PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODIES

Human Sense Organs

1. The Eye
 The eye is the sense organ that allows one to see. It has receptors that receive light as
stimulus from our surroundings.

The parts of the eye include:

 Iris, the colored area of your eye. Depending on your eye color, the iris might be any
shade of blue, green, hazel or brown.
 Cornea, a clear layer that extends over the iris. Water and collagen make up the cornea.
Your tears protect your cornea and keep it lubricated.
 Pupil, the black circle which is an opening or window in the middle of your iris. It expands
and contracts to control how much light gets into your eye.
 The sclera, the white parts of your eye that surround the iris.
 Conjunctiva, a clear, thin tissue that covers the sclera and lines the inside of your eyelids.
 Lens, which sits behind the pupil. It focuses the light that comes into your eye and sends
light to the back of your eye.
 Retina, a collection of cells that line the inside of the back of your eye. Part of your
nervous system, the retinas sense light and convert it into electrical impulses or neural
signals. The retina has rods (cells that help you see in low light) and cones (cells that
detect color).
 Macula, a small area that’s part of the retina. It’s responsible for central vision and
helping you see fine details and color.
 Optic nerve, which is behind the retina. It carries signals from the retina to your brain
which then interprets that visual information to tell you what you are seeing.
 Muscles, which control your eye’s position and movement, how much light gets into your
eye and your eyes’ ability to focus.
 Vitreous, a transparent gel that fills your entire eye. It protects and maintains the shape
of the eye.
Some ways on how to take care of your eyes:
 Eat Vitamin A rich foods
 Limit viewing time to TVs, cellphones, tablets and other gadgets that strain the eyes.
 Use of eye glasses to reduce and present dust
 Do not rub the eyes.
 Visit a doctor when vision becomes blurred.
 Have an eye check-up when necessary for diagnosing eye defects.
 When given corrective lenses, use these as directed by an ophthalmologist.

2. The Ear
 The ear makes us identify sounds around us. It is the body organ that makes us hear.
The parts of the ear include:
 External or outer ear, consisting of:
o Pinna or auricle. This is the outside part of the ear.
o External auditory canal or tube. This is the tube that connects the outer ear to
the inside or middle ear.
 Tympanic membrane (eardrum). The tympanic membrane divides the external ear from
the middle ear.
 Middle ear (tympanic cavity), consisting of:
o Ossicles. Three small bones that are connected and transmit the sound waves to
the inner ear. The bones are called:
  Malleus
 Incus
 Stapes
o Eustachian tube. A canal that links the middle ear with the back of the nose. The
eustachian tube helps to equalize the pressure in the middle ear. Equalized
pressure is needed for the proper transfer of sound waves. The eustachian tube
is lined with mucous, just like the inside of the nose and throat.
 Inner ear, consisting of:
o Cochlea. This contains the nerves for hearing.
o Vestibule. This contains receptors for balance.
o Semicircular canals. This contains receptors for balance.
Here are some tips to keep your ears as healthy as possible:
 Keep your ears dry by wearing ear plugs when swimming.
 Don’t use cotton swabs to clean your ear canal.
 Wear protective equipment when playing contact sports.
 Turn the volume down when listening to music through headphones.
 Wear ear plugs if you’re around loud noises.
 Visit your healthcare provider for routine ear examinations.

3. The Nose
 The nose is the primary organ of smell and functions as an important respiratory organ in
the body. Besides this, it is also involved in functions such as tasting.

The structure of the nose is explained as follows:

1. Bone: It supports the bridge of the nose.

2. Cartilage: The upper cartilage provides support to the sides of the nose. The lower cartilage
adds width and height to the nose. It provides shape to the nostrils and nose tip.
3. Nasal Cavity: It is the hollow space through which the air flows.
4. Septum: The septum divides the inside of the nose into two chambers. It is a thin wall made
of bones and cartilage.
5. Mucous Membrane: The mucus membrane lines the nose, sinuses and throat. It moistens
and warms the air we breathe in. It also forms a sticky mucus that prevents dust and
other small particles from the nose.
6. Turbinates: Each side of the nose contains curved turbinates, and the bony ridges are lined
with mucous membranes.
7. Sinuses: The bone around the nose contains hollow, air-filled chambers known as sinuses.
The mucus flows into the nasal cavity from the sinuses.

How can I keep my nose healthy?

 Avoid smoking or breathing in secondhand smoke.
 Don’t remove nose hairs, or do it carefully, because they filter dirt and debris.
 Drink plenty of water.
 Keep your home clean to reduce the amount of dust and other allergens you may breathe
in. Wash your bedsheets to remove dust.
 Squirt saline into the nasal cavities to keep them clean and moist.
 Use a humidifier at home to keep the air moist.

