AS Physics Unit 1-2

A level Physics [ Workbook 1 of 6]
AS Physics: Edexcel: Unit 1: Physics on the go!
Name: ___________________________
1
1.3 Mechanics
On a displacement-time graph, movement away from a reference point e.g. starting position is show by an
increase upwards with reference to the Y-axis.
On a displacement-time graph, movement towards a reference point e.g. starting position is show by an
increase upwards with reference to the Y-axis.
Time-displacement graph showing an office worker returning home.
8
Distance from home (Kilometres)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Tim e (m ins .)
(1) Give a brief description of what is happening during each of the four stages of the journey: for
example, state the direction of travel and the relative speed of travel.
____________________________________________________________________________________
(2) How long does it take for the office worker to travel home?
____________________________________________________________________________________
(3) What is the Gradient of the line AB? What speed in km per hour does this gradient represent?
____________________________________________________________________________________
(4) What means of travel do you think the Office Worker is using for this Journey?
____________________________________________________________________________________
(5) What is the significance of the section BC of the graph? Give a short explanation for this situation.
____________________________________________________________________________________
(6) Calculate the gradient of the line CD and explain why it is negative.
____________________________________________________________________________________
(7) What means of travel do you think the officer might be using for this part of the journey? Explain
your answer briefly.
____________________________________________________________________________________
(8) Give a short explanation for the section DE of the Graph

_____________________________________________________________________________________
2
(9) What is the average speed of the part of the journey from point C to point E?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(10) Outline the assumptions that have been made in drawing the graph for this question?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Question: Kate plotted a displacement-time graph for a bus as it approached her. Describe the motion of
the bus in as much detail as possible.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
More on displacement-time graphs
A displacement-time graph shows how the distance moved by an object changes with time.
3
Question: Plot a graph of the following table of results that shows the movement of a duck with time.
Draw a line of best fit.
Distance in metres (m) Time in seconds

0 0
1 12
2 25
3 40
4 51
5 66
6 80
Question: Suggest why the points on the graph were not exactly on a straight line.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Displacement-time graphs and acceleration
Question: On the above three graphs, label the curve ‘B’ appropriately using the following:
Deceleration, Bigger Acceleration, Smaller Acceleration
• The larger the gradient (the steeper the line) the higher the speed.
• A straight line indicates the speed is constant. A curved line shows that the speed is changing.
• If the gradient increases the speed increases.
• If the gradient decreases the speed decreases.
Question: On the first displacement time graph below show the following type of motion of a car:
(1) Initially movement is constant velocity (2) The car stops (3) The car returns very quickly to its original
position.
4
Question: For the second graph, sketch a distance-time graph to show a car that travels a distance of 200
km in 2 hours at a constant speed, stops for half an hour and then travels a further 80 km in 1 hour in the
same direction. Remember to add a scale to the axes.
Question: Label on the graph when the speed is increasing and when the speed is decreasing.
Question: A cheetah chases a small animal at a constant speed and covers 200 m in 10 seconds before
stopping suddenly. Sketch a distance-time graph and use it to find the speed of the cheetah
Therefore, velocity = change in displacement / time taken
On the graph this is equal to change in Y / change in X i.e. the gradient
As can be seen from the previous graph, the gradient is not constant. Therefore, on a displacement – time
graph, a curved line means that the object is accelerating.
Exam question: A baby crawls 5m in 8 seconds at a constant velocity. She then rests for 5 seconds before
crawling a further 3m in 5 seconds. Finally, she makes her way back to her starting point in 10 seconds,
traveling at a constant speed all the way.
(a) Draw a displacement-time graph to show the baby’s journey.
5
(b) Calculate her velocity at all different stages of her journey by calculating the gradient of tangents
touching the curve.
Vector and scalar quantities
A vector quantity has magnitude (size) and direction. For example, a force of 5N acts vertically downwards
(what is the magnitude and direction of this vector which we call force?).
Velocity is speed in a named direction. For example, a car travels at 20 m/s due North. Velocity is a vector.
A vector is drawn on a diagram as a straight line with an arrow, or a ‘+’ or ‘-‘ sign, to indicate direction.
+5m/s -5m/s
5m to the right 5m/s to the left
A scalar quantity has magnitude only, for example, a train travelling at 20 m/s.
Speed is a scalar quantity; direction does not matter.
Mass is a scalar quantity; direction does not matter.
Forces are vector quantities; direction is important and needs to be specified
Velocity is a vector quantity; direction is important and needs to be specified

Question: Complete the following table using the words that follow:
Scalar Vector
Speed
Energy
Mass
time
Possible words: Velocity, Acceleration, Weight, Force
Adding vectors
When vectors act in the same straight line, their sum is found by adding them algebraically.
Question: Find the sum of the following force vectors:
(a) 12 N due North and 7N due South
6
(b) 23N South East and 15N North West
Resolving a vector into two components at right angles to each other
The resultant of two parallel vectors is found by adding them algebraically as we have previously shown.
For example, the combined force vectors of two small tug boats can pull a much larger liner forward if
pulling in the same direction.
When two forces are not in the same straight line the resultant is found using the parallelogram of forces. If
the forces are perpendicular, the parallelogram becomes a rectangle.
Example: A 3 Newton force pushes due North on an object. A 4 Newton force pushes on the same object
due East. What is the resultant force?
The diagonal of the rectangle gives the resultant, R. This can be found by a scale drawing or by using
Pythagoras’ theorem.
R2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25
R = 5N
We can also determine the angle between these forces using trigonometry.
We can join together any two vectors end to end in order to determine either:
7
(a) The resultant force of the two
(b) The angle between these two forces.
It should be noted that adding vectors followed with either Pythagoras or Trigonometry can only be done if
right-angled triangles are formed.
Remember apart from tangent, you may have to use sine or cosine.
Tangent = side opposite / side adjacent
Sine = side opposite / hypotenuse
Cosine = side adjacent / hypotenuse
When there is motion at an angle below the horizontal plane, the following diagrams will help.
Question: Complete the following table showing the effect of pairs of different vectors acting on the same
object.
Vector Magnitude of first Magnitude of Resultant vector Angle between the

vector (side second vector (side two component
adjacent in the right opposite in the vectors acting on
angled triangle so right angled the object
produced). triangle so
produced).
Force (N) Fx = Fcos θ F
Displacement ((m)
Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration (m/s2)
Momentum
(kg/m/s)
8
Sometimes it is useful to split a vector into horizontal and vertical components
Consider the following problem.
Imagine that there is an aeroplane travelling upwards at 5ms-1 at an angle of 60 degrees up from the
horizontal.
Find the vertical and horizontal components, which combined produce, this vector.
Example: Lets say that an aeroplane is travelling at a constant velocity of 2m/s at an angle of 30 degrees to
the horizontal.
This can now be drawn as below. Remember, you could even scale the velocity vector at 1cm per m/s.
Lets determine Vx component
Cosine 300 = Vx / 2
Therefore Vx = 2 cosine 300
Sine 300 = Vy / 2
Therefore Vx = 2 sine 300
This process is called resolving a vector into its component vectors.
9
Complete the following table:
Magnitude of vector Angle of vector to the Vx Vy

horizontal
5 10
8 20
9 30
4 5
6 9
60 6
70 7
80 8
Practice questions:
(1) Rex the dog is pulling at his lead with a force of 40N at an angle of 27.20 below the horizontal. Show
that the horizontal component of this force is about 36N.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(2) The wind is creating a horizontal force of 20N on a falling rock of weight 75N. The angle of the
resultant force from the vertical is:
(A) 12.60
(B) 14.90
(C) 16.30
(D) 18.10
(3) A glider is travelling at a velocity of 20.0ms-1 at an angle of 150 below the horizontal. Find the
horizontal and vertical components of the glider’s velocity.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(4) A hot air balloon is travelling upwards from the ground at a speed of 5.6 ms-1 at an angle of 61 degrees to
the horizontal. Find the vertical and horizontal components.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
10
(4) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the paper aeroplane in the diagram below:
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(5) Use a scale diagram on graph paper to find the resultant of A 3.1 N and a 4.2 N force east.
(5) A brick is placed onto a slope at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal. It has a mass of 2.3 kg.
Frictional forces just about stop the brick from sliding down the slope. Draw a diagram showing all the
forces acting. Then calculate the size of the frictional forces holding the brick in one place on the slope.
Use g = 9.81 Nkg-1.
Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
Both Speed and Velocity are measured in metres / second. They both measure the distance an object moves
in a period of time. However, technically, Velocity is called a vector quantity, i.e. It has both magnitude
(size) and Direction. This means that actually we should describe the Velocity of the car as 2.5m/s, North by
North-East Indeed force is also a vector quantity and we should say ‘a force acts on a car at 150 Newtons,
East by North-East.’ Any measurement which just has a magnitude and is not defined by it’s direction is
called a SCALAR quantity e.g. speed.
Speed (m/s) = Distance (m) / Time (s) no direction specified = scalar quantity
Velocity (m/s) = Distance (m) / Time (s) plus direction = vector quantity
A single Force, which continually keeps acting on an object, will make it move. As time proceeds, the
object moves faster and faster- we say that it accelerates. Now the unit for speed (or Velocity) = m/s or ms ¹,
whereas the unit for acceleration = m/s² or ms ².
1 m/s² means that at 0 time an object is not moving. Then at the end of the first second, it has a sped = 1m/s.
At the end of the ‘second’ second, it has a speed (or velocity) = 1+1=2m/s,
At the end of the third second = 1+1+1=3m/s.
Interesting point! Acceleration can be calculated from a Velocity-time Graph from the gradient of the line.
Final Velocity - Initial Velocity

Acceleration (m/s²) = Gradient =
Final Time - Initial Time
(5 − 2)m / s 3
= = = 1m / s ²
(5 − 3) sec s 3
Final Velocity (m/s) Initial velocity (m/s)

So we have a formula for acceleration (m/s²) =
Time Taken (seconds)
11
Draw a Velocity-time graph showing an object traveling from rest with a constant acceleration = 2m/s². (Do
this on Graph paper and stick it below).
Check that you have correctly drawn the line Graph by calculating the gradient and showing that it equals
2m/s².
Use either your graph or the formula for acceleration to find the following- ‘A car traveling at 2.5m/s
accelerates at a constant acceleration = 2m/s for 3.2 seconds. What velocity does it reach?’
(1) Draw a Velocity-time graph showing an object travelling from rest with a constant acceleration = 2.5m/s².
Check that you have correctly drawn the line Graph by calculating the gradient and showing that it equals
2.5m/s².
(2) Use either your graph or the formula for acceleration to find the following-‘A car traveling at 3m/s
accelerates at a constant acceleration = 2.5m/s for 2.5 seconds. What velocity does it reach?’
Velocity-time graphs and calculating the distance covered by a moving object
Question: A car brakes. Does the speed-time graph for the car show a positive or negative gradient?
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Sketch a speed time graph for a tube train traveling between two stations.
12
Calculating distance travelled from a speed-time graph
Imagine a car travels at a constant speed of 2 m/s for 10 seconds. By common sense, you would expect this
to cover 2 x 10 = 20 metres in distance. This can be shown on the graph below:
Line Graph showing how an object continually pushed forward by a single force increases
in velocity at a constant acceleration = 1m/s2
Increase in Y= 5-2=3
Velocity (m/s)
Increase in X = 5-2=3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (Seconds)
13
The distance covered by a moving object is equal to the area under a velocity-time
line Graph
11
10
7
Velocity (m/s)
3 Area 2
Area 1 Area 3
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (S)
Question: What is the acceleration of this object, starting from rest?
(a) From 0-3 seconds?
Remember acceleration (m/s²) = gradient of line =
Final v - initial v (10 − 0)m / s

= = 3.3m / s
time taken (3 − 0) sec s
(b) From 3-6 seconds?
Acceleration (m/s²) = gradient of line =
Final v - initial v (10 − 10)m / s 0

= = = 0m / s ² giving a constant velocity = 10m/s
time taken (6 − 3)i.e.3 sec s 3
(c)From 6-10 seconds?
Acceleration (m/s²) = gradient of line =
Final v - initial v (0 − 10)m / s 10m / s

= =− = −2.5m / s ²
time taken (10 − 6)i.e.4 sec s 4
14
This means that the velocity decreases by 2.5m/s at the end of each successive second. I.e. a Negative
acceleration = deceleration.
Question-
What was the distance covered by the object from:
(a) 0 to 3 Seconds?
Distance covered = area under graph- this is shown by a triangle (Area 1)
Area = ½ base * height = ½ * 3 * 10 = 15 metres.
(b) What distance was covered from 3 to 6 seconds?

