introduced from other countries with the introduction of
crop plants.
(b) T
 he fungal diseases like late blight of potato, flat smut of
wheat, coffee rust, bunchy top of banana – all have been
introduced in Zimbabwe along with plant materials.
Mass selection has also been utilised in purification of
varieties and improvement of both quantitative traits such
as yield and qualitative traits such as seed colour.
An alternative approach that has no doubt been practiced
for thousands of years is simply to eliminate undesirable
types by destroying them in the field. The results are similar
whether superior plants are saved or inferior plants are
eliminated: seeds of the better plants become the planting
stock for the next season as shown in Figure 12.23.
First Year

(c) Many insect pests like potato tuber moth, woolly aphis of Select 200-2000 plants with superior Harvest seeds separately from each
phenotype selected plant
apple, fluted scale of Citrus were introduced in Zimbabwe
along with plant introduction. However, in most of the
cases, the introduction of weeds, diseases and insect
pests occurred prior to establishment of quarantine Second Year
facilities by the crop protection unit at border posts
around Zimbabwe. Grow individual Reject inferior progeny Bulk the seed from
plant progeny through rogueing out remaining progeny

Plant selection
Selection is the process by which individual or groups
Third Year
of individuals are sorted out from a heterogeneous
mixed population. This may be an adapted land race or Preliminary yeild trail If superior, multiply Conduct yeild trails
the seed
segregating generation of a hybrid. Selection is the most
ancient and basic procedure in plant breeding.

It generally involves three distinct steps. First, a large

Fourth to Sixth Year: Plant in different locations release variety
number of selections are made from the genetically variable
original population. Second, progeny rows are grown from
the individual plant selections for observational purposes.
After obvious elimination, the selections are grown over
Seventh Year: Seed multiplication for distrubution
several years to permit observations of performance under
different environmental conditions for making further
Figure 12.23 Procedure of mass selection
eliminations.

Finally, the selected and inbred lines are compared to Merits

existing commercial varieties in their yielding performance
(a) Selection improves local varieties because genetic
and other aspects of agronomic importance. In traditional
variability is retained in the new variety.
plant breeding, breeders use self-pollinated crops in
(b) M aintains adaptability and stability of performance as
selection using the following methods:
the parent variety.
Types of plant selection (c) Does not demand a lot of time and effort from the
breeder.
1. Mass selection (d) E xtensive yield trials may not be needed before varietal
release.
It is a form of selection in which individual plants are
selected on the basis of their phenotype performance. In Demerits
mass selection, seeds are collected from (usually a few
(a) Selection does not create new variation but utilises
dozen to a few hundred) desirable appearing individuals
variation present in the population.
in a population, and the next generation is sown from the
(b) There is less uniformity than in pure lines.
stock of mixed seed. This procedure, sometimes referred
(c) Seed certification is generally difficult because of genetic
to as phenotypic selection, is based on how each individual
variability.
looks.Mass selection has been used widely to improve old
(d) O nly applicable to genetically variable homozygous
“land” varieties; varieties that have been passed down from
populations.
one generation of farmers to the next over long periods.

112
A hybrid produced by crossing two inbred lines as parents A
(female and B (male) as shown in Figure 12.25.
2. Double way cross (hybrid)
A hybrid formed by crossing two single-cross parents. Four
parents are used to produce a double way cross (AB Female
and CD male) as shown in Figure 12.26.
Figure 12.26 Double way hybrid
3. Three- way hybrid
Figure 12.27 Three-way hybrid
116
Formed by crossing a single cross female parent and an
inbred male parent as shown in Figure 12.27.
Principles of hybrid seed production
Strict monitoring should be done in order to maintain
varietal purity. It is important that seed producers and
breeders use approved seed only in seed multiplication.
The inspectorate department should ensure that the correct
seed is collected for planting.
Field inspection and approval of growing crops at critical
stages for verification of genetic purity, detection of
mixtures, weeds, freedom from noxious weeds and seed
borne diseases etc are done. Proper isolation distances
are maintained. There is need to ensure that sampling and
sealing of cleaned lots is authentic.
Steps in maintaining genetic purity
•• Providing adequate isolation to prevent
contamination by natural crossing or mechanical
mixtures.
•• Rouging of seed fields prior to the stage at which
they could contaminate the seed crop.
•• Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity.
•• Avoiding genetic shifts by growing crops in areas
in their adaptation only.
•• Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic
purity and quality of seed.
•• Adopting the generation system.
•• Grow out tests.
Agronomic principles
A crop variety grown for seed should be grown in an area
where it is adaptable to the agro-ecological conditions
prevailing in that area. Most varieties particularly for maize
are bred for specific agro-ecological zones.
The seed plot should have good fertile soils, free from
weed, volunteer plants, soil borne pests and diseases. The
seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of
the same crops and the other contaminating crops as per
requirement of the certification standards.
The recommended distance for certified seed is 360m,
Foundation 720m and OPVs 230-350m.Seed should be
treated against fungal diseases, to break dormancy or for
the purpose of inoculation. Mechanical drilling is ideal for
sowing seeds as the seed is placed to the correct depth.
When planting maize the ratio of female to male should be
3:1 or 6:2.
Rogueing off should be done during the vegetative phase
of the crop. Irrigation should be available during critical
periods of moisture stress. Tassels of female maize plants
should be removed to avoid contamination. Seed should be
harvested in good time to avoid losses.
Traditional Commercial Hybrids 9. Which statement is true about production of a three-
(land)Open OPVs way cross?
pollinated A. A product of a cross between two inbred parents.
varieties (OPVs) B. A product of a cross between an inbred parent and
a single cross.
Seed is cheap Expensive. Very expensive.
C. A product of a cross between two single cross
and available in
parents.
the local market.
D. A product of a cross between a single cross and an
Mainly for family Suitable for For commercial OPV.
consumption. medium markets. production. 10. Which of the following is not a procedure for plant
introduction?
A. Quarantining B. Cataloguing
Activity 12.2 C. Multiplication D. Curing