4. The Tongue
 Your tongue is essential for chewing and swallowing food. It also helps you speak and form
words clearly.
  Your tongue is mostly made of muscles. It’s anchored inside of your mouth by webs of strong
tissue and it’s covered by mucosa (a moist, pink lining that covers certain organs and body
cavities). Your tongue is also covered with different types of papillae (bumps) and taste buds.
You have four different types of taste buds, including:
 Filiform. Located on the front two-thirds of your tongue, filiform papillae are thread-like in
appearance. Unlike other types of papillae, filiform papillae don’t contain taste buds.
 Fungiform. These papillae get their name from their mushroom-like shape. Located mostly on
the sides and tip of your tongue, fungiform papillae consist of approximately 1,600 taste buds.
 Circumvallate. The small bumps on the back of your tongue are the circumvallate papillae. They
appear larger than the other types of papillae, and they contain approximately 250 taste buds.
 Foliate. Located on each side of the back portion of your tongue, the foliate papillae look like
rough folds of tissue. Each person has about 20 foliate papillae, which contain several hundred
taste buds.

 Your taste buds are clusters of nerve cells that transmit sensory messages to your brain. There
are five basic tastes that stimulate your taste buds, including:
 Sweet.
 Salty.
 Bitter.
 Sour.
 Umami (savory).

How can I maintain a healthy tongue?

 To keep your tongue healthy, practice good oral hygiene. When you brush and floss your teeth,
don’t forget to clean your tongue, too. You should also visit your dentist for routine cleanings
and examinations.
 Quitting smoking, drinking plenty of water and eating a balanced diet can also help keep your
tongue healthy.

5. The Skin
 The skin is the body's largest organ. It covers the entire body. It serves as a protective shield
against heat, light, injury, and infection.
 The skin also:
 Regulates body temperature
 Stores water and fat
 Is a sensory organ
 Prevents water loss
 Prevents entry of bacteria
 Acts as a barrier between the organism and its environment
 Helps to make vitamin D when exposed to the sun
The skin contains three main layers.
 The epidermis
The epidermis is broken down into the following five layers:
Basal layer: The basal layer is the bottom layer of the epidermis, where keratinocytes are
formed. Another skin cell type found in the basal layer is a melanocyte. Melanocytes
provide the skin protection against the sun’s rays.
Spinous layer: The spinous layer lies on top of the basal layer and contains keratinocytes
that have traveled upward from the basal layer. The spinous layer gives off a spiny-like
appearance.
Granular layer: The granular layer sits on top of the spinous layer and contains
keratinocytes that have traveled upward from the spinous layer. The keratinocytes in this
 layer produce fats that provide for a barrier that prevents dehydration by keeping water
inside the skin.
Stratum lucidum layer: The stratum lucidum layer, which is present only on the palms of
hands and soles of feet, is on top of the granular layer, and it contains keratinocytes that
have traveled upward from the granular layer. This layer helps provide protection against
the sun.
Stratum corneum layer: The stratum corneum layer is the topmost layer of the epidermis.
In the stratum corneum the keratinocytes die and flatten out, and are now called
corneocytes. Corneocytes are full of keratin, which gives the skin its protection function
by providing a physical barrier.
 The dermis
There are two layers of the dermis.
Papillary layer: The papillary layer of the dermis connects with the bottom layer of the
epidermis. It is a thin layer that resembles “egg-crate” foam, because it contains wavelike
projections that curve up and down at the border of the dermis and epidermis.
Reticular layer: The reticular layer of the dermis connects with the papillary layer. It is
much thicker than the papillary layer and consists primarily of collagen protein fibers that
travel in every direction throughout the layer. It contains many important structures,
including:
 Hair follicles
 Sweat glands
 Sebaceous (sebum-producing) glands
 Nerves
 Blood vessels
 The hypodermis
 The hypodermis is a thick fat layer that sits directly beneath the dermis and separates it
from other body structures like muscles and bone. The fat in this layer provides insulation
for the body, stores energy, and protects the body through its cushioning effect.
How can I maintain a healthy skin?
 Protect Your Skin from the Sun
 Wash Your Face Just Once a Day
 Moisturize within 3 Minutes after Bathing
 Eat 5 Servings of Fruits and Vegetables Daily
 Don't Smoke and Avoid Secondhand Smoke
 Sleep on Your Back
 Shave with Care

Human Major Body Organs

1. The Human Brain

 The human brain is the command center for the human nervous system.
Parts and Their Functions
Cerebrum
 The cerebrum is the front part of the brain and includes the cerebral cortex.