This is shown by area 2, which is a rectangle.
Area 2 = length * height = 3 * 10 = 30 metres
.
(c) What distance was covered from 6 to 10 seconds?
This is shown by area 3, which is a triangle.
Area 3 = ½ * 4 * 10 = 20 metres.
So the total distance covered by the moving object from accelerating from rest, to moving at a constant
Velocity to decelerating to a standstill = 15 + 30 + 20 = 65 metres.
Question: A train starts from rest and reaches a speed of 15 m/s at the end of one minute. It then
maintains that speed for 3.5 minutes. The train then abruptly comes to a halt, half a minute later. Draw a
speed-time graph. Calculate the initial acceleration. Calculate the final deceleration. Calculate the total
distance covered.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: Car A accelerates from 0 to 20 m/s in 15 seconds. Car B accelerates from 0 to 30 m/s in 12
seconds. Which car A or B, has the greater acceleration?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: A train accelerates from 0 to 20 m/s in 100 seconds and then decelerates, stopping 250 seconds
after it started. Which is greater, its acceleration or deceleration?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: The speed of a car increases from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 8 seconds. Find the acceleration.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: Luigi is traveling at 24 m/s. He brakes and comes to a stop in 30 seconds. Find his deceleration.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question:
(a) Jane is driving at a speed of 72 km/h. Convert this to m/s.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
(b) She accelerates to 108 km/h in 8 seconds. Calculate her acceleration.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
15
Question: A car has a maximum acceleration of 4 m/s2. How long does it take the car to reach a speed of 36
m/s starting from rest?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: A car is traveling at 2.3 m/s. It accelerates at a uniform 1.2 m/s2 for 4.5 seconds. What speed
does it increase to?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: A car travels at 2.6 ms-1. It accelerates at 2 ms-2 reaching 3.6 ms-1. How long does it take?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Accelerating at a constant speed
A vehicle may go round a roundabout at a constant speed but it is accelerating! This is because the direction
of its movement is changing. It is not going in a straight line. Technically, we should consider acceleration
as the change in velocity with time rather than speed. Remember, velocity has both magnitude and direction
– a change in either with time corresponds to acceleration.
When going around a circle, the driver needs to apply a force towards the centre of the roundabout to stop the
vehicle from traveling in a straight line.
The effect of the two forces is to make the car move in directions at tangents to the circle. However, it is not
accelerating in that direction, but is accelerating towards the centre of the circle i.e. the direction component
of acceleration is continually changing towards the centre of the circle in line with the force produced by the
16
car.
Question: Describe what happens if a car drives around a roundabout too fast.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Motion with Constant Acceleration
When an object has a constant acceleration in a straight line, the equations of motion are used to find out
more about how it moves.
The equations use five special symbols:
Change in velocity v-u

Acceleration = = a = ; hence v = u + at equation (1)
Time taken t
Distance travelled u+v s

Average speed = = = ; hence s = [(u + v)t] / 2 equation (2)
Time taken 2 t
Example: QRIO (‘Quest for Curiosity’) is a humanoid autonomous robot, standing 58cm high.
It is the world’s first two-legged robot capable of running (i.e. moving while both legs are off the ground at
the same time). Suppose it takes 5 seconds to reach its maximum speed of 0.23 m/s, starting from rest. How
far does it travel in this time?
Write down ‘suvat’ and fill in what you know.
Now s = ? u = 0 (starts from rest)
v = 0.23m/s a (not needed) and t = 5 seconds

Equation 2:
s = = [(u + v) / 2] x t = [(0 + 0.23) / 2] x 5 = ______
Question: A sports car accelerates at 5m/s2 from rest for 8 seconds.
(a) What is its velocity after 8 seconds?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
(b) How far does it travel in this time?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: An aircraft flying at 100m/s accelerates at 3m/s2 for 25 seconds.
How fast is it moving after?
(a) 1 second
17
(b) 10 seconds
(c) 20 seconds
(d) 25 seconds
What do you notice about your answer?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
More Equations of motion
The suvat equations are:
v = u + at = equation (1)
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)
If we substitute the expression for v from equation (1) into equation (2) we get:
s = [ (u + u + at )t] / 2 = (2ut + at2) / 2
Hence equation 3 = s = ut + ½ at2
The fourth equation comes from equations 1 and 2:
From equation 1:
a = (v – u) / t
Multiply both sides by the expression for s in equation 2:
as = [(v – u) / t] x [ (u + v)t] / 2
This simplifies as:
2as = (v - u) (v + u)
2as = v2 – uv + uv – u2
v2 = u2 + 2as = equation 4
Example:
A sprinter reaches a speed of 20m/s from rest after running 20m
Find her acceleration.
s = 20m u=0
18
v = 12m/s a=?
t (not needed)
Using v2 = u2 + 2as = equation 4
Then 122 = 0 + (2 x a x 20)
And so 144 = 40a hence a = 3.6m/s2
Question: A stone falls from a height of 30m. Calculate its speed when it hits the ground and how long it
takes to fall. Take g=9.8ms-2
Write down what you know:
s = 30m
u = 0ms-1 since the tile’s stationary to start with
a = 9.8 ms-2 due to gravity
v=?t=?
Next choose an equation with only one unknown quantity:
Using v2 = u2 + 2as = equation 4
v2 = 02 + (2 x 9.8 x 30) = 588
v = 588 ms-1
Acceleration is a vector quantity. We therefore should assign a direction to it. When we are talking about
acceleration due to gravity ‘g’, we can designate the downwards motion it produces with a negative sign and
upwards motion with a positive sign.
Now using equation 3 = s = ut + ½ at2
30 = 0 + ½ x 9.8 x t2
t2 = 30 / 4.9
hence t = 2.3 ms-1
And v = 588ms-1
Question: A lorry accelerates uniformly from rest at 5.6ms-2 for 6 seconds
(1) Calculate the final speed

(2) Calculate the distance travelled in 6 seconds
19
Remember ‘suvat’ and start by writing down what you know:
s=?
u = 0ms-2
v=? This is what we need to calculate first
a = 5.6ms-2.
t=6 seconds
We want to calculate ‘v’ and we know ‘u’, ‘a’ and ‘t’
We use v = u + at = equation (1)
Therefore, v = 0 + (5.6) (6) = 33.6ms-1
Then we want to calculate ‘s’.
We use s = [(u + v) t] / 2 = equation (2)
Therefore s = [(0 + 33.6) x 6] / 2 = 50.4m
Alternatively we could use equation 3 = s = ut + ½ at2
Question: in the space below, use equation 3 to see if you get the same answer of 50.4m
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Exam questions: (1) A car starts from rest and travels at constant acceleration of 3.5ms for 5 seconds.
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph to model this motion.

(b) Verify the final velocity reached on your graph using an appropriate ‘suvat’ equation.
(c) Check that the gradient of your graph is equivalent to your acceleration.
(d) Calculate the total distance traveled from the area under the graph.
(e) Verify that you have calculated the correct distance using an appropriate ‘suvat’ equation.
(2) A skydiver jumps from an aeroplane when it is flying horizontally. She accelerates due to gravity for 5
seconds.
(a) Calculate her maximum velocity (assume no air resistance).

(b) How far does she fall in this time?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
(3) A motorist slows down uniformly as he approaches a red light. He takes 3.2 seconds to come to a halt
and travels 40m in this time.
(a) How fast was he travelling initially?

(b) Calculate his acceleration. (N.B. a negative value shows a deceleration).
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________(
20
4) A stream provides a constant acceleration of 6ms-2. A toy boat is pushed against the current and then
released from a point 1.2m upstream from a small waterfall. Just before it reaches the waterfall it is
travelling at a speed of 5ms-1.
(a) Find the initial velocity of the boat.

(b) What is the maximum distance upstream from the waterfall the boat reaches?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(5) Complete the graph below of a displacement-time curve for a lion that accelerates constantly from rest at
2ms-2 for 5 seconds.
Hint: We want to find ‘s’ and we know that:
a = 2ms-2
u = 0m-1
You need to choose the appropriate equation for ‘s’ and then you can calculate ‘s’ for different values of ‘t’.
Then plot the graph.
(5) Complete the following table:
Highlight the most appropriate ‘suvat’ equation to use

s u v a t
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)

5 3 8 2
s = ut + ½ at2 = equation 3
21
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)

5 3 8 2
2
s = ut + ½ at = equation 3
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)

5 3 8 2
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)

5 3 8 2
2
v = u + at = equation (1) 5 3 8 2
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)

5 3 8
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation (2)

5 3 8
2
Free Fall and Projectile Motion
• Ignoring air resistance (or falling a short distance), all objects accelerate towards the Earth at 9.81m/s2
due to gravity. Aristotle said that heavier objects dropped from the same height as lighter objects
would always hit the ground first. Galileo, with experimental evidence agreed that this may happen
in the air. However, in a vacuum he said that all objects would hit the ground at the same time.
22
• An object thrown up from the Earth decelerates at 10m/s2. Its acceleration, a = -9.81m/s2 and at its
highest point its velocity, v = 0.
• Free fall is defined as ‘the motion of an object undergoing an acceleration of ‘g’.
Question: Complete the following table:

Feature of motion affected by gravity ‘g’. Definition
Weight
Direction assigned to ‘g’ because it is a vector
quantity
Magnitude of ‘g’
Motion such as velocity, which is upwards against

the downward pull of gravity, is assigned with this.
‘u’ and ‘v’ can be this.
‘t’ is always this
‘s’ can be this
‘g’ is always considered as this as an object falls or

if an object is thrown upwards.
Possible words: Constant, Positive or negative, the total amount of gravitational force acting on an object,
Negative, 9.81ms-2, Positive, Positive or negative, Positive
Consider an object that just falls
Initial velocity = 0 and acceleration = a = g
Then = u + at = 0 +gt
Therefore v = gt
s = [(u + v)t] / 2 = equation 2
s = [(0 + v)t] / 2
Therefore s = vt/2
And equation 3 = s = ut + ½ at2
Therefore s = 0 + ½ at2
Therefore s = ½ gt2
And using v2 = u2 + 2as = equation 4
v2 = 02 + 2gs = equation 4
Therefore v2 = 2gs
23
Question:
A stone is dropped from the top of a cliff. Complete the following table (remember a = g = -9.81ms-2
Stone v t s
1 10 10
2 20 20
3 30 30
4 10 10
5 20 20
6 30 30
7 10 10
8 20 20
9 30 30
10 40 40
Question: Now imagine that a boy throws a stone downwards from a bridge into a river. He gives it an
initial velocity of 2ms-1. It takes 3 seconds to reach the water below. How high is the cliff?
Question: Brian hits a ball vertically upwards at 18m/s. How high does it go?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: How long does it take a car to travel 125m while accelerating from rest at 5m/s2?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Projectile motion
A projectile is the name given to any object that moves in Earth’s gravitational field, such as:
• Balls (footballs, tennis balls, netballs, cannon balls)

• Missiles
• Darts
• Long-jumpers
All projectiles that are thrown horizontally or at an angle to the ground follow a curved path described as
parabolic.
The path of a projectile is called its trajectory.
24
Question: In the box below show 3 sketches showing the trajectory of a tennis bath:
(a) Tennis ball thrown vertically upwards

(b) Tennis ball thrown horizontally
(c) Tennis ball thrown at 45 degrees to the horizontal
Why does the tennis ball follow a parabolic path (think combination of two forces).
Calculations on projectiles
v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2
s = [(u + v)t] / 2
v2 = u2 + 2as
These equations of motion can be applied to the motion of projectiles.
Example: A darts player stands 3m from a darts board. The dart leaves her hand horizontally and takes 0.2
seconds to hit the board.
Calculate:
(a) The initial velocity of the dart.
(b) The vertical height the dart falls in flight.
Answer:
(a) The initial velocity is in the horizontal direction. Horizontally there is no acceleration, so initial velocity
= Distance / time = 3.0 / 0.2 = 15m/s
(2) What distance does it fall vertically by the time it hits the board?
s = ? and u = 0, v = not needed
25
a = 10m/s2
s = ut + ½ at2 = (0 x 0.2) + (1/2 x 10 x 0.2 x 0.2) = 0.2m
Question: A bullet is fired horizontally at a speed of 200m/s at a target 100m away.
(a) Calculate how far away the bullet has fallen when it hits the target.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(b) How far would the bullet have fallen if it had been fired at half the speed?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Interesting point! Why is it that during projectile parabolic motion, the horizontal velocity component is
constant as a result of zero acceleration?
Answer: An object will accelerate and move faster and faster as long as a force is continually pushing on it.
When you throw a ball sideways, as soon as it leaves your hand, the force on the ball stops pushing. As a
result it no longer accelerates sideways and the horizontal velocity component remains constant.
Alternatively, in the vertical direction, there is always gravitational pull force acting downwards. This
produces a constant acceleration = g = 9.81ms-2.
Analysing projectile motion
Imagine that a ball is thrown horizontally. After a while it falls to the ground, bounces, rises then falls,
bounces again e.t.c. A bouncing ball can be shown as a stroboscope image. A light flashing at regular time
intervals allows successive positions of the ball to be seen.
If air resistance is ignored, a ball projected horizontally:
• Has constant velocity (notice as the ball is moving horizontally, in the same time intervals, c = d = e).
• Has steadily decreasing vertical velocity as it accelerates upwards (notice as the ball is moving
vertically, in the same time intervals, a > b. Also the ball has increasing vertical velocity as it is
accelerating towards the ground (notice that f < g.
The sequence of images revealed by a strobe light shows that a ball’s trajectory is a parabola.
The ball moves fastest near the ground and slowest at the top of the arc.
26
The ball’s horizontal speed is approximately constant whilst the vertical speed is changing.
The horizontal distance a projectile travels is called its range.
Question: Consider this stroboscope photograph of two falling balls. Label and annotate it showing both
vertical and horizontal displacements. Explain what the stroboscope is showing.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: The time lapse between each photograph of a ball was 0.1 seconds.
(a) Measure the horizontal distance between 2 successive yellow balls in centimetres _______
(b) Convert this into metres _____
© Now calculate the average horizontal velocity = distance / time = ______
Question: Draw a curve on the stroboscope trace to show a ball thrown at half the horizontal speed as the
yellow one.
Forces on projectiles
If air resistance is ignored, once a projectile has been released the only force acting on it is gravity.
27
Gravity always acts vertically downwards so, since F = ma, the projectile has a downwards acceleration.
This only affects the vertical velocity, accelerating the projectile at 10m/s2 as it moves down and
decelerating it at 10m/s2 as it moves up.
There is no force in a horizontal direction so horizontal velocity is constant.
Question: Why does a projectile have a downward acceleration?

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: Why does a bouncing ball rise to a lower height on each successive bounce?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: How does the angle at which a tennis ball is hit affect its range?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: Suggest the angle that gives the maximum range.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: A plane travelled 5585km in 3.5hours. Calculate its average speed

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: Give three reasons why the speed of a car may change during a journey.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: A train covers 550km in 2 hours and 30 minutes. Calculate its average speed.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Resultant velocity
Question: Imagine that a ball is thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff towards the sea. It is thrown at
15 ms-1 and the cliff is 15m above the ground. How long does it take to hit the ground and how far does it
travel? Assume that the ground is horizontal and there is no air resistance.
28
HINT: In order to calculate how long it takes to fall to the ground, we consider the ‘suvat’ equations in the
Y-axis.
v = gt
s = vt/2
s = ½ gt2
v2 = 2gs
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Then do the horizontal motion to find the range.
Remember, gravity or any other force does not affect the horizontal motion, so it moves with constant
speed. This means that an object moving in a parabolic path under the influence of gravity has a horizontal
vector component, which has zero acceleration.
This means we can now use the suvat equations again and replace use a = 0
Hence using equation 1 we get v = u +at
Initial velocity = 0
Acceleration = a = 0
Then v = u + (0)t
Therefore v = u demonstrating constant velocity in the horizontal direction
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 = equation 2
s = [ (u + v)t] / 2 and we know that u = v
Therefore s = 2ut / 2 = ut
Therefore since s = ut then u = s/t
This says that the horizontal velocity = distance covered (range) / time taken
And equation 3 = s = ut + ½ at2
Therefore s = ut + ½ (0) t2 = ut
Therefore s = ut as stated before
And using v2 = u2 + 2as = equation 4
v2 = u2 + 2(0)s = equation 4
29
Therefore v2 = u2 as stated before.
This means that to calculate horizontal speed we can use speed = distance / time
Substitute in the values for vh, t, and a. Then find the appropriate equation for sh
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: Calculate the horizontal velocity components in the table below:

Stone vh t sh
1 10 10
2 20 20
3 30 30
4 10 10
5 20 20
6 30 30
7 10 10
8 20 20
9 30 30
10 40 40
What happens if a projectile is launched at an angle to the horizontal?
Velocity is a vector. It has both magnitude and direction.
The resultant velocity of a projectile at a point on its trajectory is the vector sum of the horizontal (VH) and
vertical (VV) velocities at that point.
By definition these are perpendicular vectors. The resultant velocity, v, is represented by the diagonal of the
vector rectangle shown.
The value of v is found using Pythagoras’ theorem:
V2 = VH2 + VV22 and its direction with the horizontal by: tan θ = VV / VH
30
Example:
Find the resultant velocity of a ball at a point in its trajectory where VH = 12m/s and VV = 9m/s
V2 = VH22 + VV2 = 122 + 92 = 144 + 81 = 225 so V= 15m/s
tan θ = 9 / 12 = 0.75; θ = 41 degrees
The resultant velocity at this point is 15m/s at 41 degrees to the horizontal. The trajectory is a parabola.
Question: In order for the long-jumper to jump the longest horizontal distance what should θ be?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: A new javelin that had its centre of gravity moved forward was introduced in 1999. Suggest why
this led to shorter distances being achieved.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Practice questions:
(1) What is the initial vertical velocity for an object projected horizontally with a velocity of 5ms-1?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Jason stands on a vertical cliff edge throwing stones into the sea below.
He throws a stone horizontally with a velocity of 20ms-1, 560m above sea level.
(a) How long does it take for the stone to hit the water from leaving Jason’s hand?
Use g = 9.81ms-2 and ignore air resistance.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Find the distance of the stone from the base of the cliff when it hits the water.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
31
(3) Robin fires an arrow into the air with a maximum velocity of 30ms-1, and a horizontal velocity of 20ms-1,
from 1m above the ground. Find the maximum height from the ground reached by his arrow.
Use g = 9.81ms-2 and ignore air resistance

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Question: Sam kicked a football horizontally off the edge of a wall 0.8m high.
(a) How long did the football take to reach the ground?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(b) The ball travelled a horizontal distance of 6m before hitting the ground. At what speed did it leave the
wall?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Speed and Velocity
Both Speed and Velocity are measured in metres / second. They both measure the distance an object moves
in a period of time. However, technically, Velocity is called a vector quantity, i.e. It has both magnitude
(size) and Direction. This means that actually we should describe the Velocity of the car as 2.5m/s, North by
North-East Indeed force is also a vector quantity and we should say ‘a force acts on a car at 150 Newtons,
East by North-East.’ Any measurement which just has a magnitude and is not defined by it’s direction is
called a SCALAR quantity e.g. speed.
Speed (m/s) = Distance (m) / Time (s) no direction specified = scalar quantity
Velocity (m/s) = Distance (m) / Time (s) plus direction = vector quantity
A single Force, which continually keeps acting on an object, will make it move. As time proceeds, the
object moves faster and faster- we say that it accelerates. Now the unit for speed (or Velocity) = m/s or ms ¹,
whereas the unit for acceleration = m/s² or ms ².
1 m/s² means that at 0 time an object is not moving. Then at the end of the first second, it has a sped = 1m/s.
At the end of the ‘second’ second, it has a speed (or velocity) = 1+1=2m/s,
At the end of the third second = 1+1+1=3m/s.
Interesting point! Acceleration can be calculated from a Velocity-time Graph from the gradient of the line.
Final Velocity - Initial Velocity

Acceleration (m/s²) = Gradient =
Final Time - Initial Time
(5 − 2)m / s 3
= = = 1m / s ²
(5 − 3) sec s 3
Final Velocity (m/s) Initial velocity (m/s)
So we have a formula for acceleration (m/s²) =
Time Taken (seconds)
32
Line Graph showing how an object continually pushed forward by a single force increases
in velocity at a constant acceleration = 1m/s2
Increase in Y= 5-2=3
Velocity (m/s)
2
Increase in X = 5-2=3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (Seconds)
(a) Draw a Velocity-time graph showing an object travelling from rest with a constant acceleration = 2m/s².
(b) Check that you have correctly drawn the line Graph by calculating the gradient and showing that it equals
2m/s².
(c) Use either your graph or the formula for acceleration to find the following- ‘A car traveling at 2.5m/s
accelerates at a constant acceleration = 2m/s for 3.2 seconds. What velocity does it reach?
33
AS Physics Edexcel Mike Walker BSc (Hons)
(d) Draw a Velocity-time graph showing an object travelling from rest with a constant
acceleration = 2.5m/s². (Do this on Graph paper and stick it below).
(e) Check that you have correctly drawn the line Graph by calculating the gradient
and showing that it equals 2.5m/s².
(f) Use either your graph or the formula for acceleration to find the following-‘A
car traveling at 3m/s accelerates at a constant acceleration = 2.5m/s for 2.5 seconds.
What velocity does it reach?
Direction is important when describing motion. Ideally we should give both a

direction e.g. due North and a magnitude e.g. 5m/s.
Relative motion
When you are moving in a car and another car passes you, both cars can be moving
very quickly. However, the relative speed of the second car (difference between the
two speeds) may be low.
The cars in fast lanes on each carriageway are moving past each other in opposite
directions. They pass each other very quickly, giving an impression of very high
speed. Their relative speed is high.
Question: What is the relative speed of two cars both moving at 100km/h in the same
direction?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Two trains travelling in opposite directions at 160km/h pass each other.
What is their relative speed?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Momentum
Momentum makes it easier to understand all sorts of collisions, from snooker balls to
cars, as well as explosions such as fireworks.
Pairs of forces
Forces always occur in pairs.

Imagine two people, A and B, both on skates. If A pushes B with a force of 50N (the
action force), then B will push back with a reaction force of 50N. They will
therefore move away from each other.
In general, the action force of an object A on an object B = reaction force of B on A
Hence every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
34
Question: What happens if you blow up a balloon and then release it? Name the
action and reaction forces.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: The forward force of the gun on the bullet is the action. What is the
reaction?
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Two cars collide head on:
What are the opposite reactions in this collision?

_____________________________________________________________________
Complete: ‘The force on the red car due to the green car is ….
Action and reaction
We have weight because we are attracted to Earth due to gravity. The Earth is also
attracted to our bodies; this is the reaction force.
• Action, force on boy due to gravitational attraction of Earth.
• Reaction, force on Earth due to gravitational attraction of our body.
These pairs of forces:
• Are equal in magnitude (size)
• Are opposite in direction
• Act on different objects
• Are the same types of force.
The Moon orbits Earth due to mutual gravitational attraction.
Forces may or may not cause an object to move. You may for instance be sat on a
chair at this very moment totally motionless. Balanced forces are acting, the
downwards pull of gravitational attraction acting through the legs of your chair (your
weight), being matched by the up thrust of the ground.
35
If balanced forces are acting on an object and that object is moving, then the
movement is one of constant speed. If unbalanced forces are acting on an object and
that object is moving, then the movement is one of acceleration or deceleration.
There are various ways to measure how an object moves. The simplest is to measure
the distance covered in a particular period of time
Mass and weight
The force of attraction on a mass due to gravity is called weight.
Force (N) = mass (m) x acceleration (a)
When falling freely a = g = 9.81N/kg on Earth.
The mass of an object gives us a relative measure of how much matter (atoms and
molecules) is in that object. It is measured in kg.
On Earth there is a downward pull of gravity equivalent to 9.81Newtons on every

kilogram of mass.
The weight of an object is given as the total gravitational force pulling downwards on
every kilogram of mass in that object.
Example
Sadaf has a mass = 54kg. Therefore she weighs 54 x 9.81 = 540N on Earth
Sadaf only weighs 90N on the moon.
This means that gravitational field strength on the Moon is less than on Earth.
W = mg so given that g = W / m = 90 / 54 = 1.6 N/kg
Question: A Moon buggy has a mass of 10kg. Find its weight:
(a) On Earth
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(b) On the Moon

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Question: Tom weighs 720N on Earth and 1080N on the newly discovered planet
Zeus. What is the gravitational field strength on Zeus?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
36
Density is mass per unit volume
Density is a measure of how much matter (atoms and molecules) is packed into a unit
volume.
The units of density are gcm-3 or kgm-3
Density = mass / volume
Ρ=m/v
Question: How does the following affect density:
(a) Larger atoms

(b) Atoms packed closer together
Question: The density of water is 1g cm-3.. If an object of 2 gcm-3 is placed on the

surface of water, what will happen?
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam question (1)

(a) Define density
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) A cylinder of aluminium, radius 4cm and height 6cm, has a mass of 820g.
Calculate its density.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Use the information from part (b) to calculate the mass of a cube of aluminium of
side 5cm.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam question (2): A sphere has radius 4cm and a density of 67.8grams. Calculate
its mass
HINT: The volume of a sphere = 4/3πr3

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam questions:
(1) A rectangular brick has dimensions of 6.1cm x 8.3cm x 21.00cm and a mass of
2.5kg. Calculate (a) its volume (b) its density
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
37
(2) An empty tin of treacle has a diameter of 0.120m and a height of 0.100m. It has a
mass of 0.19kg. it is filled with paint to within 3mm to the top of it. Its total mass
(tin and paint) is then 6.1kg. Calculate the following properties of the paint:
(a) Mass:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Volume:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Density:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) A solid steel cylinder (density of steel = 7800kgm-3) has a diameter of 20mm and
a length of 90mm.
Calculate (a) its volume in m3

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Calculate its mass in kg

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(4) An alloy tube of volume 2.0 x 10-4m3 consists of 72.3% aluminium whilst the
remainder is magnesium by volume. The density of aluminium = 2700kgm-3 and the
density of magnesium = 1700kgm-3.
Calculate the mass of (a) aluminium (b) magnesium in the tube:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Calculate the density of the alloy.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(5) Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It consists of 70% by volume of copper and
30% by volume of zinc.
The density of copper = 8.9 x 103 kg m-3

The density of zinc = 7.1 x 103 kg m-3
(a) Determine the mass of copper and mass of zinc required to make a rod of brass of
volume 0.80 x 10-3 m3
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
38
(b) Calculate the density of brass

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) can be considered as the single point through
which all the weight of an object acts.
If the object is pivoted underneath its centre of gravity then it will balance around this
point. This first diagram shows that the card is unstable. An anticlockwise turning
force (moment) is produced pulling the card downwards to the left.
It is easy to find the centre of gravity of an object e.g. rectangular piece of card.
(1) Hang the object freely from a point (e.g. one corner).
(2) Draw a vertical line downwards from the point of suspension – use a plumb
bob to get your line exactly vertical.
(3) Hang the object from a different point.
(4) Draw another vertical line down.
(5) The centre of gravity is where the two lines cross.
NB: For this to work, the object must have uniform density with a constant thickness
For a regular object the centre of gravity is simply at its centre.
39
Question: Identify one major source of uncertainty and suggest a way to reduce its
effect on the accuracy of your result.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
How high the centre of gravity is tells you how stable the object is
Stable objects have a low centre of gravity and a wide base. e.g. formula one cars.
The higher the centre of gravity and smaller the base area, the less stable the object.
Courtesy of http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-
14/Mechanics/Statics/text/Stability_/index.html
Question: Consider the previous diagram. In both diagrams the bus will right itself
(why?) What happens to an object if a vertical line is drawn downwards from its
centre of gravity and it falls outside its base area?
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Lets say that the bus weighs 50 000N, which act through its centre of
gravity. The perpendicular distance from the pivot to a vertical line drawn
downwards from the centre of gravity is 2.3m. Calculate the clockwise moment,
which will righten the bus.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
40
Forces
The following diagram shows all the forces acting on a moving car
Notice how forces being vectors are shown with arrows which:
(a) Specify the direction the force is acting in.

(b) Length of the arrow specifies the magnitude of the force.
(1) Notice how the weight of the car can be calculated from W = mg.
(2) Also consider how forces tend to act against each other in pairs.
The driving force and friction are unbalanced and so the car will accelerate to the
right.
(3) The weight of the car and the combined reaction forces of the ground upwards on
the tyres are equal and constitute balanced forces.
Resolving a force means splitting into its components
A force of 1200N is pulling this block at an angle of 1200N to the horizontal. It can
be resolved into both vertical (Fv) and horizontal (Fx) force components.
Forces are vectors, so they can be treated in the same way as velocities, and be joined
end to end to form a right-angled triangle.
41
The resultant force, force components or angle can then be calculated using
trigonometry.
Magnitude of Angle of vector to Fx Fy

vector the horizontal
4 10
6 20
8 30
4 5
5 9
60 5
75 7
70 8
4 4 5
6 5 9
8 5 6
12 6 7
42
Force vector diagrams
Question: There are two ways to determine the magnitude of the resultant force.
One is with trigonometry (sine). One is with Pythagoras. Try both in the space below
and see if you get the same answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: The first diagram is a free-body force diagram of an ice hockey puck
moving across the ice.
Use trigonometry to show how to calculate the vertical and horizontal force
components.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
43
Question: The previous diagram shows a painting and the tension forces in the string
holding it up. The painting weighs 80 N.
The force vectors can be joined end to end as follows:
The weight is spread equally through both strings.
Question: Calculate the tension force in each string:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
44
Question: Two elephants pull a tree trunk as shown in the diagram.
Calculate the resultant force on the tree trunk using Pythagoras