Field visit
Structured Questions

Learners with the help of the teacher visit a farm or
the Crop Breeding Institute or Herbarium to identify
germplasm for at least three major crops.
Exercise 12.2
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Describe plant introduction as a breeding tool. [10]
2. Outline the differences between primary and
secondary plant introduction. [10]
3. Examine the merits and demerits of plant
introduction. [10]
4. Distinguish between mass selection and pure-line
selection. [10]
5. Explain how germplasm is collected for the school
bank. [10]

1. The transposition of crop plants from their place of

cultivation to a new location is termed
A. plant selection B. hybridisation
C. plant introduction D. transplanting
2. Sorghum improved varieties were introduced in
A. 1904 B. 1940
C. 1964 D.1970
3. Centres of origin of the crop are known as
A. Herbariums B. Gardens
C. Sanctuaries D. Vavilov
4. Maize originated from
A. Americas B. Ireland
C. Madrid D. Mexico
5. Crossing two genetically divergent parents is known
as
A. selfing B. selection
C. hybridisation D. bulking
6. An example of an open pollinated variety is
A. ZM 421 B. SC 529
C. SC401 D. SC 701
7. Isolation distance for certified seed maize production
is
A. 720M B. 240M
C. 360M D.300M
8. The removal of Off types is known as
A. Detasseling
B. Slashing
C. Thinning
D. Rogueing
Essay Questions
1. With reference to crop science, discuss the
importance of plant introduction citing specific
examples where necessary. [20]
2. Examine how mass selection and pure-line selection
are used in crop breeding. [20]
3. Discuss how genetic purity can be achieved in seed
maize production. [20]
4. Citing examples, discuss the advantages of
hybridisation over OPVs in plant breeding. [20]
Practical Exercises
1. Collect germplasm for at least three plants from your
school gene bank and document. [20]
2. Grow two maize plant OPVs in a plot measuring 10m2
and label the male and female. Remove tassels at
flowering and collect seed. Compare the product with
both parents and document. Produce a report of the
cross. [20]
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a set of tools that uses living organisms (or
parts of organisms) to make or modify a product, improve
plants, trees or animals, or develop microorganisms for
specific uses.

118
4. Outline the importance of backcrossing after •• Changes in chromosome number include euploidy
inserting a gene. [10] and aneuplody while structure includes deletions
and duplication.
Essay Questions •• Types of gene expression are Dominance,
co-dominance, partial dominance and over
1. Discuss the merits and demerits of genetic dominance.
engineering. [20] •• There are four plant breeding methods which are
2. Citing specific examples discuss methods used in plant introduction, plant selection, hybridisation
plant tissue culture. [20] and biotechnology.
•• Plant introduction occurs in two ways namely
primary and secondary introduction.
Practical Exercises
•• Plant selection is done through mass selection,
pure-line, recurrent, half sib and full sib.
1. Design a model showing insertion of the
•• The three types of hybrids are single, double- and
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, gene
three-way cross.
insertion. [20]
•• Biotechnology is a set of tools that utilises plant
2. Using the following growth hormones; Auxin or
tissue culture and genetic engineering.
GAS, conduct a micro propagation experiment and
document results. [20]
Unit Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
Summary of the unit
1. __________ is the smallest unit of inheritance.
•• Genetics is the scientific study of inheritance.
A. Chromosome B. Nucleus
•• Organisms pass on genetic characteristics from one
C. DNA D. Gene
generation of plants to other.
2. In dihybrid test crosses what is the expected
•• Genetic material is located in chromosomes found
phenotypic ratio?
in the nucleus of the cell.
A. 1:1 B. 3:1
•• The genetic material called DNA packed in
C. 1:1:1 D. 9:3:3:1
chromosomes which are twisted together to form a
3. The correct order of pairing the bases in the DNA
double helix.
structure is
•• DNA multiplies through replication.
A. Adenine-Guanine (A-G)
•• Transcription and translation are the processes
B. Adenine-Cytosine (A-C)
involved in protein synthesis (manufacture).
C. Adenine-Thymine (A-T)
•• There are two types of cell division: mitosis and
D. Guanine-Thymine (G-T)
meiosis.
4. ______________ mutation results in defects in organisms.
•• Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in
A. Biochemical B. Regulatory
production of diploid number of chromosomes
C. Conditional D. Morphological
which facilitate growth of an organism.
5. The removal of Off types is known as
•• Meiosis is a reduction division that produces
A. detasseling B. slashing
haploid number of chromosomes (gametes) in
C. thinning D. rogueing
sexual reproduction organ.
6. Isolation distance for certified seed maize production
•• Meiosis is the major source of variation through
is
crossing over and random assortment.
A. 720M B. 240M
•• Mendel’s studies on peas produced two laws
C. 360M D. 300M
namely: law of segregation and law of independent
7. An example of an open pollinated variety is
assortment.
A. ZM 421 B. SC 529
•• Law of assortment: contrasting forms of character
C. SC401 D. SC 701
are controlled by pairs of unlike alleles which
8. Centres of origin of the crop are known as
separate into equal numbers of different gametes
A. Herbariums B. Gardens
resulting in the production of a monohybrid.
C. Sanctuaries D. Vavilov
•• Law of independent assortment: when two or more
9. The transposition of crop plants from their place of
characters are brought together, they segregate
cultivation to a new location is termed
and assort independently of each other resulting in
A. plant selection B. hybridisation
production of a dihybrid.
C. plant introduction D. transplanting