This part of the brain is responsible for many processes, including:

 initiating and controlling movement
 thinking
 emotion
 problem-solving
 learning
 The cerebrum is responsible for personality. If a person experiences trauma to the
cerebrum, in particular the frontal lobe, their friends and family may notice changes in their
demeanor, mood, and emotions.

Cerebral cortex
 The cerebral cortex covers the cerebrum and has many folds. Due to its large surface area,
the cerebral cortex accounts for 50% of the brain’s total weight.
The cerebral cortex has four lobes
 Frontal lobe: This area is responsible for language, motor function, memory,
personality, and other cognitive functions.
 Temporal lobe: The temporal lobe contains the Wernicke area, which is responsible for
understanding language. It also processes memories and emotions and plays a major
part in hearing and visual perception.
 Parietal lobe: The parietal lobe processes what a person sees and hears. It also
interprets other sensory information.
 Occipital lobe: The occipital lobe interprets visual information and contains the visual
cortex.
 The cerebral cortex is made of grey matter, which is where the brain processes information.
It also has ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The folds and ridges accommodated the rapid brain
growthTrusted Source humans experienced over years of evolution.

 The right side of the cerebral cortex, or hemisphere, controls the left side of the body, and
the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body. Each hemisphere communicates
with the other through the corpus callosum, which is a bridge of white matter.

Cerebellum
 The cerebellum, or “little brain,” is tucked underneath the cerebrum at the back of the
head. It regulates balance and learned movements, such as walking and fastening buttons,
but it cannot initiate movement.
 Because the cerebellum is sensitive to alcohol, people will experience problems with
balance and walking when they consume too much. Recent research suggests the
cerebellum may also play a role in learning and decision-making.
 The cerebellum is an ancient part of the brain, and the cerebral cortex grew on top of it as
humans evolved.

Brainstem
The brainstem is made up of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It connects the cerebrum to
the spinal cord.

Midbrain
 The midbrain is responsible for several important functions that include hearing and
movement. It also helps formulate responses to environmental changes, which include
potential threats.

Pons
 The pons enables a rangeTrusted Source of bodily functions, such as the production of
tears, blinking, focusing vision, balance, and facial expressions. 10 cranial nerves arise
from the pons. These connect to the face, neck, and trunk.

Medulla
  The medulla regulates biological functions that are essential for survival, such as heart
rhythm, blood flow, and breathing. This part of the brain also detects changes in blood
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. Reflexive responses such as vomiting, swallowing, and
coughing also originate from the medulla.

2. The Heart
 The human heart is a finely-tuned instrument that serves the whole body. It is a muscular
organ around the size of a closed fist, and it sits in the chest, slightly to the left of center.
Anatomy of the heart
The heart consists of four chambers:
 The atria: These are the two upper chambers, which receive blood.
 The ventricles: These are the two lower chambers, which discharge blood.

A wall of tissue called the septum separates the left and right atria and the left and right
ventricle. Valves separate the atria from the ventricles.

The heart’s walls consist of three layers of tissue:

 Myocardium: This is the muscular tissue of the heart.
 Endocardium: This tissue lines the inside of the heart and protects the valves and
chambers.
 Pericardium: This is a thin protective coating that surrounds the other parts.
 Epicardium: This protective layer consists mostly of connective tissue and forms the
innermost layer of the pericardium.

3. The Lungs
 The lungs are organs responsible for gas exchange. When you inhale, air rushes into the
lungs and sends oxygen to the blood; the lungs are also the path for removal of carbon
dioxide. The lungs are an integral part of the body, and the oxygen provided by the lungs
facilitates life.
Parts and Functions:
Trachea
 The trachea, also called the windpipe, is the main airway passage that takes air to the lungs.
The trachea, which is connected at the nose and mouth, is a bony, hollow tube in the front
of the neck. This tube continues down the chest where it branches to the left and right lung.
Lobes
 The lungs are sectioned in lobes. The right lung is larger than the left, so it has more lobes.
The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung only has two lobes. The left lung is smaller
to compensate for the space taken by the heart. The heart rests between the right and left
lung but is situated more on the left.
Bronchioles
 Bronchioles are structures that branch in the lungs. The bronchioles connect on one side at
the trachea and terminate at the alveoli. The bronchioles carry the air to the alveoli, where
gas exchange occurs. They are also the first step after the alveoli in bringing carbon dioxide
out of the lungs when you exhale.

Alveoli
 The alveoli are tiny sacs responsible for gas exchange. These sacs hold air, but they are also
surrounded by capillaries. The capillaries have a tiny wall and are filled with blood. The
alveoli supply the blood with the oxygen that is inhaled. When you exhale, the blood
exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen. The carbon dioxide is then removed from the body.
Diaphragm
  The diaphragm is the muscle responsible for inflating and expanding the lungs. When your
inhale, the diaphragm muscle contracts and presses the bottom parts of the left and right
lung, causing the lungs to inflate. When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and the lungs are
returned to their original shape.