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: calculate force P by drawing a closed-loop force diagram
Resolving more than one force in force diagrams
We can resolve each of these forces into their horizontal and vertical components.
Remember, velocity is a vector quantity and since we use Cartesian axes (X and Y),
we can have negative x components and negative Y components.
45
Resultant force Vertical component Horizontal component
F1 -sin 45 x F1 - cos 45 x F1
F2 sin 60 x F2
F3 cos 30 x F3
Question: Lets determine the two unknown forces P and Q
Now because the forces are in equilibrium, we know that:
(1) The pair of oppositely directed vertical components add up to zero
(2) The pair of oppositely directed horizontal components add up to zero
46
If we start with the vertical components then we can see that:
(cos 200 x Q) – 120 = 0
Therefore, Q = [120 / cos 20] = 127.7N = 128 N (3SF)
In the horizontal direction:
Q sin 200 – P = 0
P = sin 200 x 128 = 43.7N
47
Question: For each of the following diagrams, the particles are in equilibrium.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the two unknown forces P and Q.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
48
Question: For each of the following diagrams, the particles are in equilibrium.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the two unknown forces P and Q.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
49
Newton’s laws of motion
Newton’s 1st Law of motion: The velocity of an object will not change unless
otherwise prevented from doing so by an external force.
This means that a body will stay still or move in a straight line at a constant speed
unless a force is continually acting on it. This force will then cause it to accelerate.
Remember, when we considered projectile motion with movement in a parabola, the

horizontal movement component was constant. Newton’s 1st law of motion was
applying. There was no external horizontally directed force applied to the object after
it left the throwing hand.
Forces often act on an object in pairs in opposite directions to each other.
In the photograph of the cat, the downward weight (mg) is matched by the upward
reaction push (R) of the tabletop.
Both forces are balanced and the object in this case does not move.
There are two pairs of forces acting on the kitten
• Blue pair: one force is due to the Earth pulling on the kitten (label this ‘a’).
The other force is due to the kitten pulling on the Earth (label this ‘b’).
• Red pair: one force is the downward push force of the kitten on the Earth
(label this ‘c’). The other force is due to the Earth pushing up on the kitten
(label this ‘d’).
These four forces are all the same size.
50
Question: If the kitten jumps in the air which are the only pairs of forces now acting?
_____________________________________________________________________
If pairs of forces acting on an object are not balanced, they will produce an overall
resultant force which will make the body accelerate.
This could change the speed and/or direction of a moving object. Newton’s second
law of motion describes the acceleration produced by a resultant force.
Forces cause changes in momentum
A large rugby player running very fast is going to be a lot harder to stop then a thin,
light rugby player out for an afternoon stroll. This is due to their different
momentum. Now by definition a Newton of force (N) = force required to move 1 kg
mass through 1 metre of distance (N/m)
Momentum (kg m/s) = Mass (kg) x Velocity (m/s) = momentum (N / s)
This implies that if an object has a momentum of 30 kg m/s or 30 N/s then it is

moving in a particular direction (Newtons are vector quantities) with a particular force
(Newtons), which stays the same each second it is moving. Furthermore, this also
means that the greater the mass of an object and the greater its velocity, the more
momentum the object has.
Example: A 65kg kangaroo is moving in a straight line at 10 m/s. Calculate its

momentum.
Answer: Momentum = mass x velocity = 65 x 10 = 650 kg m/s

Momentum has size and direction – like velocity (not speed). Again, this is because
the Newton component is a vector quantity.
When a force acts on an object, it causes a change in momentum.
Momentum = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s) = kg m/s = Newtons / second = Force acting
(N) / time (s)
Therefore Forcing acting on a moving object (Newtons) = Momentum (kg m/s) / time
(s)
Often in questions, we talk about a moving object, which changes its momentum
because of an external force being applied to it. The time taken for that change in
momentum then needs to be calculated.
Hence: Force acting (N) = Change in momentum (kg m/s) / time taken for change to
happen (s)
An understanding of momentum can help us to understand Newton’s second law

of motion
51
Newton’s second Law of motion states the following:
Resultant force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (ms2)
Now a = (v-u) / t
Thus F = m (v-u) / t = (mv – mu) / t = change in momentum / time
Thus a force changes the momentum of an object over a period of time.
F = ma = rate of change of momentum
So for an object with constant mass, its acceleration is directly proportional to the
force applied in the direction of the force. Also this force changes the momentum on
that object. The rate of change of momentum of the object is directly proportional to
the force applied in the direction of that force.
Question: If you squirt water out of a hose, the water is gaining momentum. You feel
a force pushing back on you – a kind of recoil. If you let go of the hose it will move
backwards.
If a hose squirts water 0.5 kg / second. The water moves through the pipe at 1m/s and
leaves the nozzle at 5m/s. Calculate the force F needed to push the water forwards
t = 1sec
m = 0.5kg
u = 1 m/s
v = 5m/s
F = m (v-u) / t = ______ Newtons (this means that the water is pushed forward by a
force of 2N and a force of 2N pushes back on the fireman).
Question: The forward thrust of a model car is 300N. Air resistance equals 50N. The
mass of the car is equal to 20 000 grams. What is the car’s uniform acceleration?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Newton’s Second Law explains why all objects regardless of their mass
accelerate to the same extent in a vacuum
Consider two masses called M1 = 50kg and M2 = 500kg. Now imagine that they are
both dropped from the same height above the ground in a vacuum.
Now according to the weight equation:
The total weight of each object = total gravitational resultant force pulling the objects
downwards
Weight = mass x g = 50kg x 9.81ms2 = 490.5N for M1
52
Weight = mass x g = 500kg x 9.81ms2 = 4905N for M2
Now according to Newton’s Second law of motion: F = ma, therefore a = F / m
Therefore for M1 we get a = 490.5N / 50kg = 9.81ms2 = g
And for M2 we get a = 4905N / 500kg = 9.81ms2 = g
This shows that acceleration is independent of mass. It makes no difference whether

the ball is heavy or light. In a vacuum, objects all fall to the ground at the same rate
of acceleration = g = 9.81ms2 on the Earth.
Question: Try the same reasoning in the space below with two other objects. Let’s
say that M3 = 13.5kg and M4 = 789kg.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Hang on a minute! On the Earth when we drop a hammer and a feather, the hammer
hits the ground before the feather!
How does the air affect the rate of acceleration of different objects?
To answer this, let’s consider M1 and M2 again.
Let’s say that they are both cubes of exactly the same dimensions. This means that
initially, when they are dropped from the same height, the up thrust air resistance is
the same on both.
Let’s say that this up thrust = 200N.
Therefore the resultant downward force on M1 = weight – 200N = 490.5N – 200N =

290.5N.
And the resultant downward force on M2 = weight – 20N = 4905N – 200N = 4705N.
Now let us go through the same procedure as before and substitute these values into
our calculations:
Now according to Newton’s second law of motion:
F = ma, therefore a = F / m
Therefore for M1 we get a = 290.5N / 50kg = 5.81ms2
And for M2 we get a = 4705N / 500kg = 9.41ms2
As can be seen, the lighter an object is, the greater the relative effect of air
resistance on the acceleration of that object due to gravity!
53
Question: Try the same reasoning in the space below with two other objects. Let’s
say that M3 = 13.5kg and M4 = 789kg as before. Now let’s say that the initial air
resistance is equal to 5N. Both objects are cubes of the same dimensions and are
dropped from the same height. Calculate the initial acceleration of each.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: A golf ball has a mass = 0.046kg. What average force does a golf club
exert on the ball during a contact time of 1.3ms (milliseconds) if the ball’s velocity
immediately after being struck is 50 m/s
Hint F = m (v-u) / t Answer = 1770N

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Water pouring from a broken pipe lands on a flat roof. The water is
moving at 5m/s when it strikes the roof. Every second, 10kg of water hits the roof.
Calculate the force of the water on the roof.
(Hint: assume that the water does not bounce as it hits the roof. If it did bounce,
would your answer be greater or smaller?) Also F = m (v-u) / t Answer = 50N-
bouncing = greater force because of the conservation of momentum
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: A toy train travels at a steady speed of 0.2m/s around a circular track. A
and B are two points diametrically opposite to one another on the track
(a) How much does the train’s speed change as it travels from A to B? (ans = 0m/s)
54
(b) How much does its velocity change as it travels from A to B (ans = 0.4m/s)
Hint: Minus sign for one of the velocities and change = difference between them.
You can use Newton’s second law of motion (F = ma) to explain this equation:
• Any force applied to an object increases its acceleration, F = ma

• And acceleration is just a change in velocity over time where a = change in
velocity / time
• Therefore a force applied to a moving object changes its velocity over time
i.e. F = mass x change in velocity / time = ma
• Now mass x change in velocity is called momentum, therefore F = change
momentum / time
Example: A rock with mass 1kg is traveling through space at 15m/s

A comet hits the rock giving it a resultant force of 2500N for 0.7 seconds.
Calculate (a) The rock’s initial momentum and (b) The change in its momentum
resulting from the impact.
Answer: (a) Momentum = mass x velocity = 1 x 15 = 15 kg m/s

(b) Using the formula triangle, change in momentum = force x time = 2500 x
0.7 = 1750 kg m/s
Question: Explain what happens to momentum under the following conditions:
(a) The time taken (t) for the change in momentum to occur is small.
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The time taken (t) for the change in momentum to occur is big.
Question: Explain what happens to force under the following conditions:
(a) The change in momentum is large (hint more likely to cause injury).
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) (a) The change in momentum is small (hint less likely to cause injury).
_____________________________________________________________________
This is why cars are designed to slow people down over a longer time when they have
a crash. The longer it takes for a change in momentum, the smaller the force, which
55
reduces the injuries.
F = m (v-u) / t = ______ N (this means that the water is pushed forward by a force of
2N and a force of 2N pushes back on the fireman).
Calculating force and acceleration

2
F = mv also since F = ma then a = ?
r
Question: The radius of the Earth is 6400km and g = 9.8m/s2. What velocity must an
object have to orbit the Earth? (Substitute into above, answer = 8km/s).
Question: How long would an object to orbit the Earth once travelling at 7920 m/s?
_____________________________________________________________________
(Radius = 6400km, answer = 84.6min)
Question: A stone of mass 0.2kg is whirled round on the end of a string of length
30cm. If the string will break when the tension in it exceeds 8 N what is the greatest
speed at which the stone can be whirled without the string breaking?
Hint the force = 8N. Substitute into formula. Answer = 3.5 m/s
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Complete the following table (hint some forces can be resolved into
vertical and horizontal components)
Example of circular motion Balanced Forces Unbalanced Forces

Car cornering on level road Weight versus Reaction Friction of tyres pushing on road =
centripetal and friction of road
pushing on tyres = centrifugal
Car cornering on a banked Weight versus vertical Horizontal component of reaction
road component of reaction causing tyres to push against
ground = centripetal
An aircraft banking
Stone whirled around on

string
Spinning Fairground
Cylinder
For aircraft think vertical and horizontal component of lift, same for tension in string
Question: Why is it impossible to whirl a conker around on the end of a string in such
a way that the string remains perfectly horizontal?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
56
Question: Explain why an aircraft will lose height when banking, unless the pilot
increases it speed to provide more lift.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Hint: compare vertical component of lift compared to weight, which is greater.

Question: Helen Sharman, the first Britain in space, worked in the Mir space station.
This had a mass of 20 900 kg and orbited the Earth, at an average height of 350km
where the gravitational acceleration is 8.8 m/s. Calculate the centripetal force
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
What is the speed at which it orbited?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
What is the time taken for each orbit?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
What is the number of times it orbited the Earth each day?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(radius of Earth = 6400km)
Question: A stone of mass 0.5kg is whirled round on the end of a string 0.5m long. It
makes three complete revolutions each second.
Calculate
(a) Its speed

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Its centripetal acceleration

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) The tension in the string

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Newton’s Third law of Motion
When two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and
opposite.
57
Another way of saying this is as follows:
If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal but

opposite force on object A.
This sometimes means that objects remain stationary
Example 1: A man of 70kg is standing upright.
The downwards force on the ground = 70kg x 9.81ms2 = 686.7N
The atoms in the molecules in the ground squeeze together as a result of compression.
The molecules in the ground squeeze together as a result of compression.
Electrostatic elastic recoil forces between these particles produce a combined push
upwards on his feet of equal magnitude but opposite in direction (Newton’s third).
Now both forces in this case are acting on the same object i.e. downward pull of
gravity on the man against the upward reaction force push of the ground.
The forces acting on the man are balanced and he remains stationary.
Now consider that you pull on a rope attached to a cart
A pull force is now exerted on the rope trying to direct the cart forward. Because
wheels reduce the overall resistive force, the resultant force in the forward direction
enables the cart to move forward.
The rope exerts the exact opposite pull on you trying to make you go backwards
In this case the two oppositely directed forces are acting on different objects!
You exert a resistive force with your feet on the ground which prevents you moving
backwards.
Both you and the cart move forwards.
Another example is when you go swimming. You push back against the water with
your arms and legs, and the water pushes you forwards with an equal sized force.
There is only one main force acting on a satellite when it is in orbit, and that is the
gravitational force exerted on the satellite by the Earth. This force is constantly
pulling the satellite towards the centre of the Earth.
The satellite moves forward in a direction, which is at a tangent to its orbit.

Simultaneously, the satellite is pulled slightly closer towards the centre of the planet
by gravitational attraction. The net effect is that the satellite keeps moving along
tangents to the orbital curve and so continues to circle the planet.
58
Question: The distance covered by the forward movement of the satellite along its
tangent should always equal the distance covered towards the centre of the planet by
the downward pull of gravity.
Explain what would happen if this was not the case.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Centripetal Forces, inertia and Newton’s third!
Newton’s first law says that an object orbiting another does so because there must be
unbalanced forces on it causing it to accelerate (in this case acceleration means the
velocity changes – direction but not magnitude). The force = gravity, electron in an
atom = electrostatic force. These forces are directed to the centre of attraction and are
called Centripetal forces. They make an object move in a circular path.
The momentum (inertia) of the moving object in a straight line at ninety degrees to
the direction of the centripetal force is equal in size but acting in an opposite direction
(Newton’s third law). This time the opposite direction is not 180 degrees but 90
degrees. The resultant force produced between the centripetal force and the inertia of
the moving object make it travel along continually changing tangents.
[Magnitude of centripetal force = change in momentum of orbiting object / unit time
Unit time = 1 and there is no change in momentum (constant)
Therefore, centripetal force = momentum (also called inertia)]
Question: In each of the following cases, say what provides the centripetal force.
(a) The moon orbiting the Earth

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) A car going around a bend on a flat road (answer = frictional force of tyres on
road, no friction no centripetal force = no turning effect)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) The weight on the end of a swing pendulum