124
 TOPIC 5: PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION
Weeds, pests and diseases
Unit
13
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
•• outline the socio-economic importance of weeds, pests
and diseases.
•• identify weeds, pests and plant diseases within your
locality and elsewhere.
•• classify weeds, pests according to feeding habits and
disease into bacterial, fungal and viral.
•• describe how weeds remain persistence.
•• describe the life cycle of pests.
•• describe signs and symptoms of diseases.
•• explain the mechanisms of crop-weed competition.
•• describe modes of disease transmission.
Introduction
Plant protection is the science and practice that involve
management of weeds, pests and diseases that are harmful
to crops and plants. This negatively affects the livelihood
of the farmer. The major emphasis of plant protection is
keeping the plant healthy, free from damages caused by
pests, weeds and diseases by practicing environmentally
friendly management practices. The importance of plant
protection in an Agriculture based country like Zimbabwe
needs no emphasis, because of the fact that the conditions
for the multiplication of weeds, pests and diseases are very
conducive, particularly during the rainy season. Due to
the ignorance of modern approaches of control methods
such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Biotechnology,
Transgenic works among others, the International food and
Agriculture Organization has highlighted that the destruction
of weeds, pests and diseases is a subject of prime importance
in agricultural production. In this regard, we shall have to
combat crop enemies with technological skills through the
use of effective methods of control. This unit, focus as mainly
on weeds, pests, diseases and their management.
Glossary of terms
Antibiosis – the resistance of a plant to insect attack by
having for example, a thick cuticle hairy leaves, toxic sap
and others.
Cocoon – a protective case, often silken, inside which the
larva turns into the pupa.
Conidia – fungal spores produced asexually form
specialised hyphae (conidiophores).
Conidiophore – a fungal hypha which produces conidia.
Diluent – component of spray or dust that reduces the
concentration of the active ingredient but does not directly
affect toxicity.
Inoculum – that part or quantity of a pathogenic organism
which can infect a host.
Instar – the form of an insect between successive moults,
the first instar being the stage between hatching and first
moult.
Monophagous – an insect restricted to a single species of
host plant.
Propagule – part of an organism capable of propagating the
species, for example, seed, spore.
Saprophyte – an organism living on dead organic matter.
Viviparous virulence – giving birth to a living young (for
example, Aphidoidea).
Virulence – measure of the ability of a pathogen to infect a
host and cause disease.
Weeds
A weed is a generally unwanted organism or plant that
thrives in habitats disturbed by man. A weed is a plant
growing where man does not want it to be.
125
 TOPIC 6: CROP PRODUCTION

Unit Agronomic principles

14
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
•• explain the basis for dividing Zimbabwe into agro-
ecological zones.
•• discuss primary and secondary tillage systems and
their significance to cropping.
•• research on the effectiveness of tillage systems in view
of the impact of climate change.
•• calculate plant population of any given area.
•• analyse the major determinants of plant population.
•• outline the principles of crop rotation.
•• discuss the merits and demerits of crop rotation.
•• design a for year cycle crop rotation.
•• discuss the factors to consider when selecting a crop
cultivar.
•• design and manage cropping projects (one cereal and
legume up to harvesting).
•• demonstrate a clear understanding of crop
management through keeping sound records.
•• apply crop production skills to solve problems that
arise in the management of crops.
Introduction
Ever since Early Man rubbed two sticks together to make fire,
plants have played a vital role in the history of mankind. The
cultivation of grain changed nomads into village dwellers,
wooden boats allowed civilisations to explore new lands,
and precious spices were used from earliest times to trade
between nations. Later on, it was Christopher Columbus’s
search for new spice routes that led to his discovery of the
Americas and their colonisation by Europeans. Plants provide
food, medicines, spices and raw materials for industries. In
crop production practices, management involves both the
crop and the environment in which the production processes
are done. Crops are selected on the basis of their ability
to withstand the agro-ecological conditions of that area in
order to produce high yields. Management entails designing
suitable crop rotation practices that reduce weeds, pests and
disease outbreaks and increase maximum productivity.
Glossary of terms
Agro-ecological zone – large area where the general
pattern of land use is common throughout and Agricultural
activities are tailored to suit the natural conditions in that
particular area.
Crop rotation – the growing of different types of crops on
the same piece of land in a planned sequence in successive
seasons.
Plant population – the number of plants per unit area of
land or hectare.
Tillage – is any planned disturbance of the soil or a
sequence of operations (cutting, inverting or shattering) that
manipulate the soil in order to prepare the soil for good
crop establishment.
Synchronisation – the timing of pollen shedding to the
receptive silk.
Maturity – is the stage in which the crop is physiologically
ready to be utilised. At this stage, growth ceases, and
the physical features of the plant begin to show maturity
indices.
Small grains – small seeded cereal grain crops that belong
to the grass family and they are mainly grown in regions
IV and V (Arid areas) because of their resilience to high
temperatures and moisture stress.
Post-harvest technology – refers to strategies employed
by farmers in handling produce from harvesting to storage.