4. The Liver, Stomach and Small Intestines

 The liver is vital for a person to survive. It uses a group of lobes to help the body digest and
store nutrients. It is a large organ in the upper right side of the abdomen, next to and under
the ribs. It works closely with the pancreas and gallbladder.
 One of its main functions is to make and release bile into the gallbladder. Bile also helps
make some proteins that support blood clotting, filters toxins such as alcohol out of the
blood, digests old red blood cells, stores glycogen, and stores some vitamins.
 Food travels to the stomach from the esophagus. Once it arrives, the stomach helps digest
food via contractions and chemical enzymes.
 The stomach has three layers: the oblique layer, the middle circular layer, and the external
longitudinal layer, which breaks down food mechanically.
 Acids such as hydrochloric acid further digest food into a liquid substance called chyme. A
network of cells — including parietal cells, chief cells, G-cells, mucous neck cells, and D-cells
— help chemically digest food by secreting stomach acids.
 The stomach can also hold food until it moves further along the digestive tract.
 Food travels from the stomach to the small intestine, where most of the nutrient absorption
occurs. The small intestine uses enzymes from the liver and pancreas to aid nutrient
absorption. Its various glands produce hormones and enzymes such as gastrin, secretin, and
pro-glucagon to support digestion and absorption of various nutrients.
 It is located in the middle to lower portion of the abdomen, below the stomach, and takes
up a significant portion of the stomach. It contains three different portions:
 Duodenum: This processes liquid food from the stomach and digestive enzymes from
the liver and pancreas.
 Jejunum: This portion performs most chemical digestion and nutritional absorption.
 Ileum: This opens to the ileocecal valve, which allows food to flow into the large
intestine.

5. The Kidney
 The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs located below the rib cage, one on each side
of the spine. The kidneys help remove waste products from the body, maintain balanced
electrolyte levels, and regulate blood pressure.
The main parts of a kidney.
1. Renal cortex
- It is the most external part of the kidney. It is approximately 1 centimeter thick (depending on
the zone) and it is a red-brown color. Of all the blood the kidney receives, 90% goes to the renal
cortex.
- Its main functions are: filter, reabsorb substances and secrete.

2. Renal medulla
- It is the deepest part; it is located after the renal cortex. It is composed by 8-18 renal pyramids
(cone-shaped tissues also called Malpighi's pyramids), among which are the columns of Bertin.
3. Nephron
- The nephron is formed by 4 components (corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of
Henle, distal convoluted tubule). This is where the blood is filtered to deposit useless items in
the urine.
It is the most “sensitive” part to diseases because most of them affect this specific area.
 4. Juxtaglomerular apparatus
- This structure can be found in each of the nephrons of the kidney. It is one of the smallest
parts of the kidney and one of the most important ones. Specifically, it is located between the
afferent and efferent arterioles, next to the distal contoured tubule.
- The structure of the apparatus is formed by the so-called juxtaglomerular cells, which secrete
renin, an enzyme (protein) that is useful to maintain the balance of water and salts in the body.
- Dense macula cells and Goormaghtigh cells also play an essential role in its structure.
5. Collecting duct system
- Also called papillary duct or ducts of Bellini. This is the part of the kidney where the
glomerular filtration arrives, through the distal contoured tubule.
- In other words, the collecting ducts are in charge of receiving nephron secretions and draining
the minor calyxes (where the urine is) to the ureter. The last step will be to send the urine from
each ureter to the bladder, where it will be stored until its final expulsion, thanks to the urethra.

6. The Bones and Muscles

 Bones and muscles are parts of the musculoskeletal system, which gives your body its
structure and support and lets you move around.
 Bones give people shape. They hold the body upright, and also protect organs like
the heart and the liver. They store the minerals calcium and phosphorus, and also
contain bone marrow, where new blood cells are made.
Major bones:
1. Skull (head and face)
2. Backbone or spinal column
3. 12 pairs of ribs
4. Hip bones
5. Bones in our arms and legs
 The muscles of the human body that work the skeletal system, that are under voluntary
control, and that are concerned with movement, posture, and balance. Broadly considered,
human muscle—like the muscles of all vertebrates—is often divided into striated muscle (or
skeletal muscle), smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle is under involuntary
control and is found in the walls of blood vessels and of structures such as the urinary
bladder, the intestines, and the stomach. Cardiac muscle makes up the mass of the heart
and is responsible for the rhythmic contractions of that vital pumping organ; it too is under
involuntary control. With very few exceptions, the arrangement of smooth muscle and
cardiac muscle in humans is identical to the arrangement found in other vertebrate animals.