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
59
Exam questions:
(1) Consider the following information about a parachutist
When you drop something it accelerates downwards, moving faster and faster, until it
hits the ground. Gravity on this planet pulls downward on objects with a pull force
that accelerates each kilogram of mass at approximately 9.81m/s2.
According to F = ma, we can determine the definition of a Newton, if we substitute

the mass = 1kg and acceleration = 1m/s2, we get 1 x 1 = 1N and hence we have the
definition of the Newton.
1 Newton equals the pull force that accelerates 1 kilogram mass at 1 m/s
Now the definition of weight is the total gravitational pull force on an object.
Hence if we know the mass of an object in kilograms, we simply multiply this by the
gravitational pull of that planet on every kilogram called ‘g’ and in this case it
approximately = 10N/kg
Consequently W = m g where m=mass, g = gravitational pull on each kilogram
Question: A boulder has a mass = 2.3kg. What is its weight?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Now imagine that an object falls from a height. As it does so it will accelerate
downwards due to the force of gravity i.e. ‘g’
(1) To start with it will strike into air molecules with a low speed. These air
molecules will push back with a relatively small force (air – resistance). We
have unbalanced forces (downward pull due to weight of object is greater than
up thrust of the air).
(2) The object continues to accelerate and now hits the air molecules with a higher
speed. The air molecules are now pushing back with a greater force.
60
(3) Up thrust is greater than before. The difference between the unbalanced
forces is not as great as before. The object is not accelerating downward as
fast as before.
(4) Eventually, the objects hits the air molecules with such a high speed and force
that they now push upwards with an equal force. Weight and up thrust (air
resistance are now balanced). The object continues to fall, but now at a
constant speed.
(seconds)
Question: If you drop a ball it accelerates. What happens if you throw it up? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: On the above graph show the speed of a boulder of similar mass would
change with time if it collided with the air, but this time the boulder had a greater
surface area (e.g. piece of slate).
Question: Suggest why a parachutist falls more slowly after their parachute opens
(mention the effect of air resistance or drag).
_____________________________________________________________________
61
Question: Complete the following table with regards the falling of a parachutist using
the text boxes that follow:
Stage of fall Explanation of what is happening
Parachutist has just jumped

out of airplane
Parachutist has been falling

for a while (parachute
unopened)
Parachute is opened
Parachutist with parachute

opened has been falling for a
while
62
Opened parachute helps

establish balanced forces
Parachutists with opened

parachute falls at slow,
controlled speed until lands
on earth
As the speed of the free-fall parachutist They decelerate, displacing

increases they displace more air molecules When the parachute opens fewer air molecules each
every second so the air resistance force (drag) the upward force on them second, which therefore push
increases as more molecules push up with increases suddenly as there up with an overall smaller
greater force. The parachutist’s acceleration is a much larger surface force, so the air resistance
reduces. area, displacing more air force, decreases.
Eventually, they reach a
When their weight is equal to the air new, slower terminal speed
resistance force, the forces on them are when their weight is equal
balanced, so they travel at a constant to the air resistance once This means they can land
more. safely.
Explain at which stages Newton’s third law applies.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: What would happen to the speed of a parachutist if their parachute failed to
open?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Why do free-fall parachutists fall with their body in a horizontal position?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Drag racers and the Space shuttle also use parachutes to slow them down rapidly.
Question: Ali and Charlie are free-fall parachutists. Ali weighs 500N and Charlie
weighs 800N. Use your ideas about forces to explain who reaches the greatest
terminal speed.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
63
(3) This question asks you to use Newton’s second law to explain three situations.
(a) Two cars have different maximum accelerations. What are the only two overall
factors that determine the acceleration a car can have?
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Michael can always beat his younger brother Tom in a sprint, however short the
distance. Give two possible reasons for this.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Michael and Tom are both keen on diving. They notice that they seem to take the
same time to drop from the diving board to the water. Explain why this is the case
(assume no air resistance).
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(4) Mars orbits the sun once every 687 days at a distance of 2.3 x 10 (power 11) m.
The mass of Mars is 6.4 x 10 (power 23) kg. Calculate;
(a) Its orbital speed

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) its centripetal acceleration

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
© the force exerted on Mars by the Sun.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(5) If you have ever been down a water-slide you will know that you tend to slide up
the slide as you go around a bend. Explain how this provides the centripetal force
needed to push you around the bend. Why do you slide higher if you are going faster?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Mechanics in the Real world
Many factors affect how quickly a car stops
The total distance you need to stop after you see a problem is given by the following:
Thinking distance + Braking distance = stopping distance
Now Total change in speed to come to a halt = thinking distance / reaction time.
64
Question: Rearrange this equation so as to calculate:
(1) Thinking distance
(2) Braking distance
Question: Complete the following table using the words underneath:
Factors affecting Thinking distance Factors affecting Braking distance
Possible words: tiredness, braking force, friction between tyres and the road, alcohol,
mass of car, speed, drug use, illness, distractions
Question: What affects the total mass of the car? Explain in terms of Newton’s
second law how increasing mass, increases the force needed to stop the car.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Braking force is reduced by reduced friction between the brakes and the wheels (worn
or badly adjusted brakes).
Question: Name three things that reduce the friction between the tyres and the road.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Car safety features are designed to slow you down gradually
A car loses all of its kinetic energy when it stops. The faster it goes the more kinetic
energy it possesses. The kinetic energy is transferred mainly into heat by the brakes.
Kinetic energy lost (J) = work done by the brakes (J)
Example
The brakes in a car produce a force of 5000N and the car has to lose 200 000J of
kinetic energy
Work done (J) = force (N) x distance moved (m)
65
The distance moved in stopping is equal to the braking distance so:
Braking distance = work done by brakes / braking force
= 200 000 / 5000

= 40m
Question: Tom does 3000J of work in pushing a small van a distance of 10m. How
big is the friction force he has to push against?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Bethany is stacking a food shelf with tins each weighing 12 N. When she
has put 20 tins on the shelf she calculates that she has done 288J of work. How high
is the shelf?
_____________________________________________________________________
Braking distances
The table shows typical braking distances for cars at different speeds.
Speed (m/s) Speed (mph) Braking distance in m

10 22 8
20 45 32
30 70 72
40 90 128
The braking distance increases with increasing speed, but not proportionally. When
the speed doubles, the braking distance quadruples. The kinetic energy of the car also
quadruples.
2
Kinetic energy (J) = ½ mv
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
Question: A car has a mass = 1000kg. What is its kinetic energy at 20 m/s and 40
m/s. What happens to its kinetic energy when the speed doubles?
_____________________________________________________________________
When the car stops its kinetic energy changes into heat in the brakes, tyres and road.
Work done by brakes = loss in kinetic energy
Braking force x braking distance = Work done by brakes = loss in kinetic energy
Remember, when the speed of the car doubles, the kinetic energy and the braking
distance quadruple. This is why there are speed limits on roads and stiff penalties for
drivers who exceed them.
66
Question: Emma is driving her car at 15 m/s when the car 25m in front of her brakes
suddenly.
(a) If Emma’s car has a mass of 1200kg, what is its kinetic energy at 15m/s?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Use the table showing braking distances to show that the braking distance at this
speed is 18m
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Use the last two answers to find the braking force.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) Do you think that Emma hits the car in front? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Most safety features in cars slow down the collision so it takes you longer to stop.
Remember
Work done (energy transferred into you during collision / Joules)
= Force transferred into person (N) trying to bring you to a halt
x distance between colliding force e.g. windscreen and person over which force is
acting
If we make this distance larger, then the restraining force can be made smaller
Consider a passenger moving forward and hitting his head on the glass windscreen
When he moves through the air, we can basically forget air resistance as a resistive,
restraining force. That force is really only made by the glass of the windscreen. On
contact, it pushes against the head trying to bring it to a stop.
The glass is in contact whilst the head moves a tiny distance into the glass itself.
Work done bring head to a halt
= Force required x distance force is in contact with head.
Now the work done actually stops the head moving forward at the same time that we
have an absolutely tiny distance that the head moves into the windscreen.
67
As a result, the force required must be huge! So huge that enormous damage is done
to the head in the process.
Now consider seatbelts and airbags. They are continually pushing backwards on the
passenger as he moves forward.
The total work done bringing that person to a halt is the same. However, now the
force required can be much smaller so no harm is done.
Remember, air bags are big and squishy and help to slow you down gradually.
Question: Crumple zones at the front and back of the car produce a continuous
resistance force as they allow the car to crumple. At the same time, safety cages
around the area of the occupants of the car prevent them from being crushed in.
Explain how crumple zones work using the work equation.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Calculation involving a ‘suvat’ equation to determine the duration of a collision
Mike was driving his car and it bumped into the back of a stationary bus. It did not
have a crumple zone. The car was traveling at 2ms-1 and was brought to a stop in 0.1
seconds. Mike was wearing his seatbelt and it took 0.4 seconds to stop. The mass of
the car was 1000kg and Mike’s mass was 75kg.
(a) Find the deceleration of Mike and the car.
Answer: Use v = u + at
For the car: u = 2ms-1, t = 0.1secs, v = 0ms-1
Which gives: 0 = 2 + 0.1a. Therefore, a = -20ms-2
For Mike u = 2ms-1, t = 0.4secs, v = 0ms-1
Which gives: 0 = 2 + 0.4a. Therefore, a = -5ms-2
(b) Calculate the average force acting on Mike
Using F = ma for the resistive force bringing Mike to a halt = 75kg x 5ms-2 = 375N
(c) Upon collision, Mike moved forward 30cm into his seatbelt. Calculate the work
done and how much energy was required to stop Mike.
Hint: Work done bring head to a halt = Force required x distance force is in contact
with head.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
68
(c) Calculate the average force acting on the car in bringing it to a stop
Using F = ma for the resistive force bringing the car to a halt
= 1075kg x 20ms-2 = 21500N
(d) Imagine that Mike was not wearing a seat belt. He would come to a halt in the
same time as the car did. Now calculate the resistive force required to bring Mike to a
halt if he was not wearing a seat belt.
Using F = ma for the resistive force bringing Mike to a halt = 75kg x 20ms-2 =1500N
(compared to 375N).
Question: Imagine that Mike’s car had a crumple zone. This time it took 0.2 seconds
for the car to come to a halt after collision with the bus.
Question: Calculate the force required for this to happen

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Mechanics in the real world
Question: On this photograph of a bungee jumper, the weight initially is greater than
the tension in the bungee cord (and air resistance).
Explain (using Newton’s second law of motion), why he accelerates downwards.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
69
Question: soon the tension will equal the force of his weight
Explain (using Newton’s second law of motion), why he no longer accelerates

downwards.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam questions
(1) Sarah sees a cow step into the road 30m ahead of her. Sarah’s reaction time is 0.5
seconds. She is traveling at 20ms-1. Her maximum braking force is 10 000N and her
car (with her in it) has a mass of 850kg.
(a) How far does she travel before applying her brakes?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate Sarah’s braking distance. Assume she applies the maximum braking
force until she stops.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Does Sarah hit the cow? Justify your answer with a suitable calculation.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) In a crash test a car slams into a solid barrier at 20ms-1. The car comes to a halt in
0.1 seconds. The car crash dummy goes through the windscreen and hits the barrier at
a speed of 18ms-1 and then also comes to a stop in 0.1 seconds. The mass of the car is
900kg and the mass of the dummy is 50kg.
(a) Calculate the forces in the car and the dummy as they are brought to a stop.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The car is modified to include crumple zones and an airbag. Explain what
difference this will make and why.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) Draw and label a force diagram showing a bungee jumper:
(i) When they have just started falling (ii) At the lowest point of their jump.
Work and Power
When a force moves an object, we say that work has been done. A force is needed to
move something because you have to overcome another force. This transfers kinetic
energy into the moving object, which is then transferred into other forms of energy.
70
As a result, we say that work is denoted as the total amount of energy

transferred from one form to another when a force causes a movement of some
sort.
People and machines do work.
When a person lifts a mass or pushes a shopping trolley work is done.
• The more massive an object, the more work is done because a greater force is
required.
• When the object or trolley is moved a larger distance more work is done.
When a person climbs stairs or jumps in the air the force moved is their weight.
Energy is needed to do work. Energy comes from food. The more work is done the
more energy is needed.
A machine gets the energy it needs to do work from an energy source such as
electricity, or energy resources such as gas or oil.
Activity Work done against Final energy form

Lifting up a box
Pushing a chair across a

level floor
Pushing two magnetic
north poles together
Stretching a spring
Possible words: gravity, magnetic force, gravitational potential energy, magnetic

energy, heat, stiffness of spring, elastic potential energy, magnetic energy
Work and energy are measured in joules.
Question: What unit is used to measure (a) Mass (b) Work (c) Energy
Question: Write down two things that affect the amount of work done by a force.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Work is the energy that is changed from one form to another when a force causes an
object to move. This force continually needs to move itself in the same direction that
that object is moving. We need to refer to a fixed force F which is either constant or
because it’s the average force.
71
Work done (joules i.e. N/m) = force (N) x distance moved (m)
Example: A clown weighs 700N. What work does he do against gravity when he
jumps 80cm?
Work done = force x distance moved
= 700 x 0.8 = 560J
When a book is moved from a low shelf to a higher shelf it will gain gravitational
potential energy. However, it had to have some gravitational potential energy to start
with. Therefore, work done in this example refers to the increase in gravitational
potential energy in the object.
Santosh weighs 600N. He is out walking and comes to a steep hill.1km long marked
with a slope of 20%. This is sometimes called a ‘1 in 5’ hill. It means that for every
kilometer traveled along the slope a vertical height of 0.2km is climbed. The amount
of work Santosh does in walking up the hill is:
Work done = force x distance moved
= 600 x 0.2 = 120J
Question: Would Santosh do more work if he ran, instead of walked, up the hill?
Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: How much work does Paul do when he lifts a box weighing 250N off the
floor to a shelf 2m high?
_____________________________________________________________________
Sometimes the direction of movement is different from the direction of the force
In the above example, θ is the angle between the direction of the force and the
direction of movement.
72
The only movement is in the horizontal direction. This means that the vertical force is
not causing any motion and therefore not doing any work. This vertical force is just
balancing out some of the weight, meaning there is a smaller reaction force.
The horizontal force is causing the motion and is given below:
Force (horizontal) = F cos θ
Then let the distance moved by the object as it was pulled = ‘s’.
As a result, the work done W = Fs cos θ
Exam questions:
(1) Mike pushes a desk 2.81m across a flat floor. If he pushes with a steady force of
203N, how much work does he do?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) John pulls a desk 2.3m across the floor by pulling a rope attached to it at 15.1
degrees to the horizontal. If he pulls with a steady force of 375N, how much work
does he do?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) A car operating at a power of 63.8kW is traveling at a steady 35.9ms-1. How

much force the engine is providing?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(4) A child is pulling a cart along by a string at 16.7 degrees to the horizontal. The
child is pulling with a constant force of 85.3N and the cart is moving horizontally at
3.12ms-1. What is the power of the child?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
73
Power
The rate at which work is done is called power measured in joules / second.
Imagine a wooden block is pushed with a force of 30 Newtons over a distance of 10

meters in 10 seconds.
This means that 30 Newtons x 10 metres = 300joules of work has been completed.
This has been completed in 10 seconds and so 30 joules of work has been done per
second.
Hence Power (Joules / second or watts) = work done (J) / time taken (s)
Power is also equal to Force x Velocity [P = Fv]
Rationale:
Power = Work done / time And Work done = force x distance
Therefore Power = [force x distance] / time
Therefore since velocity = distance / time
Then Power = Force x [distance / time]
Then Power = Force x velocity
Question: Imagine that a builder pulls on a trolley with a rope. The rope makes an
angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal. He pulls the trolley over a distance of 20 metres
with a resultant force (tension) in the rope of 500N.
It takes the builder 15 seconds to do this.
Calculate the total work done

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Calculate the power expended in this activity

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: A car is traveling at a speed of 15ms-1 and is kept going against the
frictional force by a force of 500N in the direction of motion. Find the power
supplied by the engine to keep the car moving.
HINT: Use Power = Force x velocity

_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
74
Question: Imagine that a second builder pulls on a trolley with a rope. The rope
makes an angle of 40 degrees to the horizontal. He pulls the trolley at a constant
velocity of 2ms-1 against a frictional force. The resultant force in the rope (tension) =
200N.
What is the size of the frictional force? What was the power expended in this
activity?
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Question; A girl pulls on a sledge with a force of 55N for 200m. The string she uses
to pull the sledge is at an angle of 21.5 degrees to the horizontal ground. Calculate
the work she does in pulling the sledge over this distance.
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
The girl takes 14.5 seconds to pull the sledge over this distance. What power did she
expend whilst doing this?
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Exam questions:
A horse walking along the towpath draws a traditional narrow boat. The horse pulls
the boat at a constant speed between two locks, which are 1500m apart. The tension
in the rope is 100N at 40 degrees to the direction of motion.
What is the work done on the boat?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam question: A motor is used to lift a 20kg load to a height of 3m. (take g =
9.81Nkg-1
(a) Calculate the work done in lifting the load.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
75
(b) The speed of the load during the lift is 0.25ms-1. Calculate the power delivered by
the motor.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam question: A car is traveling at a speed of 10ms-1 and is kept going against the
frictional force by a driving force of 500N in the direction of motion. Find the power
supplied by the engine to keep the car running.
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
The government wants to reduce car emissions of CO2. CO2 pollutes local air and is a
major source of global greenhouse gases, which contribute to climate change. The
amount of Vehicle Excise Duty paid is now based on CO2 emissions. Vehicle
manufactures and purchasers are made more aware of the environmental impact of
vehicles and the use of more fuel-efficient cars is encouraged.
Engine Power Top speed Fuel

capacity in In kW In km / h consumption in
litres litres / 100 km
Green car 1.3 44 160 6
Yellow car 3.6 240 285 11
Question: Which car, green or yellow, would go further on a litre of petrol?
Question: On a building site, crane A lifts a steel girder on to a building in 60

seconds. Crane B takes 40 seconds to do the same job.
(a) Does one crane do more work than the other?