151
1. Primary tillage Conventional tillage brings about uniformity to the seedbed
which is necessary for good crop establishment, conserves
This is the first stage in land preparation which involves moisture, buries weeds and helps to break the life cycles of
loosening the soil to a depth between 150mm and 900mm. pests and disease pathogen by either burying or exposing
Heavy duty tillage implements such as the ox drawn mould them to predators.
board plough, disc plough and ripper are used to perform
the tillage operations. Implements used in primary tillage
are the ox-drawn mouldboard plough, chisel plough, disc
plough, sub-soiler and rippers.

The purpose of primary tillage is to loosen the soil in order

to facilitate water and root penetration, conservation of
moisture and air circulation.

Primary tillage helps to break the life cycles of pests and

disease pathogens. Primary tillage is performed using
conventional, reduced and conservation tillage systems.

Tillage systems are often classified by the amount of surface

residue left on the soil surface and the degree of the tillage
whether whole or partial disturbance.

2. Conventional tillage

It is an age-old practice in which the whole field is ploughed

using heavy duty tillage implements. The heavy tillage
implements often loosen the soil and incorporate materials
at the surface (fertilisers, amendments, weeds), followed
by one or more secondary passes of secondary tillage
implements in order to produce a fine seedbed (tilth).
Conventional tillage is often done using the round and
round method. In this case the farmer tills the whole land
either starting from the centre or divides the land into
portions then starts from the edges of the portion moving in
circles. The mouldboard is shown in Figure 14.2.
Figure 14.3 Ploughing using a disc plough
However, conventional tillage requires a lot of energy and
time to complete. Soil compaction is common particularly
in heavy textured soils. The practice leads to the formation
of a plough pan especially where the depth of ploughing is
maintained annually.
The practice exposes the soil surface to erosion since less
than 15% residue cover remains above the soil surface while
the rest is buried in the ground as shown in Figure 14.4.

Handles for holding the plough

Mouldboard Ploughshare

The plough Wheel Hitch Figure 14.4 Soil cover buried leaving soil exposed to soil erosion

Figure 14.2 The mouldboard plough 3. Sub-soiling and ripping

The land can also be tilled using tractor drawn implements Sub-soiling and ripping of the land may also be done under
such as the disc plough shown in Fig 14.3 or the chisel conventional tillage in order to break hard and compacted
plough. soils using sub-soilers and rippers respectively.

155
7. Secondary tillage
Is the second stage after conventional tillage mainly done to
refine the seedbed in preparation for planting after primary
tillage. The soil is disturbed to a depth between 5 and 15 cm
using various implements such as disc harrows, rollers and
ridgers to produce a fine tilth needed for seed-soil contact.
Primary tillage often leaves a rough tilth consisting of
clods and uneven piece of land which makes it difficult
for seedlings to emerge. It becomes necessary to bring in
implements that break clods, level the land, incorporate
fertilisers, remove weeds and produce a fine tilth needed
for germination as shown in Fig 14.7. Harrows consist of two
types namely large rakes and disc harrows which are either
ox or tractor drawn.
Figure 14.7 A well prepared seedbed
The tillage operations consume a lot of fuel and time.
However, more moisture is conserved and there are
high germination percentages since the clods that hinder
germination will have been destroyed.
8. Tilth
It is the appearance of soil after tillage operations have
been performed. It is a physical condition which is observed
on the land and can either be rough or fine.
Good soil tilth should be mellow or friable (mellowness or
friability of soil is that property of the soil by which the clods
when dry, become crumblier; crumbling of soil leading to
gradual disintegration of clods. Soil with good tilth is quite
porous and has free drainage up to the water table.
The capillary and non-capillary pores are about equal so
that sufficient amount of water is retained in soil as well as
free air.
Soil aeration, microbial activity and chemical reactions in
the soil increase with increase in non-capillary pores. Total
porosity and pore size distribution are important to improve
moisture retention and availability of oxygen in the rooting
zone. Powdery soil encourages surface crusting when the
soil dries after wetting. Soil aggregate should be stable
enough to withstand water and wind erosion
Plant population
Plant population refers to the number of plants per unit
area of land or hectare.
Example: 55 000 maize plants per hectare.
Plant spacing, on the other hand, refers to the arrangement
of plants on the area planted. Example: Widely varying plant
spacings such as 1 000mm × 10mm, 500mm 20mm and 100
mm 100mm, all give a plant population of 100 plants per
square metre.
How to determine plant population on
your farm
Plant population can be determined using several methods
but only three methods are commonly used, namely, the
use of the plant population calculator, plant population
formula and the study of plant population frequency by
quadrat method.
The first one is the use of plant population calculator this is
the easiest method of determining plant population.
The calculator is an automated device or program that has
been designed to determine the total number of plants that
will cover a portion of land with the aid of data provided by
the farmer. Such data are: land area, planting distance or
spacing and seed rate.
Once all these are provided, the device automatically
provides the number of plants that accommodates the
provided land area. The use of plant population calculator
is a pre-planting operation. This method helps the farmer to
determine the actual seed requirements for the area to be
planted.
The plant population formula
Is given by the formula
Is given by formula Area = area of a hectare = 100m* 100m = 100* 1000* 100*1000mm
Spacing = 900*300mm = 900*300mm = 900*300mm
Which is equal to 100 000 = 111,1 rows and 100 000 = 333,3 plants per row
900mm* 300mm
Therefore, no of rows = 111.1 and number of plants per row
= 333.3
157
Examples of rotations Exercise 14.1
Some rotations include:

•• Soyabean-wheat-cotton-fallow middle veld. Multiple Choice Questions

•• Tobacco-wheat-maize-grass (Katambora).
•• Cotton-maize-soyabeans-sunflower.
•• Sunflower-Irish potatoe-sorghum-cotton. Below
is an example of a four-year cycle rotation.
Merits of crop rotation
Following are the advantages of an appropriate crop
rotation:
•• Higher yield without incurring extra investment.
•• Enhance soil fertility and microbial activity.
•• Avoid accumulation of toxic substances.
•• The legumes fix nitrogen from the atmosphere
and enrich the soil with their root system.
•• Better utilisation of nutrients and soil moisture.
•• Insurance against natural devastation so the risk
of crop failure is reduced.
•• Maintain soils in good health by avoiding insect
pest, diseases and weed problems.
•• Provide proper labour, power and capital
distribution throughout the year.
•• Higher chances to provide diversified
commodities.
•• Slow but steady income, which is beneficial to
marginal and small farmers.
•• Deep rooted crops work the soil below plough
layer.
•• Reduce cost of pesticides.
•• Creates a balance of the ecosystem which helps
to prevent soil erosion.
•• Improves physical properties of soils.
Demerits of crop rotation
•• Specialisation in one crop is not possible.
•• Requirement of equipment and machinery
varies from one crop to another so the farmer
has to purchase a diversity of equipment in
order to meet the demands of the crop.
•• Allopathic effect of preceding crop.
Activity 14.1
Field visit
Assess the land use or cropping pattern of the farm.
1. Which of the following crops is mainly cultivated in
agro-ecological zone 1?
A. Sugar cane B. Sorghum
C. Irish potatoe D. Cotton
2. Which zone is suitable for the production of fodder
crops?
A. Zone 1 B. Zone 3
C. Zone 5 D. Zone 4
3. Which one of the following is not a determinant of an
agro-ecological zone?
A. Climate B. Vegetation
C. Soil type D. Aspect
4. Select a crop that does not belong to the family of
crops listed below.
A. Irish potatoe B. Parprika
C. Sasame D. Tobacco
5. Identify a deep-rooted crop from the list.
A. Groundnuts B. Rapoko
C. Sunflower D. Maize
6. Which one of the following implements is not used
for primary tillage?
A. Disc harrow B. Disc plough
C. Ripper D. Sub-soiler
7. Identify an implement that is used to break the
formation of a plough pan.
A. Ox drawn mouldboard plough
B. Ripper
C. Chisel
D. Rotary plough
8. Which one is the ideal time for land preparation?
A. Summer B. Autum
C. Winter D. Spring
9. Which implement is used to drain excess moisture
from the field?
A. Disc plough B. Ripper
C. Sub-soiler D. Disc harrow
10. The plant population per hectare of maize using 90
by 30cm is
A. 36 000 B. 36 693
C. 37 593 D. 36 400
Summary of the unit
•• An agro-ecological zone is a large piece of land
that has the same climatic factors (rainfall and
temperature), soil type and vegetation.
•• Regions with high mean annual rainfall may afford
to grow the long season cultivars while those that
receive low mean annual rainfall may only grow the
short season cultivars. Rainfall determines the LGP
of a crop.

161
 TOPIC 6: CROP PRODUCTION

Cereal and legume crop

Unit

15
production

Unit objectives Glossary of terms

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Cereals – is a member of the grass family , rich in
carbohydrates hence it is mainly grown as a major source
•• discuss the origin of a named legume and cereal crop. of energy.
•• explain the uses of the named legume and cereal crop.
•• describe growth stages of a named cereal and legume Legumes – is a member of Fabaceae or Leguminoseae
crop in relation to moisture stress. family whose roots contain nodules that fix nitrogen from
•• describe the soil and climatic requirements of a named the atmosphere and produce pods which contain seeds
legume and cereal crop. rich in proteins source which are utilised for human and
•• discuss factors considered when choosing appropriate livestock consumption.
legume and cereal crop cultivars.
•• describe the planting of a named cereal and legume Crop origins, soil and climatic
crop. requirements
•• discuss the management of a legume and cereal crop.
•• identify weeds, pests and diseases of a named cereal Cereal crops
and legume crop.
•• discuss ways of controlling weeds, pests and diseases in Cereals are members of the grass family, they are rich in
a crop named cereal and legume crop. carbohydrate hence they are mainly grown as a source of
•• describe harvesting indices and methods of a named energy. The cereal crops grown in Zimbabwe are maize,
cereal and legume crops. sorghum, finger millet, pearl millet, rapoko, rice and wheat.
•• describe post-harvesting technology of a named legume
and cereal crop.
Maize
•• discuss the marketing of a named legume and cereal Botanical name: Zea mays L
crop.
•• discuss the significance of record keeping in the Origin: South America - Mexico
production of a named cereal and legume crop.
Uses