Male and Female Reproductive System

 The male reproductive system consists of internal and external organs that play a role in sexual
function, human reproduction, and urination.
Parts of the Male Reproductive System

External Structures
 Penis - The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse and urination.
- It is a complex organ made up of different structures that work in coordination to enable
erections (the enlargement and stiffening of the penis during sexual stimulation),
ejaculation (the discharge of semen during sexual orgasm), and urination.

Penises come in different sizes and shapes but consist of the following key structures:
  Glans: Also known as the head of the penis, this bulbous, sensitive structure is covered with a
loose layer of skin called the foreskin (prepuce). The foreskin is sometimes removed in a
surgical procedure known as circumcision.
 Urethra: This is the tube that runs the length of the penis through which semen and urine
exit the body. The opening at the head itself is called the meatus.
 Shaft: Also known as the corpus, this section of the penis is made of three columns of spongy
tissue, two of which fill with blood to enable erections (called the corpus cavernosa) and the
other of which (corpus spongiosum) supports the urethra and keeps it open during erections.
 Root: Also known as the radix penis, this is the base of the penis that is attached to the pelvis
and stabilized by connective tissues known as ligaments.

 Scrotum - The scrotum is a loose, pouch-like sack of skin situated below the penis that houses
the testes ("balls"). The scrotum maintains the ideal temperature for sperm to survive. It does so
through nerves within the skin that cause the scrotum to shrink and become wrinkly when it is
cold (increasing the temperature) or relax and loosen when it is warm (reducing the
temperature).

Internal Organs
The male reproductive system's internal structure consists of organs involved with the production,
maintenance, and delivery of sperm (male reproductive cells) and the production and delivery of semen
(fluids that transport sperm out of the body).

Other functions include the production and secretion of hormones.

 Testes- Testes, also known as the testicles, are two oval organs housed within the scrotum that
are suspended by a cable-like structure called the spermatic cord. The testes are responsible for
producing sperm and the hormone testosterone. Within the testes is a network of coiled tubes
called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are responsible for producing the sperm through a
process called spermatogenesis.

 Epididymis- The epididymis is a long, tightly coiled tube situated at the back of each testicle into
which sperm is passed from the seminiferous tubules. It is within the epididymis that
spermatozoa (sperm cells) will begin to mature until they are capable of fertilization.

 Vas Deferens - The vas deferens, also known as the sperm duct, is a long, thin tube that starts at
the epididymis and connects to a passageway known as the ejaculatory duct. During orgasm,
powerful muscular contractions will propel sperm from the vas deferens, where it will combine
with various fluids to form semen. During a vasectomy, the vas deferens is cut or ligated (closed)
to prevent sperm from exiting the testes and epididymis.

Accessory Glands

The accessory glands are organs that secrete fluids that lubricate, nourish, preserve, and transport
sperm. Together, they are responsible for producing a substance called seminal fluid that combines with
sperm to form semen.2

The three organs that make up the accessory glands are:

  Seminal vesicles: These are a pair of glands situated behind the bladder that produces fluids rich
in a sugar called fructose (that nourishes sperm) and a substance called prostaglandin that
triggers sperm motility (movement).
 Prostate gland: This walnut-sized gland situated below the bladder contains ducts that secrete a
fluid called prostatic fluid that creates the ideal environment for sperm to survive.
 Bulbourethral glands: Also known as the Cowper's glands, these organs secrete fluids that help
neutralize the acidity of the female vagina while providing lubrication at the tip of the penis in
the form of preseminal fluid ("pre-cum").

 The female reproductive system is the body parts that help women or people assigned female at birth
(AFAB):
 Have sexual intercourse.
 Reproduce.
 Menstruate.

The female reproductive anatomy includes both external and internal parts.

External parts
The function of your external genitals are to protect the internal parts from infection and allow sperm to
enter your vagina.

Your vulva is the collective name for all your external genitals. A lot of people mistakenly use the term
“vagina” to describe all female reproductive parts. However, your vagina is its own structure located
inside your body.

The main parts of your vulva or external genitals are:

 Labia majora: Your labia majora (“large lips”) enclose and protect the other external
reproductive organs. During puberty, hair growth occurs on the skin of the labia majora, which
also contain sweat and oil-secreting glands.
 Labia minora: Your labia minora (“small lips”) can have a variety of sizes and shapes. They lie
just inside your labia majora, and surround the opening to your vagina (the canal that joins the
lower part of your uterus to the outside of your body) and urethra (the tube that carries pee
from your bladder to the outside of your body). This skin is very delicate and can become easily
irritated and swollen.
 Clitoris: Your two labia minora meet at your clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that’s
comparable to a penis in men or people assigned male at birth (AMAB). Your clitoris is covered
by a fold of skin called the prepuce and is very sensitive to stimulation.
 Vaginal opening: Your vaginal opening allows menstrual blood and babies to exit your body.
Tampons, fingers, sex toys or penises can go inside your vagina through your vaginal opening.
 Hymen: Your hymen is a piece of tissue covering or surrounding part of your vaginal opening.
It’s formed during development and present during birth.
 Opening to your urethra: The opening to your urethra is the hole you pee from.