_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Is one crane more powerful than the other?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Neil can lift 20 weights, each weighing 30N, through a height of 2 m in 60
seconds. Calculate Neil’s power.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Sarah, who weighs 50N, can do 24 step-ups in 30 seconds. The step is 12
cm high. Calculate Sarah’s power.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Suggest how the production and transport of fuels harm the environment.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
76
Power (Joules / second or watts) = work done (J) / time taken (s)
The Eurostar train provides a high-speed service through the Channel tunnel. When
the train achieves 300km/h with its engine operating at 2MW, the amount of work
done in 2 hours, or energy transferred in 2 hours is calculated by:
Power (J / s) = work done (J) / time (s)
Work done = power (J / s) x time (s)
Now the number of seconds in two hours = 120 x 60
So work done= 2 000 000 x (120 x 60) = 14 400 000 000 J
Question: A 25kW motor raises a 5000N load through a height of 40m. How long
does it take?
___________________________________________________________________
Conservation of Energy
The principle of the conservation of energy states that:
‘Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can be transferred from one form to
another but the total amount of energy in a closed system will not change.’
Efficiency = Useful Power Output / Power Input x 100%
Question: The power input from the mains supply to a motor equals 3 kW.
It produces 2000 Joules / second of waste energy e.g. heat and sound.
What is the efficiency of the motor?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
77
Notice how stretched materials store energy as elastic potential energy.
This is given as:
E = ½ ke2 where k = stiffness constant and e = extension of a spring or some elastic

material.
Question: A boy is on a trampoline whose material is stretched as he stands on it.
The stiffness constant of the material ‘k = 4 x 105 N/m’

The extension ‘e = 0.5cm’
Calculate the elastic potential energy in the trampoline material.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
90% of this energy is converted into kinetic energy Ek in the boy, forcing him
upwards [10% lost in frictional forces]. The mass of the boy = 50kg.
Calculate ‘u’ i.e. initial velocity of the boy.
Remember Ek = ½ mu2
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
78
Calculate the maximum height that the boy achieves above the trampoline
[Use v2 = u2 +2as].
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
At this height what is the change in gravitational potential energy? [∆Ep = mg∆h].
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
N.B: each time that the boy lands on the trampoline not all the energy is transferred
from Ep to Ek to Ep again. Some energy is converted into heat and lost from this
closed system in frictional forces.
The boy therefore would have to use some force from his muscles to keep jumping to
the same height above the trampoline each time.
The Simple Pendulum
A classic device, which nicely shows the interconversion of gravitational potential

energy into kinetic energy and back, again, is the simple pendulum.
Question: Calculate the increase in height (Y) of the bob when raised from A to B.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Calculate the increase in Ep when the bob is raised from A to B.

[∆Ep = mg∆h].
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
79
Calculating speeds of the swinging pendulum bob
Now consider that the bob is released from this height. Let us now find the maximum
speed of the pendulum bob as it passes the vertical position.
When this happens
[mg∆h] = ½ mv2
Since v2 = 2gh we can therefore say that therefore v = [2gh] 1/2
= [2 x 9.81 x 90.5 – 0.5cos30)]1/2 , therefore v = 1.15ms-1
Question: A pendulum bob is raised from A to B and the pendulum (0.5m) produces
an angle of 45 degrees to the vertical. It is then released.
Find the maximum speed of the pendulum bob as it passes the vertical position
[assume no air resistance].
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam questions:
(1) A skateboarder is on a half-pipe. He lets the board run down one side of the ramp
and up the other. The height of the ramp is 2m. Take g = 9.81Nkg-1.
(a) If you assume that there is no friction, what would be his speed at the lowest
point?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) How high will he rise up to the other side?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Real ramps are not frictionless, so what must the skater do to reach the top on the
other side?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) A simple pendulum has a mass of 700g and a length of 65cm. It is pulled out at an
angle of 35 degrees from the vertical.
(a) Find the gravitational potential energy stored in the pendulum bob relative to its
lowest point.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
80
(b) The pendulum is released. Find the maximum speed of the pendulum bob as it
passes the vertical position.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) Describe the energy transfers involved when a catapult string is drawn back and a
pellet is fired out of the catapult.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(4) Find the useful power output of a 20% efficient engine with a power input of
39kW.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(5) How much gravitational potential energy does an eagle with a mass of 800g lose
when it dives 103m?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(6) As the eagle dives, 95% of its gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy. If it started stationary, how fast is it moving after the dive?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(7) The eagle misses its prey and soars back up, converting 80% of its kinetic energy
to gravitational potential energy. How high will it climb before needing to flap its
wings?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(8) A parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane and falls 2000m before opening his
parachute. Lets say that 50% of the total change in gravitational potential energy has
been lost in frictional forces at this point and 50% has been transferred into kinetic
energy.
The parachutist (plus parachute) has a mass of 130kg. Calculate his vertical
downward velocity at this point.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(9) If at this point his overall downward weight matches up thrust forces, what can
you say about this velocity?
_____________________________________________________________________
81
(10) A 20g rubber ball is released from a height of 8m. (Assume that the effect of air
resistance is negligible).
(a) Find the kinetic energy of the ball just before it hits the ground.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The ball strikes the ground and rebounds to a height of 6.5m. How much energy
is converted to heat and sound in the impact with the ground?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Question: How much gravitational potential energy does this ball have originally at
the beginning of step 1 relative to ground level? How much kinetic energy does it
have at this point?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: How much gravitational potential energy does the ball have relative to
ground level when it strikes the ground and becomes squashed? How much kinetic
energy does it have at this point?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: How much gravitational potential energy does the ball have half way down
its fall? How much kinetic energy does it have at this point?
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
82
Question: Why does the ball not bounce up to the same height of 10m?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Can you calculate how much waste thermal, sound and structural energy
was produced when it hit the floor?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: When has the train most (a) gravitational potential energy (b) kinetic
energy?
_____________________________________________________________________
Speed of a roller coaster
Kinetic energy = ½ mv2
Gravitational potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy as the train falls.

If the gravitational potential energy doubles, the kinetic energy produced can double.
Imagine that a mass of 1kg has a kinetic energy of 1 joule.
83
Substituting into the equation we get:
1 = ½ x 1 x v2
Hence 1 = v2
Therefore if we double the kinetic energy
2 = new velocity2
We can therefore say that by doubling the kinetic energy, the velocity increases by 2
Also, if K.E ∝ v2
Let v = 1
Therefore if v = 2 (velocity doubles), then K.E ∝ 22
Thus K.E ∝ 4
The kinetic energy quadruples.
Question: What happens to the kinetic energy if the mass doubles?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: Why do the heights of the peaks on a roller coaster ride decrease
progressively?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Question: On long roller coaster rides the trains are given a short lift by a motor part-
way through the ride. Why is this done?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam Style Questions
1(a) A wind sail is attached by cable to a trolley. The trolley has mass equal to
3.76kg. The string makes an angle of 40 degrees to the horizontal. The vertical force
exerted on the cart by the cable balances the weight of the cart, so that it feels no
reaction force from the ground.
Calculate the magnitude of the force exerted on the cart by the cable.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
84
1(b): The vertical force exerted on the cart by the cable balances the weight of th cart,
so that it feels no reaction force from the ground. Calculate the magnitude of the
force exerted on the cart by the cable.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
1(c): Assume that there is no friction or air resistance. Calculate the forward
acceleration of the cart caused by the force from the cable.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
When the cart is travelling at 12.5ms-1, it applies the brakes and comes to a stop after
15 seconds.
1(d): Calculate the kinetic energy of the cart just before it applies the brakes.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
1(e): Assuming the cart undergoes a uniform deceleration, calculate how far it will
travel before coming to a stop.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
1(f): Calculate the power of the brakes.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2(a): The graph below shows the displacement-time graph for a cyclist during a bike
ride. Describe the cyclist’s motion in parts A, b, c, and D of the graph.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
85
2(b): Another cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at a rate of 1.5ms-2 for 4 seconds.
She then decelerates at a rate of 1ms-2 for 6 seconds. The table below shows the
cyclist’s velocity during this time. Draw a graph of velocity against time for the
cyclist.
T (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
v (ms-1) 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 (c): She then allows herself to roll down the hill without pedalling. The top of the
hill is 22.5m above the ground. The cyclist and bicycle have a mass of 67.9kg.
Calculate how fast she will be going when she reaches the bottom of the hill. Assume
air resistance and other resistive forces are negligible.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) A boy throws a stone with a velocity of 7ms-1, whilst sitting on a wall. The wall is
1.45m high. He throws the stone at 30 degrees to the horizontal.
(a) Calculate the vertical component of the stone when it hits the ground.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate how long it will take to hit the ground.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the range of this projectile.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4 (a): Define the moment of a force.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
86
4 (b): Consider the truck in the diagram below:
State and explain which set of wheels A or B will feel the most force when the truck
is carrying no load.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4 (c): A boulder is placed on the very edge of the back of the truck and the front
wheels remain on the ground but no longer feel any force from the truck. Calculate
how much the rock weighs.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5 (a): what is the difference between the weight of an object and its mass?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5 (b): The above beam is balanced on the pivot (fulcrum). Draw in the approximate
position of its centre of gravity.
87
5(c): Describe the features that the base of a crane must have in order to ensure that it
is stable when lifting objects.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6 (a): Explain why the toy below always manages to righten itself when pushed to one
side (torque = moment).
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
88
Mechanics (1)
Across
3. The distance away from a fixed point of reference.
6. A measure of how much matter i.e. atoms and molecules are in something.
7. A quantity, which has both a magnitude component and a directional component.
10. The area under a velocity versus time graph can enable you to calculate the total
of this.
12. The unit for mass.
13. If the centre of gravity of an object is not above the point where that object is
pivoted then it will be this.
16. Another term for a turning force.
17. The units for any force such as weight.
18. The term given to the overall effect of a number of forces acting on an object.
19. To calculate a moment we multiply the force by this distance from the force to the
pivot or fulcrum.
Down
1. Distance travelled per unit time associated with a direction. This is a vector
quantity.
89
2. The total gravitational pull downwards on an object.

4. The rate of change of velocity.
5. Velocity can be measured on a displacement time graph by measuring this.
6. Mass times velocity.
8. Mass per unit volume.
9. The centre of this is the point where all weight appears to act.
11. A quantity that has magnitude but no direction such as mass.
14. Distance travelled per unit time and this is a scalar quantity.
15. Newton's third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite this.
Unit 1: Section 2: Materials
The force produces an equal and opposite force at the support (Newton’s third).
Hooke’s Law states ‘The extension ‘e’ is directly proportional to the force
applied (F).
F = ke
Where k = stiffness constant
When applied to a stretching (or compressing) spring, k is called the spring stiffness
or spring constant
The value of k is the same value whether the forces are tensile or compressive. K is
dependent on the material being used.
90
Here a load is applied to a metal wire and the corresponding extension plotted on a
graph. Notice how the dependent variable for this experiment (extension) has
unusually been plotted along the x-axis.
When the extension is in direct proportion to the load applied the metal is elastic.
This means that the wire will return to its natural length ‘l’ when the load has been
removed.
When the load becomes great enough and the wire no longer exhibits elasticity, a
point ‘E’ on the graph is reached called the elastic limit.
Beyond this any further increase in load will cause the wire to become permanently
stretched. When all the force is removed, the material will be longer than at the start.
NB. Some materials e.g. rubber only obey Hooke’s law for really small extensions.
91
Elasticity
Plasticity
(1) After stretching the material is permanently deformed and longer than its original
length.
(2) The atoms do not return to their original position after the load is removed.
(3) Some atoms move to a greater or lesser extent relative to each other
A material stretched past its elastic limit shows plastic deformation.
92
Exam questions:
(1) A metal guitar string stretches 4.0mm when a 10N force is applied.
(a) If the string obeys Hooke’s law, how far will the string stretch with a 15N force?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the stiffness constant for this string in Nm-1.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) The string is tightened beyond its elastic limit. What would be noticed about the
string?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) A rubber band is 6.0cm long. When it is loaded with 2.5N, its length becomes
10.4cm. Further loading increases its length to 16.2cm when the force is 5.0N.
Does the rubber band obey Hooke’s law when the force on it is 5.0N? Justify your
answer with a suitable calculation. (HINT: whilst elastic, the gradient i.e. K should be
constant).
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) Draw a graph showing the extension of a rubber band using the results in the table
below:
Load (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Extension (m) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.30
(a) Calculate the stiffness constant
(b) Mark on your graph the elastic limit
(c) Determine the range of loads over which the band is elastic and plastic
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
93
Stress and Strain
Question: Complete the sentences using the words that follow:
If a pair of oppositely directed forces acts on an object, they can ________ it (change
its shape).
If this pair of forces stretches the material, they are _______.
If this pair of forces compresses the material they are _________.
Possible words: compressive, tensile, deform
The term ‘stress’ is applied to the forces / unit area, causing extension or contraction..
Stress = Force applied (F) / Cross Sectional Area (m2) = Nm-2 or Pascals (Pa).
If we apply tensile forces, the object gets bigger (extends) and the stress value is given
a positive value (tensile stress). Tensile forces are considered as positive.
If we apply compressive forces, the object gets smaller (contracts) and the stress value
is given a negative value (compressive stress). Compressive forces are considered
as negative.
Strain refers to the extension or contraction due to these pairs of external forces.
Strain = Change in length (extension) / original length of material (no units)
UTS refers to Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS). This is the maximum stress that the
material can withstand before it extends and breaks at point B. This occurs when the
atoms have separated so much that bonds are broken and the material breaks.
94
Elastic Strain Energy is the energy stored in a stretched material!
Energy is transferred into potential elastic strain energy into that spring when it is
extended by a load (force).
Work done (Joules or N/m) = Force (N) x distance / extension (m)
In the previous graph, the average load applied to the spring = ½ Force (N). This is
because we start with zero force and build up to a maximum.
According to the equation, for this example we get work done (Joules) = ½ Fe
This is equivalent to the area under the graph.
Summary to calculate the potential elastic strain energy in a spring / stretched material
(1) Draw a load (force) x extension line graph.