Introduction Maize is the staple food in Zimbabwe which is produced in

Cereals and legumes are major crops grown in Zimbabwe
for production of food. Apart from being a source of food for
human beings, the crops are utilised in the manufacture of
livestock feed and detergents. It is imperative that learners
acquire basic principles and practices in the production of
grains in Africa for food security so as to restore the bread
basket status of Africa.
almost all agro ecological zones; it is processed into mealie
meal, samp and mealie rice. In the last two decades, maize
has widely spread and replaced most traditional cereal
crops.
In addition maize is used for: Industrial use that includes
oil extraction, oil is used in olivine industry for making
soap mixing with concentrates for livestock feed and
manufacture of alcohol and roasted maputi.

163
 EXAM 1
Paper 1: 9. The Krebs cycle occurs in the
A. matrix.
Multiple Choice Questions B. mitochondria.
Answer all questions (40 marks) C. stroma.
D. cristae.
1. Which one of the following is not a method of 10. Which of the following starts in the taxonomic
classifying plants? hierarchy?
A. Use A. Genus
B. Part eaten B. Family
C. Life cycle C. Kingdom
D. Area under production D. Species
2. The resting phase in the cycle of a cell is termed 11. Which plant growth hormone induces vernalisation in
A. prophase. plants?
B. interphase. A. Auxin
C. telophase. B. Cytokinin
D. metaphase. C. Gibberellin
3. During which stage of Meiosis does synapsis occurs D. Ethylene
A. leptotene. 12. Which hormone is used in maintaining shelf life of
B. zygotene. flowers?
C. pachytene. A. Auxin
D. diplotene. B. Cytokinin
4. The mangrove plant is classified as a C. Gibberellin
A. xerophyte. D. Ethylene
B. mesophyte. 13. Ethylene can be used to
C. halophyte. A. facilitate bud growth.
D. hydrophyte. B. rooting of stalks.
5. Which of the following plants is not a dicotyledonous C. ripening of fruits.
plant? D. breaking bud dormancy.
A. Jack beans 14. If the bulk density of a soil sample is 1 000kg m-3
B. Pigeon pea and the particle density is 2 060kg m-3. What is the
C. Rape porosity of the soil expressed as a percentage?
D. Rapoko A. 51.45
6. In which family does soya beans belong to B. 10.60
A. solanaceae. C. 50.00
B. gramineae. D. 48.50 36
C. fabaceae. 15. Which of the following horizons acts as a reservoir?
D. cruciferae. A. Zone A
7. Gymnosperms are B. Zone B
A. plants that produces flowers. C. Zone C
B. plants that produces spores. D. Zone D
C. plants that bears fruits. 16. Which one of the following is rocks issued in the
D. plants that lacks a true root. manufacture of fertilizer?
8. Ribosomes are responsible for ________ in a cell. A. Granite
A. lipid synthesis B. Olivine
B. fat oxidation C. Apatite
C. protein synthesis D. Marble
D. translation

225
Paper 3
Answer all questions (40 marks)

1. Soil samples: 100g of A1 and A2 dry soils.

Weigh the soils and heat the soil for a few minutes and reweigh and record.

Put in a crucible and place in an oven and bake soil at 1 000°C for 30 minutes (until soil is completely red hot and dark).

Cool soil, weigh and record the mass.

(a) W hat is the purpose of heating the soil before baking? [2]
(b) Which soil property is being investigated? [2]
(c) W hich soil property is under investigation when soil is placed in the oven? [2]
(d) Calculate the content of the property. [4]
(e) E xpress the mass of the property as a percentage of the original soil sample. [4]
(f) W
 hat is the significance of the soil property in crop science? [3]
(g) H ow can farmers improve the availability of the soil property? [3]

2. Onion bulb, iodine, water, scalpel blade, dropper, glass strip, cover strip and microscope.
Set up the microscope and remove a thin strip of onion cells and place on the glass strip. Add a drop of water and
iodine using the dropper, cover and place under a microscope. Observe after at least 10 minutes.