Internal parts
 Vagina: Your vagina is a muscular canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the
outside of the body. It can widen to accommodate a baby during delivery and then shrink back
to hold something narrow like a tampon. It’s lined with mucous membranes that help keep it
moist.
 Cervix: Your cervix is the lowest part of your uterus. A hole in the middle allows sperm to enter
and menstrual blood to exit. Your cervix opens (dilates) to allow a baby to come out during a
vaginal childbirth. Your cervix is what prevents things like tampons from getting lost inside your
body.
  Uterus: Your uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that holds a fetus during pregnancy. Your
uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix and the corpus. Your corpus is the larger part of your
uterus that expands during pregnancy.
 Ovaries: Ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of your uterus.
Your ovaries produce eggs and hormones.
 Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of your uterus and
serve as pathways for your egg (ovum) to travel from your ovaries to your uterus. Fertilization of
an egg by sperm normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the
uterus, where it implants into your uterine lining.

The Human Organ System at Work

The human organ system is complex. You have learned that the human body is made of trillions
of cells, with different sizes, shapes and functions.
A group of cells with similar structure and function form tissues. Tissues comprise organs, and
several organs comprise the organ systems.

Integumentary System
The integumentary system is your body’s outer layer. It’s made up of your skin, nails, hair and
the glands and nerves on your skin. Your integumentary system acts as a physical barrier — protecting
your body from bacteria, infection, injury and sunlight. It also helps regulate your body temperature and
allows you to feel skin sensations like hot and cold.

Your integumentary system is an organ that consists of a few main structures: skin, nails, hair and
glands, along with the nerves and blood vessels that support them.

Skin
Your skin is the largest and heaviest organ in your body. It weighs about six pounds (or more) and is
approximately 2 millimeters thick — thinner on sensitive areas like eyelids, and thicker on surfaces that
take more stress, like the soles of your feet. One inch of your skin contains nearly 19 million cells.

Your skin is composed of three layers, with nerves that recognize different sensations in each layer:
 Epidermis: The top layer of your skin. This is the part of your skin that you can see and touch.
It’s made up of three types of cells: melanocytes, keratinocytes and Langerhans. It gives your
skin its color and provides a waterproof barrier.
 Dermis: The middle layer of your skin. This layer is the thickest. It contains sweat and oil glands
and hair follicles.
 Hypodermis: The bottom layer of your skin. It’s the fatty layer of your skin that helps insulate
your body.

Nails
Your nails protect the ends of your fingers and toes. The anatomy of your nail consists of:
 Nail plate: The hard part of your nail you can see.
 Nail bed: The skin under your nail plate.
 Cuticle: The thin skin at the base of your nail plate.
 Matrix: The “root” of your nail responsible for making it grow.
 Lunula: The white, moon-shaped part of your nail plate.

Hair
Our hair does more than help us look nice. The hair on your head helps keep heat in your body. Your
eyelashes and eyebrows help protect your eyes from dirt and water.
Your hair is made of a protein called keratin. Your hair consists of three parts: the shaft, follicle and bulb.
 Hair shaft: The part of your hair you can see, touch and style.
 Hair follicle: The tube-like structure that keeps your hair in your skin.
 Hair bulb: Located under your skin and responsible for hair growth.
 Goosebumps are caused by your integumentary system. We all have hair erector muscles
connected to our hair follicles and skin. When it contracts, it makes your hair stand up. The
“goosebumps” are what we see when these tiny muscles contract.

Glands
Glands are found throughout your skin. They release materials like water, salt or oil from under your
skin to the surface of your skin. Your integumentary system consists of the following glands:
 Sudoriferous glands: These are the glands that secrete sweat through your skin. There are two
types of sweat glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. Eccrine glands are all over your body
and open to your pores, while apocrine glands open into your hair follicles.
 Sebaceous glands: These glands produce sebum (oil) and give your face its oil.
 Ceruminous glands: These are the glands in your ear that secrete ear wax.
 Mammary glands: These are the glands on a person’s chest. In people assigned female at birth
(AFAB), mammary glands produce milk after giving birth.

The Skeletal System

The skeletal system works as a support structure for your body. It gives the body its shape,
allows movement, makes blood cells, provides protection for organs and stores minerals. The skeletal
system is also called the musculoskeletal system.