(2) Calculate the area under that graph.
Developing this technique using Hooke’s Law
Now when we want to determine the stiffness constant of a material such as a wire,
we add increasing loads and measure the resulting extension. We then draw a graph
as before of load against extension and calculate ‘k’ from the gradient.
As a result, we know two relationships for this technique:
Elastic strain energy (E) = ½ Fe
Hooke’s law states that F= ke
Therefore, E = ½ ke2
95
If the material is stretched beyond the elastic limit, some work is done separating
atoms. This is not stored as strain energy and is not available when the force is
released.
In order to calculate stress i.e. force / cross sectional area, you will need some
practice converting mm into m in order to evaluate cross-sectional areas in m2
Question: Complete the following table
Diameter / d (mm) Diameter / d (m) d2 [π d2] / 4
1.00 1 x 10-3
2.30
2.90
1.06
1.07
1.09
2.01
2.04
2.44
3.01
Exam question:
(1) A steel wire is 2.00m long. When a 300N force is applied to the wire, it stretches
4.0mm. The wire has a cross-section with a diameter of 1.0mm.
(a) What is the cross-sectional area of the wire?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the tensile stress in the wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the tensile strain of the wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
96
(2) A copper wire (which obeys Hooke’s law) is stretched by 3.0mm when a force of
50N is applied.
(a) Calculate the stiffness constant for this wire in Nm-1.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) What is the value of the elastic strain energy in the stretched wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) A pinball machine contains a spring, which is used to fire a small, 12g metal ball
to start the game. The spring has a stiffness constant of 40.8Nm-1 It is compressed by
5cm and then released to fire the ball.
The maximum possible speed of the ball is:
(a) 1.86ms-1 (b) 2.96ms-1 (c) 4.12ms-1 (d) 8.50ms-1
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(4) A rope has a cross-sectional area of 8.0 x 10-3m2. A tensile force is applied to the
rope and slowly increased. The rope breaks when a force of 2.0 x 105N is applied.
Calculate the breaking stress of the material.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(5) A force of 67N is applied to a wire with a cross-sectional area of 3.0 x 10-6m2.
Calculate the stress on the wire.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(6) A rope has an original length of 15.0cm. A force is applied and its length
becomes 15.6cm. Calculate the strain on the rope.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(7) Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in a spring when a force of 15N
produces an extension of 1.9cm.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(8) The strain on a rope is equal to 0.06. The rope has an original length of 30cm.
What was the extension produced by the load?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
97
(9) The stress on a wire is equal to 56Nm-2. The area over which the load acts is equal
to 3.0 x 10-6m2. What is the load applied?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(10) A wire with a cross-sectional area of 1.7 x 10-7m2 has a breaking stress of 4.0 x
108 Pa. What is the minimum force needed to break the wire.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(11) What is the difference between the following pairs of terms?
(a) Tensile stress and compressive stress

_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Tensile strain and compressive strain

_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) and breaking stress

_____________________________________________________________________
(12) Explain how to determine the elastic strain energy stored by a stretched material
when the load is 12 Newtons.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(13) 234 Joules are stored in a stretched material, which has an extension of 1.7cm.
What is the material’s stiffness constant?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(14) A spring has a spring constant = 30Nm-1. Calculate:
(a) The extension of the spring when the load (tension in spring) is equal to 12N
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The tension in the spring when it extended by 0.60m from its unstretched length.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
98
(15) The following springs support the same weight, W. They are arranged in parallel
with each other.
The extension ‘e’ of each spring is the same.
Now the force needed to stretch P, Fp = kp e
And the force needed to stretch Q, Fq = kq e
Where kp and kq are the spring constants of spring P and spring Q, respectively..
Now the weight W is supported by both springs and W = Fp + Fq = kp e + kq e
Therefore W = Fp + Fq = e [kp + kq] = 2 e kp = 2 e kq
Where Fp = Fq = ½ W and in this case kp = kq
Question: Consider 2 springs in parallel as before. The two springs are identical and
are both 300mm long originally. A 50N weight is attached and they both become
325mm in length. Calculate the following.
(a) The tension (force) in each spring.

_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The extension of each spring

_____________________________________________________________________
99
(c) The spring constant of each spring and the effective spring constant of both.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) The elastic potential energy stored in each spring.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Now consider two springs connected together in series as in the diagram below;
The tension in each spring this time is the same and equal to the weight ‘W’.
Therefore for spring P, W = kp e (spring P)
And for spring Q, W = kq e (spring Q)
Where kp and kq are the spring constants of spring P and spring Q, respectively
Therefore e (spring P) = W / Kp
And e (spring Q) = W / kq
100
Also the total extension = W / k
Where k = effective spring constant of both springs combined.
We can therefore say that:
Total extension = e (spring P) + e (spring Q) = W / k = W / Kp + W / kq
Therefore 1/k = 1/kp + 1/kq
Question: Remember the 2 springs in parallel in the previous question. The two
springs were identical and were both 300mm long originally. A 50N weight was
attached and they both became 325mm in length.
Now consider that these same two springs are attached in series instead of in parallel
and calculate the following:
(a) The tension in each spring

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The extension produced in each spring

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Is the spring constant the same or has it changed/

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) The elastic potential energy in each spring.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(e) The effective spring constant of the two springs.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
The Young Modulus
When you apply a load to stretch a material it will experience both stress and strain.
Now the extension produced (strain) is in direct proportion to the force applied
(stress).
Therefore tensile stress is in direct proportion to tensile strain

Therefore we can define a constant called the Young Modulus,
E = tensile stress / tensile strain
Young Modulus, E = tensile stress / tensile strain = [F / A] / [e / l]
101
Where, F = force in Newtons

A = cross-sectional area in m2
L = initial length in m
E = extension in m
N / m2 x m / m = N / m2 = N / m2 or pascals which is the unit for the Young modulus.
The Young modulus has to be calculated by engineers who need to ensure that
materials used in their products can withstand forces sufficiently.
The experimental determination of the Young modulus
Firstly choose a wire that is as long and as thin as possible. This will produce the
maximum extension for a given weight and increase the accuracy of the results.
The wire is fixed at one end and the smallest weight possible attached at the other,
which makes the wire straight and taught. A marker on the wire is then used to
determine the starting point with reference to the ruler.
Weights are then added and for each the extension measured. The extension is given
by the difference between the new reading shown by the marker on the ruler and the
unstretched length.
The cross-sectional area of the wire can be calculated with a micrometer. This
measures the diameter very accurately in mm.
It is important to take an average diameter of the wire thickness in several places
before calculating an average cross-sectional area.
Another way to determine the Young modulus is to use Searle’s apparatus
The Young modulus is found from the gradient of a Stress – Strain line graph
102
E = tensile stress / tensile strain
Therefore, the Young modulus is equal to the area under the graph
In addition, lets consider the average stress = ½ x maximum stress applied (N / m2)
If multiplied against the maximum strain (no units), we get N / m2
Now consider Nm / m3. This is the same as N / m2 and is equivalent to Joules / unit
volume and also the area under the graph!
The area under a Stress-Strain line graph is equivalent to the strain energy
stored per 1cm3 of wire.
Therefore, energy = ½ x stress x strain
The stiffness of different materials can be compared using the gradient of the stress-
strain line, which is equal to the Young modulus of the material.
The strength of a material can be determined by its ultimate tensile stress (UTS),
which is its maximum stress before breaking.
A brittle material snaps once it reaches its UTS. It does not stretch any further.
A ductile material can be extended well beyond its elastic limit and shows a high
degree of plasticity.
Question: Compare the different materials. Explain which is the stiffest, most strong,
most brittle and most ductile.
103
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
More about Stress and Strain
What happens when the entire load is removed from a stretched piece of material?
Can we produce an unloading graph? Such as graph for a metal wire is shown below:
Up to the elastic limit, the unloading curve (actually a straight line) is the same as the
loading curve. After the elastic limit, the unloading curve is below the loading curve.
104
Notice that once the metal exhibits plasticity it does not return to its original length
once the entire load has been removed.
Question: Can you explain this?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
This second graph shows the loading and unloading curve of a rubber band.
Even though the elastic limit has not been exceeded, this time, the unloading curve is
below the loading curve. However, notice that the rubber band does return back to its
original length.
The area under loading curve represents the work done stretching the rubber band i.e.
the elastic strain potential energy transferred into the rubber band 9grey and blue
region).
The work done by the rubber band unstretching i.e. moving the atoms back to their
original equilibrium positions are being pulled apart is less than the work done against
the attractive bonding forces keeping them close together.
Question: Sketch on this graph an unloading curve once the elastic limit has been
exceeded. Why doesn’t the band return back to its original length once totally
unloaded?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
The third graph shows the loading and unloading curves for a polythene strip. It is
not elastic and shows total plasticity.
105
Question: Why is the blue area under the unloading curve smaller for the polythene
than the rubber band?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Exam questions:
(1) A steel wire has an original length of 1.2m and an average diameter of 1.2mm.
What is the cross-sectional area of the wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) A tensile force of 30N is applied to the wire. What is the stress on the wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
(3) The wire extends by 0.13mm. What is the strain on the wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(4) Calculate the Young modulus of the steel.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(5) A wire has a cross-sectional area of 8.1 x 10-7m2 and a Young modulus of 3.4 x
108Pa. A force of 100N is applied to the wire.
(a) Calculate the stress on the wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
106
(b) Calculate the strain on the wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) The wire extends by 0.7mm. What was the original length of the wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(6) What are the units of the following;
(a) Stiffness constant

(b) Tensile stress
(c) Tensile strain
(d) Young’s modulus
(7) Explain how you would measure the Young modulus of a wire.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(8) On a straight stress-strain graph line graph, what does the following indicate?
(a) The gradient:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The area under the graph:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(9) A crane is fitted with a steel cable. The diameter of the cable is 2.5mm and the
length of 30m is used to lift a boulder of weight 4000N off the ground.
Calculate the extension of the cable when it supports the boulder.
The Young modulus for steel = 2.1 x 1011Pa.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(10) Calculate the stress in a wire of diameter 0.5mm when the tension (tensile force)
= 50n.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(11) A weight was attached to a wire supported by a beam. The weight = 1678N and
the wire was 145cm long and 0.9mm in diameter. The wire extended by 1.8mm.
Calculate the Young modulus of the wire material.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
107
(12) If the wire obeyed Hooke’s law, how much elastic potential energy was stored in
the wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(13) An object of mass 0.150kg is attached to the lower end of a vertical wire. Its
natural length equals 400mm and becomes 400.6mm when stretched with the load. It
has a cross-sectional area = 8.1 x 10-7m2.
Assuming it still obeys Hooke’s law, calculate the following:
(a) Stiffness constant.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The elastic potential energy in the wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) The tensile stress
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) The tensile strain

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(e) The Young modulus

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(14) A steel wire is stretched elastically. For a load of 80N, the wire extends by
3.6mm. The original length of the wire was 2.50m and the average diameter is
0.6mm.
(a) Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire in m2.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Find the tensile stress applied to the wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the tensile strain of the wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) What is the value of the Young modulus for steel?

_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
108
(15) The Young modulus for copper is 1.3 x 1011 Nm-2.
(a) If the stress on a copper wire is 2.6 x 108 Nm-2, what is the strain?
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) If the load applied to the copper wire is 100N, what is the cross-sectional area of
the wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the strain energy per unit volume for this loaded wire.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(16) Calculate the stress in a wire (diameter 0.45mm) when the tension is 60N;
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(17) Complete the following table:
Wire Force Diameter Stress Original Length of Extension Strain Young’s Strain energy
applied of wire (N/m2) length of wire after (m) modulus stored in wire
/tension (mm) wire (m) load is (joules)
/N applied (m)
A 50 1.2 5.0 5.002
B 60 1.3 5.0 5.003
C 70 1.4 5.0 5.004
D 80 1.5 5.0 5.005
e 90 1.6 5.0 5.006
(18) An elastic cord when unstretched = 1.9m. It has a cross sectional area of
0.70mm2 (hint – calculate the number of mm2 in 1m2). The cord is stretched to 2.0m.
If Hooke’s law is obeyed for this range and the cross-sectional area remains constant,
calculate the following (Young’s modulus = 2.0 x 107Pa).
(a) The tension in the cord at this extension.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The energy stored in the cord at this extension.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(18) A wire is suspended from a support as in the diagram.
109
Loads are added and the extension is measured each time.
Load / N 0 25 53 71 83 89 94 100 72 50 16 0
Extension / mm 0 2.2 4.7 6.4 7.5 8.2 9.6 13.0 10.1 8.0 4.7 3.3
(a) Plot a graph of load (y-axis) against extension (x-axis) both for increasing and
decreasing loads.
(b) How does the shape of the graph inform us about the behaviour of the material in
the wire?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) Use the graph to determine the Young modulus for the material of the wire.
110
(19) Two wires are suspended from a support as in the diagram.
.
(a) The wires are clamped together and the extension of each wire is the same. Let Es
be the young modulus for steel and EB the young modulus for brass.
Fs = tension forces in steel

FB = tension forces in brass
Es = Fs / area m2
EB = FB / area m2
Show that Es / FB = Fs / FB
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The mass M produces a total force = 15N. Show that the magnitude of the force
Fs = 10N.
Young modulus for steel = 2.0 x 1011 Pa

Young modulus for brass = 1.0 x 1011 Pa
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
111
(c) Determine the extension produced in either wire.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(20) This is a lorry of mass 1.5 x 103kg. It is parked on a weighing platform, which
compresses the spring, by 0.040m.
Calculate the energy stored in the spring