(a) D
 raw a sketch diagram of your observation on the onion cells. [6]
(b) Label any 4 parts. [4]
(c) State the functions of the four parts identified. [4]
(d) W
 hat is the difference between mitosis and meiosis? [6]

228
 EXAM 2
Paper 1 9. Which condition is favourable for C3 plants?
A. Moderate sunlight intensity.
Answer all questions B. Very high sunlight intensity.
C. Very low sunlight intensity.
1. The first stage in seed germination process is
D. Water logged conditions.
A. increased metabolic activity.
10. Which weed control method is most environmentally
B. swelling of cells.
friendly?
C. imbibition.
A. Cultural control
D. cellular respiration.
B. Chemical control
2. Which of the following factors expose the crop to
C. Biological control
noxious substances during weed crop competitions?
D. Integrated weed control
A. Habour pests
11. Pest control measures should be adopted when pest
B. Reduce yield
numbers are at
C. Allelopathy
A. above threshold level.
D. Grain contamination
B. below threshold level.
3. Which of the following is a physiological effect of
C. above economic level.
ethylene on plants?
D. equilibrium position.
A. Delays ripening of fruits.
12. Double fertilisation in plants leads to two structures
B. Leaf and flower abscission.
found in the seed namely
C. Promotes cell division and differentiation.
A. radicle and endosperm.
D. Stomata closure.
B. embryo and radical.
4. The growth regulator which facilitates cytokinesis is
C. embryo and endosperm.
A. auxin.
D. plamule and endosperm.
B. ethylene.
13. Pest control measures should be adopted when pest
C. gibberelins.
numbers are at
D. abscisic.
A. above threshold level.
5. A compound which is found in all living cells and plays
B. below threshold level.
a key role in energy transformation is
C. above economic level.
A. adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
D. equilibrium position.
B. adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
14. Which group of pests transmit viral disease?
C. adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
A. Biting and chewing
D. adenosine.
B. Piercing and sucking
6. The second group of pigments involved in
C. Boring
photosynthesis besides chlorophyll is
D. Nematodes
A. carotenes.
15. Which of the following is an example of hydrous mica?
B. xanthophylls.
A. Montmorillonite
C. carotenoids.
B. Illite
D. phytochrome.
C. Kaolinite
7. Which of the following statements applies to
D. Chlorite
scarification?
16. Which one of the following is not a building block of
A. Immersing seed into a weak acid.
clay?
B. Subjecting seed to low temperature.
A. Silicon
C. Immersing seed in cold water.
B. Oxygen
D. Subjecting seed to moist conditions.
C. Aluminium
8. Which of the following is an example of hydrous mica?
D. Iron
A. Montmorillonite B. Illite
C. Kaolinite D. Chlorite

229
Index Cohesion 49, 50, 91,92
Conservation farming 156, 166, 178, 195, 211
Cork cambium 21, 24
Cotton 30, 40, 85, 107, 122
A Crop rotation 139, 142, 151, 160
Cyperaceae 2
Acid rain 93
Cytokinin 22, 25, 30, 38
Acidity 63, 69, 85, 93,94, 218, 231
Cytology 1, 3, 5, 11, 15, 17
Adhesion 7, 23, 49, 50
Cytosol 6, 7, 62, 64
ADP 9, 22, 56, 61, 62, 65, 68
AEC 92, 94, 95, 142 D
Aeration 46, 75, 78, 89, 157, 158, 162, 165
Alkalinity 69, 90, 93, 94, 231 Dark reaction 9, 60, 61, 68
Anaphase 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 97, 100, 102 Decomposition 74, 79, 87, 89,
Anaphase 1 12, 14, 15, 17, 102, 103 Diakinesis 12, 17, 101
Anion exchange capacity 92 Dicotyledons 47, 127
Annuals 4, 6, 33, 127, 128, Diplotene 12, 13, 101
Anthesis 20, 38 Diseases 47, 71, 97, 105
Antipodal 35, 36 Divison 123, 139
Apical meristem 19, 20, 24, 25, 31, 39, 43 DNA 9, 14, 56, 67, 85, 96
Armyworm 131, 178, 183 Dodder plant 147, 148, 232
ATP 8, 9, 22, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 229, 231 Dominance relations 104
Auxin 22, 25, 28, 29, 30, 72, 85, 118, 122, 227 Dormancy 116, 128, 170, 189
Drainage 53, 69, 77, 89, 143, 153
B
E
Bacteria 125, 130, 135, 145, 148, 195, 200
Basal meristem 19 Endosperm 19, 27, 33, 40
Base saturation 779, 86, 90, 93, 95, 99 Endospermous seeds 40, 41
Biennial 4, 6, 16, 16, 27, 127, 230 Epigeal germination 44, 45, 48
Biological nitrogen fixation 56, 57, 58, 217 Epiphytes 5, 63
Biotic factors 158
F
Boron 83, 85, 86
Bulk density 79, 80, 81, 95, 225 Family 5, 17, 133
Bundle sheath 62, 63, Fixation 198, 200, 207
Flower 71, 74, 104, 106, 114
C
Flowering 159, 164, 168, 176
C:N ratio 87, 88, 94 Form 179, 184, 186, 194
C3 plants 60, 63, Fruit development 33, 36, 40
C4 plants 62, 63 Fruit set 30, 38
Calvin cycle 9, 17, 61, 63, 68 Fungi 43, 53, 88, 120, 133, 139, 140, 176
CAM pathway 59, 63, 64, 68
G
Cation exchange capacity 57, 91, 92, 93, 94
CEC 79, 90, 92, 93, 95, 230 Gametogenesis 34, 40, 100
Cell differentiation 15, 17, 23, 25, 31, 53 Genetics 96, 123,
Cell elongation 15, 17, 23, 25, 31, 53 Genus 127,, 146, 225
Cell expansion 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 31, 52 Germination 26, 27, 30, 37, 39
Cell wall 51, 52, 53, 119, 135 Gibberellins 22, 25, 30, 38
Cereal crops 139, 163,172, 178, 188, 209, 215, 221 Glycolysis 38, 64, 66
Cereals 5, 24, 33, 39, 42, 45, 58, 60, 163 Golgi apparatus 6, 10
Chlorites 74, 84, 91, 92 Gravitational water 74, 75
Chloroplast 6, 97, 108, 120
Chlorosis 70, 83, 144, 149, 168 H
Chromosomes 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 35, 97, 177
Halophytes 4, 5
Class 125, 127, 131, 138, 139, 152
Hatch- slack pathway 62, 63, 67
Clays 76, 78, 80, 84, 89, 91, 94, 95
Hybridization 109
Cleavage 65, 66