The skeletal system has many functions. Besides giving us our human shape and features, it:
 Allows movement: Your skeleton supports your body weight to help you stand and move.
Joints, connective tissue and muscles work together to make your body parts mobile.
 Produces blood cells: Bones contain bone marrow. Red and white blood cells are produced in
the bone marrow.
 Protects and supports organs: Your skull shields your brain, your ribs protect your heart and
lungs, and your backbone protects your spine.
 Stores minerals: Bones hold your body’s supply of minerals like calcium and vitamin D.

The skeletal system is a network of many different parts that work together to help you move. The main
part of your skeletal system consists of your bones, hard structures that create your body’s framework
— the skeleton. There are 206 bones in an adult human skeleton. Each bone has three main layers:
 Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough membrane that covers and protects the outside of the
bone.
 Compact bone: Below the periosteum, compact bone is white, hard, and smooth. It provides
structural support and protection.
 Spongy bone: The core, inner layer of the bone is softer than compact bone. It has small holes
called pores to store marrow.
The other components of your skeletal system include:
 Cartilage: This smooth and flexible substance covers the tips of your bones where they meet. It
enables bones to move without friction (rubbing against each other). When cartilage wears
away, as in arthritis, it can be painful and cause movement problems.
 Joints: A joint is where two or more bones in the body come together. There are three different
joint types. The types of joints are:
 Immovable joints: Immovable joints don’t let the bones move at all, like the joints between your
skull bones.
 Partly movable joints: These joints allow limited movement. The joints in your rib cage are
partly movable joints.
  Movable joints: Movable joints allow a wide range of motion. Your elbow, shoulder, and knee
are movable joints.
 Ligaments: Bands of strong connective tissue called ligaments hold bones together.
 Tendons: Tendons are bands of tissue that connect the ends of a muscle to your bone.

The Muscular System

The primary job of muscles is to move the bones of the skeleton, but muscles also enable the
heart to beat and constitute the walls of other vital hollow organs.

There are three types of muscle tissue:

 Skeletal muscle: This type of muscle creates movement in the body. There are more than 600
skeletal muscles, and they makes up about 40 percent of a person’s body weight. When the
nervous system signals the muscle to contract, groups of muscles work together to move the
skeleton. These signals and movements are nearly involuntary, yet they do require conscious
effort. However, humans do not need to concentrate on individual muscles when moving.
 Cardiac muscle: Cardiac muscle is involuntary muscle. This type makes up the walls of the heart
and creates the steady, rhythmic pulsing that pumps blood through the body from signals from
the brain. This muscle type also creates the electrical impulses that produce the heart’s
contractions, but hormones and stimuli from the nervous system can also affect these impulses,
such as when your heart rate increases when you’re scared.
 Smooth muscle: Smooth muscle makes up the walls of hollow organs, respiratory passageways,
and blood vessels. Its wavelike movements propel things through the bodily system, such as
food through your stomach or urine through your bladder. Like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
is involuntary and also contracts in response to stimuli and nerve impulses.

The Digestive System

Your digestive system is a network of organs that help you digest and absorb nutrition from your
food. It includes your gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your biliary system. Your GI tract is a series of hollow
organs that are all connected to each other, leading from your mouth to your anus. Your biliary system
is a network of three organs that deliver bile and enzymes through to your GI tract your bile ducts.

Gastrointestinal (GI) tract

The organs that make up your GI tract, in the order that they are connected, include your mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.

Biliary system
Your biliary system includes your liver, gallbladder, pancreas and bile ducts.

The main organs that make up your digestive system are the organs known as your
gastrointestinal tract. They are: your mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and
anus. Assisting your GI organs along the way are your pancreas, gallbladder and liver.

Here’s how these organs work together in your digestive system.

Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even take a bite.
Your salivary glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or warm bread. After you start
eating, you chew your food into pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes with the food to
begin to break it down into a form your body can absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue
passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus.
Esophagus
Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth
when you swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you swallow to prevent
you from choking (when food goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular contractions within the
esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.

But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus called the lower esophageal sphincter has to
relax to let the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of the stomach from
flowing back into the esophagus. (When it doesn’t and these contents flow back into the esophagus, you
may experience acid reflux or heartburn.)

Stomach
The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with stomach
enzymes. These enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the
lining of your stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the
breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are processed enough, they’re released into the
small intestine.

Small intestine
Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a 22-foot
long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the
liver. Peristalsis also works in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive juices from
the pancreas and liver.

The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible for the continuous
breaking-down process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly responsible for the
absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form after passing through the
organ. Water, bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients
have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then
moves on to the large intestine (colon).

Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats and
carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the
chief hormone in your body for metabolizing sugar.