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
112
The Behaviour of Solids
Feature characteristic Comments

of solids
These materials do not deform either elastically or plastically. They simply
snap when a sufficient force is applied to them. Subsequent to this cracks
may appear.
Examples of materials showing this property include chocolate and
ceramics. Pieces break off leaving the rest unchanged.
If these materials are pulled they can extend outwards into long thin wires
which retain their original strength.
An example is copper, which is also electrically conductive. These

materials can be used to make long flexible wire cables.
Hammer and roll these materials and they will change shape accordingly.
However, unlike ductile materials, they may not keep their strength.
Any metal has this property. They can be shaped into rings e.g. gold or
silver. They can also be shaped into complex shapes such as musical
instruments or even cannons (brass).
These materials do not scratch easily. They are resistant to cutting,
indentation (becoming dented) and abrasion (scratching).
Hardened steel can be used for cutting tools. Diamond can reinforce the
tips of drill bits.
These materials are difficult to stretch and bend. They retain their shape
readily and resist forces that try to change this. They have a high Young’s
modulus (High stress values needed to produce each unit of strain value).
Safety helmets and safety boots need to have this property. If they change
their shape then a human skull underneath could suffer damage.
These materials can absorb a lot of energy before breaking.
Polymers such as Polythene can be made very tough.
Possible words: tough, tough, stiff, stiff, brittle, brittle, hard, hard, ductile, ductile,
malleable, malleable
113
Behaviour of Solids
Question: Complete the following table using the letters on the line graph.
Letter on graph Comment

Over this range of stress values the strain increases in a direct proportional
relationship (Hooke’s law). Furthermore, the material is behaving elastically and
when the entire load is removed, the material will resume back to its natural length.
This is called the point of proportionality. Beyond this point the material will no
longer obey Hooke’s law. However, it may still be elastic (Stress ranges over
section B).
Over this range of stress values the strain does not increase in a direct proportional
relationship (disobeys Hooke’s law). The line graph becomes curved. However,
the material is still elastic.
This point is called the elastic limit. At this point any material subjected to this
stress will start to behave plastically. Furthermore any further increase in stress
and the material will also no longer return to its original length after the entire load
has been removed (C).
Over this range of stress values the strain does not increase in a direct proportional
relationship (disobeys Hooke’s law). The line graph becomes curved. Furthermore,
the material is no longer elastic and is plastic.
This is the yield point. At this point the material will suddenly start to stretch in an
uncontrolled manner without any further increase in load. This is the stress at
which a large amount of plastic deformation occurs with a constant or reduced load.
114
Mechanics (2)
Across
1. To calculate the stiffness constant of a material or the spring constant of a spring
calculate this from a load versus extension line graph.
4. This type of potential energy is stored in an object when stretched or compressed.
6. Young stated that stress divided by strain could be used to calculate a quantity,
which he gave his own name to.
7. The property whereby a material can be stretched but then does not return to its
original length when the load is removed.
8. This material can have a very high stiffness constant and does not demonstrate
elasticity but total plasticity.
11. This law states that the extension produced when a material is stretched is in direct
proportion to the load applied.
13. Calculate this under a graph of stress against strain and you can determine the
amount of elastic strain potential energy in a stretched material.
14. The force applied to a material, which causes it to stretch.
115
Down
2. The property whereby a material can be stretched and then return to its original
length when the load is removed.
3. Force divided by cross sectional area.
5.Hooke’s law applies not only for the stretching of a material but also when it is
subject to this.
8. The unit that stress is expressed in which is another term for a Newton per square
metre.
9. When calculating strain we divide this by the original length.
10. Is the strain of a stretched material expressed in any particular unit?
12. At this point the material will suddenly start to stretch in an uncontrolled manner
without any further increase in load. This is the stress at which a large amount of
plastic deformation occurs with a constant or reduced load.
Exam questions:
(1) How would you describe a material that can be easily shaped without losing
strength, and is resistant to tearing?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) Hardened steel is a hard, brittle form of steel made by heating it up slowly and
then quenching it in cold water.
Write down one application in which hardened steel could be used. Explain why it
would be useful in this context.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) Riding helmets are designed to protect a rider’s head from injury should they fall
off their horse.
Describe three properties of a material that would be suitable for a riding helmet.
Explain why each of these properties is advantageous.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
116
Streamlines and Flow
Question: Draw on the four fluid elements arrows to indicate that their velocities are
all in the same direction. However, vary the magnitude of these velocity vectors
(length of the arrow). Remember, they all have the same flowline because they are
moving in the same direction.
Sieve elements can be designated as following a stable flowline because;
Stable Flowline (e.g. due East) = permanent direction + constant velocity of particles
A single flow lines whereby the fluid elements are stable in a fluid is called a
streamline.
If we have a fluid whereby all the fluid elements are streamlines running parallel to
each other, then we say that the fluid is showing laminar flow.
Slow flowing streamlines versus fast flowing streamlines!
When particles are flowing slowly in different streamlines during laminar flow, they
have a very good chance of maintaining their velocity. Particle interaction in liquids
can help to maintain the streamline.
Flowlines remain stable when the fluid is flowing slowly.
117
When particles are flowing quickly in different streamlines during laminar flow, they
have a very good chance of changing their velocity. Particle interaction in liquids is
broken and the streamline breaks down.
Flowlines become unstable when the fluid is flowing quickly and the streamlines
breakdown (velocity of particles changes).
This is then called turbulent flow. Turbulent flow can make the fluid move
around in miniature whirlpools called eddy currents.
Laminar flow is required when a fluid needs to move through a pipe quickly. This
reduces the effect of viscous drag.
Turbulent flow occurs when fluid elements are moving at different velocities with
respect to each other. This is required if fluids need to be thoroughly mixed. An
example would be the mixing of chemicals or food ingredients.
:
Exam question
In a chocolate factory, melted chocolate flows through a pipe into a large container
where it is mixed with other ingredients.
(a) Show with a diagram below the flow of chocolate in the pipe.
118
(b) When the chocolate is in the pipe it flows fairly slowly, explain why this happens.
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Describe how the flow changes when the chocolate enters the mixing container.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
The greater the viscosity of a fluid the greater the viscous drag between its fluid
elements and the slower it will flow. This is seen in the following table.
Question: Viscous drag is due to intermolecular interactions as molecules in one fluid

element move parallel to another. How might increasing the temperature affect
viscosity and flow rates? Explain fully.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
How to measure the viscosity of a fluid
(1) Clamp a container a fluid above a measuring cylinder. Remember to record the
temperature with a thermometer.
(2) Open the tap to the container and let the fluid drip into the measuring cylinder.
(3) Record how long it takes to collect equal volumes of fluid in the cylinder.
(4) Another container holding a reservoir of fluid can be maintained in a water bath
and maintained at different temperatures.
119
Flow rate = 5 cm3 fluid / time to collect this volume of fluid (sec)
This can be calculated from the gradient of the straight part of the graph.
This can be converted into viscosity (Nsm-2 or Pa s-1) in the following manner:
Lets say that 1 cm-1 fluid = 2g.

Now 1 gm = 1.0 x 10-3kg
This is equal to 1.0 x 10-3kg x 9.81Nkg-1 = 9.81 x 10-3N
Lets say we collect 10cm3 (remember 1cm-1 = 2g) in 1 second = (20g x 9.81 x 10-3) N
= 1.96 x 10-1 N
Lets say that the cross-sectional area of the container = 1 x 10-2m2
Therefore the pressure = [1.96 x 10-1 N] / [1 x 10-2m2] = 19.6 Pa
So the viscosity = 19.6 Pa.s
120
Viscous drag is a force, which acts between fluid elements slowing them down. It
also acts on spherical objects moving through a fluid according to Stoke’s law:
F = 6πηv
η = viscosity of the fluid (Pa.s)

r = radius of the object (m)
v = speed that the object is moving (ms-1)
Question: Complete the following table to show that you can rearrange the Stoke’s
equation and use the appropriate units.
η r / mm or cm r/m v / ms-1 F = 6πηv
10 12 mm 9 .00
12 13 mm 10.00
13 25 cm 10.00
56 25 cm 23.80
10 NA 9 .00
12 NA 10.00
13 NA 10.00
56 NA 23.80
12 mm 9 .00 9 .00
13 mm 10.00 10.00
25 cm 10.00 10.00
25 cm 23.80 23.80
Question: A ball is dropped into a liquid. The ball is 0.8cm in diameter. The
viscosity of the fluid = 2Pa.s and the ball moves at a constant velocity of 1.2 ms-1.
What is the viscous drag on the ball?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
121
Fluids exert upthrust on immersed objects
As the wooden block is pushed deeper down into the water, the weight of the water
ontop increases. The fluid pressure is an outward force that is exerted on all surfaces
that the fluid is in contact with.
The fluid pressure is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced
Exam questions:
(1) A student dropped a marble into a measuring cylinder full of water. The marble
sank slowly to the bottom
(a) Draw a diagram of the marble falling through the water and label the three forces
acting on it?
122
(b) If the marble was falling at constant speed then what was the resultant force acting
on it?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Use the following data to work out the speed that the marble was falling (at its
terminal velocity).
Radius of marble = 5.0 x 10-3m

Mass of water displaced = 2.1 x 10-5 kg
Viscosity of water = 0.0011 Nsm-2
Mass of marble = 5 x 10-5 kg
Gravitational field strength = 9.81 Nkg-1
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) Another marble was dropped into the water. It had a density of 3.2gcm-1. It has
the same radius of 5.0 x 10-3m.
(a) Calculate its volume (Volume = 4/3 πr3)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate its mass

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Use the following data to work out the speed that the marble was falling (at its
terminal velocity).
Radius of marble = 5.0 x 10-3m

Mass of water displaced = 2.1 x 10-5 kg
Viscosity of water = 0.0011 Nsm-2
Gravitational field strength = 9.81 Nkg-1
(d) Which marble traveled through the water at the fastest velocity?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(e) Calculate the momentum of both marbles.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(2) When oil is piped over long distances, it tends to flow more slowly during the
night than during the day. Explain why this happens.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
123
Materials
Across
1. Over this range of stress values the strain increases in a direct proportional
relationship. Furthermore, the material is behaving elastically and when the entire
load is removed, the material will resume back to its natural length. This law
describes it.
3. This type of Flow line (e.g. due East) = permanent direction + constant velocity of
particles
124
4. If these materials are pulled they can extend outwards into long thin wires which
retain their original strength.
5. When the streamlines all have different velocities then this type of flow is
produced.
7. These materials can absorb a lot of energy before breaking.
8. These materials are difficult to stretch and bend. They retain their shape readily
and resist forces that try to change this. They have a high Young’s modulus (High
stress values needed to produce each unit of strain value).
10. Hammer and roll these materials and they will change shape accordingly.
However, unlike ductile materials, they may not keep their strength.
13. When particles are flowing quickly in different streamlines during laminar flow,
they have a very good chance of changing this.
16. When particles are flowing slowly in different streamlines during this type of
flow, they have a very good chance of maintaining their velocity. Particle interaction
in liquids can help to maintain the streamline.
Down
2. If we have a fluid whereby all the fluid elements are this running parallel to each
other, then we say that the fluid is showing laminar flow.
6. These materials do not deform either elastically or plastically. They simply snap
when a sufficient force is applied to them. Subsequent to this cracks may appear.
9. A single flow line whereby these elements are stable in a fluid is called a
streamline.
11. Turbulent flow can make the fluid move around in miniature whirlpools called
this type of current.
12. Flow lines remain stable when the fluid is flowing this way.
14. When the fluid is flowing quickly and the streamlines breakdown (velocity of
particles changes) these also breakdown between particles in the streamline.
15. These materials do not scratch easily. They are resistant to cutting, indentation
(becoming dented) and abrasion (scratching.
125

AS Physics Unit 1-2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AS Physics Unit 1-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A level Physics [ Workbook 1 of 6]

AS Physics: Edexcel: Unit 1: Physics on the go!

(8) Give a short explanation for the section DE of the Graph

More on displacement-time graphs

Distance in metres (m) Time in seconds

Displacement-time graphs and acceleration

Deceleration, Bigger Acceleration, Smaller Acceleration

• If the gradient increases the speed increases.

• If the gradient decreases the speed decreases.

Therefore, velocity = change in displacement / time taken

On the graph this is equal to change in Y / change in X i.e. the gradient

(a) Draw a displacement-time graph to show the baby’s journey.

Vector and scalar quantities

5m to the right 5m/s to the left

Speed is a scalar quantity; direction does not matter.

Mass is a scalar quantity; direction does not matter.

Forces are vector quantities; direction is important and needs to be specified

Velocity is a vector quantity; direction is important and needs to be specified

Possible words: Velocity, Acceleration, Weight, Force

Question: Find the sum of the following force vectors:

(a) 12 N due North and 7N due South

Resolving a vector into two components at right angles to each other

Tangent = side opposite / side adjacent

Sine = side opposite / hypotenuse

Cosine = side adjacent / hypotenuse

Vector Magnitude of first Magnitude of Resultant vector Angle between the

Consider the following problem.

Lets determine Vx component

Therefore Vx = 2 cosine 300

Therefore Vx = 2 sine 300

This process is called resolving a vector into its component vectors.

Magnitude of vector Angle of vector to the Vx Vy

Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Final Velocity - Initial Velocity

Final Velocity (m/s) Initial velocity (m/s)

Velocity-time graphs and calculating the distance covered by a moving object

Question: What is the acceleration of this object, starting from rest?

(a) From 0-3 seconds?

Remember acceleration (m/s²) = gradient of line =

Final v - initial v (10 − 0)m / s

(b) From 3-6 seconds?

Acceleration (m/s²) = gradient of line =

Final v - initial v (10 − 10)m / s 0

(c)From 6-10 seconds?

Acceleration (m/s²) = gradient of line =

Final v - initial v (0 − 10)m / s 10m / s

(b) What distance was covered from 3 to 6 seconds?

(a) Jane is driving at a speed of 72 km/h. Convert this to m/s.

(b) She accelerates to 108 km/h in 8 seconds. Calculate her acceleration.

Accelerating at a constant speed

Motion with Constant Acceleration

The equations use five special symbols:

Change in velocity v-u

Distance travelled u+v s

Write down ‘suvat’ and fill in what you know.

Now s = ? u = 0 (starts from rest)

v = 0.23m/s a (not needed) and t = 5 seconds

s = = [(u + v) / 2] x t = [(0 + 0.23) / 2] x 5 = ______

Question: A sports car accelerates at 5m/s2 from rest for 8 seconds.

(a) What is its velocity after 8 seconds?

(b) How far does it travel in this time?

Question: An aircraft flying at 100m/s accelerates at 3m/s2 for 25 seconds.

How fast is it moving after?

What do you notice about your answer?