234
Hydrophytes 4, 5, 6
Hygroscopic water 74, 75, 81
Hypogeal germination 42, 44, 45, 47
I
Illite 91, 92, 94
Immobilisation 89, 94
Individual 97, 98, 109, 111, 129
Indolacetic acid 28
Intercalary meristem 25, 31
Interphase 11, 100
Iron compounds 77
Isomorphous substitution 90, 94
K
Kandite 91
Kaolinite 74, 91, 94, 229
Kinetin 26, 30, 72
Krebs cycle 9, 10, 16, 64, 66, 68
L
Lateral meristem 20, 21, 31
Legumes 56, 58, 159, 163
Leptotene 12, 15, 17, 189
Light dependent 26, 61, 68,
Lime 4, 77, 190, 194,
M Plasmodesmata 27, 53, 63
Magnesium octahedron 91
Maize 144, 160, 165, 174
Malic acid 62, 63, 66
Matric potential 52, 55
Megaspores 35
Meiosis 67, 100, 107, 123
Mendelian inheritance 103
Meristematic cells 20, 22, 24, 25
Meristems 19, 31, 39
Mesophytes 4, 5, 6
Metaphase II 14, 15, 17, 102
Mites 88, 90, 131, 136
Mitochondria 8, 10, 16
Mitochondrion7, 64, 66
Mitosis 10, 12, 15, 17, 25, 100
Monocotyledons 5, 47
Montmorillonite 74, 80, 92, 94, 229
Morphogenesis 26
Mother cell 34, 36, 37, 142
N
NAD 61, 66, 165
NADH 64, 66
NADP 9, 61, 64
Necrosis 70, 140, 149, 191
Negative charges 90
Nematodes 130, 131, 134
Nodulation 56, 58, 84
Non endospermous 19, 33, 38, 40
Nucleus 6, 67, 98, 99
O
OPVs 96, 116, 118, 227
Order2, 6, 73
Organic matter93, 181, 199
Osmotic potential 44, 49, 52, 55
Ovary 134, 160, 190
Ovule 33, 38
P
Particle density 80, 82
Permanent charges 90, 95
Pests 110, 121, 125
pH 125, 129, 135, 137
Phosphoenolpyruvate 62, 66
Photolysis 66, 68, 72
Photolysis of water 9, 68, 231
Photoperiodism 19, 34, 40, 41
Photophosphorylation 61, 68
Plant growth regulators 19, 24, 30, 68
Plant population 151, 157, 159
Plant selection 96, 112, 123
Plasma membrane 6, 7, 70
Pollination 84, 124, 128, 164
Prophase 11, 15, 17, 101, 174
Protein synthesis 7, 16, 17, 71, 83
Proteins 9, 38, 94, 97, 99, 163,
Protoplasm 53, 59, 74
R
Record keeping 163, 187, 197
Ribosomes 6, 8, 9, 10, 17, 44, 99
Root apical meristem 19, 20, 32
Root crops 3, 118, 205
Rough endoplasmic reticulum 6, 8, 17
S
Salinity 69, 93, 218
Second phase 44
Secondary meristems 21
Seed dormancy 27, 45, 189
Seed structure 39, 42, 43
Seed viability 45, 47, 48, 204
Silica tetrahedron 73, 91, 94
Silicate clays 90, 93, 94
Sodium 7, 74, 92, 152
Soil acidity 94, 99, 231
Soil air 75, 81, 200
Soil colloids 90
235
Soil organic matter 216, 218
Soil salinity 93, 95
Soil structure 78, 79, 86, 164, 212
Soil temperature 89, 143, 213, 215
Soil texture 57, 73, 78, 79
Soil water 148, 211, 223
Solanaceae 2, 5, 6
Species 16, 25, 38
Sperm cell 34, 38, 43
Starch 44, 61, 67, 74, 87
Subclass 2, 5, 6
Synergids 36, 37

Taxonomy 1, 6, 127
Telophase 11, 12, 16
Temperature 108,127, 140
Termites 90, 137, 167, 186
Tetrazolium test 45, 48
Tissue culture 96, 118, 124, 226
Tobacco 25, 85, 109, 124
Transgenic crops 120

Vacuole 19, 21, 44, 52,

Vascular cambium 21, 24
Vermiculite 84, 91, 94
Vernalisation 4, 19, 33, 72
Viability 45, 47, 48

Water 7, 9, 43
Water retention 69, 81, 94
Water soluble 87, 89, 94
Weeds 111, 127
Winter annuals 4, 33

Xerophytes 4, 5, 6

Zinc, 70, 83, 86

Zygotene 12, 17, 101, 225

236