Liver
The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients
absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an
important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.

The liver is your body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and
makes all the various chemicals your body needs to function.

The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs that can
be toxic to your body.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the duodenum in
the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.
Colon
The colon is responsible for processing waste so that emptying your bowels is easy and convenient. It’s a
6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.

The colon is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the
descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis,
first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed.
Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once
or twice a day.

It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris
and bacteria. These “good” bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various
vitamins, processing waste products and food particles and protecting against harmful bacteria. When
the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the
process of elimination (a bowel movement).

Rectum
The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's job is to
receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold
the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a
message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not.

If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot
be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily
goes away.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor
muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is able to
detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.

The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic
floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when
it’s not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. This
keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping involuntarily) when we are asleep or otherwise unaware
of the presence of stool.

When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until
reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

The Circulatory System

Your heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the
circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and hormones to muscles, tissues and organs
throughout your body. Another part of the circulatory system is to remove waste from cells and organs
so your body can dispose of it.

Your heart pumps blood to the body through a network of arteries and veins (blood vessels).
Your circulatory system can also be defined as your cardiovascular system. Cardio means heart, and
vascular refers to blood vessels.
The parts of your circulatory system are your:
 Heart, a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout your body.
 Blood vessels, which include your arteries, veins and capillaries.
 Blood, made up of red and white blood cells, plasma and platelets.
Your circulatory system has three circuits. Blood circulates through your heart and through these circuits
in a continuous pattern:
 The pulmonary circuit: This circuit carries blood without oxygen from the heart to the lungs. The
pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the heart.
 The systemic circuit: In this circuit, blood with oxygen, nutrients and hormones travels from the
heart to the rest of the body. In the veins, the blood picks up waste products as the body uses
up the oxygen, nutrients and hormones.
 The coronary circuit: Coronary refers to your heart’s arteries. This circuit provides the heart
muscle with oxygenated blood. The coronary circuit then returns oxygen-poor blood to the
heart’s right upper chamber (atrium) to send to the lungs for oxygen.
There are three main types of blood vessels:
 Arteries: Arteries are thin, muscular tubes that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and
to every part of your body. The aorta is the body’s largest artery. It starts at the heart and
travels up the chest (ascending aorta) and then down into the stomach (descending aorta). The
coronary arteries branch off the aorta, which then branch into smaller arteries (arterioles) as
they get farther from your heart.
 Veins: These blood vessels return oxygen-depleted blood to the heart. Veins start small
(venules) and get larger as they approach your heart. Two central veins deliver blood to your
heart. The superior vena cava carries blood from the upper body (head and arms) to the heart.
The inferior vena cava brings blood up from the lower body (stomach, pelvis and legs) to the
heart. Veins in the legs have valves to keep blood from flowing backward.
 Capillaries: These blood vessels connect very small arteries (arterioles) and veins (venules).
Capillaries have thin walls that allow oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products to
pass into and out of cells.

Your heart is the only circulatory system organ. Blood goes from the heart to the lungs to get
oxygen. The lungs are part of the respiratory system. Your heart then pumps oxygenated blood through
arteries to the rest of the body.

Nervous System
Your nervous system guides almost everything you do, think, say or feel. It controls complicated
processes like movement, thought and memory. It also plays an essential role in the things your body
does without thinking, such as breathing, blushing and blinking.
Your nervous system affects every aspect of your health, including your:
 Thoughts, memory, learning, and feelings.
 Movements, such as balance and coordination.
 Senses, including how your brain interprets what you see, hear, taste, touch and feel.
 Sleep, healing and aging.
 Heartbeat and breathing patterns.
 Response to stressful situations.
 Digestion, as well as how hungry and thirsty you feel.
 Body processes, such as puberty.
This complex system is the command center for your body. It regulates your body’s systems and
allows you to experience your environment
A vast network of nerves sends electrical signals to and from other cells, glands, and muscles all over
your body. These nerves receive information from the world around you. Then the nerves interpret the
information and control your response. It’s almost like an enormous information highway running
throughout your body.
 The nervous system has two main parts. Each part contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve
cells. These special cells send and receive electrical signals through your body to tell it what to do.
The main parts of the nervous system are:
 Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and spinal cord make up your CNS. Your brain
uses your nerves to send messages to the rest of your body. Each nerve has a protective
outer layer called myelin. Myelin insulates the nerve and helps the messages get through.
 Peripheral nervous system: Your peripheral nervous system consists of many nerves that
branch out from your CNS all over your body. This system relays information from your
brain and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs, fingers and toes. Your peripheral nervous
system contains your:
 Somatic nervous system, which guides your voluntary movements.
 Autonomic nervous system, which controls the activities you do without thinking about
them.