European Early Childhood Education Research Journal

ISSN: 1350-293X (Print) 1752-1807 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/recr20

How often do early childhood teachers teach

science concepts? Determinants of the frequency
of science teaching in kindergarten

Mesut Saçkes

To cite this article: Mesut Saçkes (2014) How often do early childhood teachers teach science
concepts? Determinants of the frequency of science teaching in kindergarten, European Early
Childhood Education Research Journal, 22:2, 169-184, DOI: 10.1080/1350293X.2012.704305

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2012.704305

Published online: 24 Jul 2012.

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European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 2014
Vol. 22, No. 2, 169–184, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2012.704305

How often do early childhood teachers teach science concepts?

Determinants of the frequency of science teaching in kindergarten
Mesut Saçkes*

Balıkesir University, Necatibey School of Education, Balıkesir, Turkey

ABSTRACT: The purpose of the present study was to explore how often teachers
of young children teach science concepts in kindergarten and examine the factors
that influence the frequency of science teaching in early years. A theoretical
model of the determinants of the frequency of science teaching in kindergarten
was developed and tested using a multi-level structural equation modeling. Data
for this study (n = 3305) came from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study –
Kindergarten dataset, which included a nationally representative sample of US
kindergarten teachers. The model tested in this study provided a good fit to the
sample data. The results demonstrated that the number of science method
courses that teachers completed, the availability of science related instructional
materials in kindergarten classrooms, and teachers’ perceptions of children’s
capacity for learning influence the frequency that teachers taught specific science
concepts (e.g. earth and space, life, and physical science) in kindergarten. On the
other hand, results indicated that teaching experience and teachers’ perceptions
of control over the curriculum do not influence how often early childhood
teachers teach science concepts in kindergarten.

RESUME: Le but de cette étude était de savoir la fréquence de l’enseignement des

concepts scientifiques au jardin d’enfants et d’examiner les facteurs qui influent sur
cette fréquence au préscolaire. Un modèle théorique des déterminantes de la
fréquence de l’enseignement de la science au jardin d’enfants a été développé et
examiné, en utilisant une modélisation d’équation structurale à niveaux
multiples. Les donnée de cette étude (n= 3305) proviennent de celles de l’Étude
Longitudinal sur la Petite Enfance – Jardin d’enfants (Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten) : un groupe représentatif, sur le plan
national, d’enseignants de jardins d’enfants américains. Le modèle testé dans
cette étude a fourni un bon accès aux données d’échantillon. Les résultats ont
montré que le nombre de cours de méthode scientifique donnés, la disponibilité
de matériaux didactiques dans des salles de classe et les perceptions qu’ont les
enseignants de la capacité des enfants à apprendre influent sur la fréquence de
l’enseignement de concepts spécifiques (par ex : la terre et l’espace, la vie et la
science physique, etc.) au jardin d’enfants. Par ailleurs, les résultats ont indiqué
que l’expérience d’enseignement et les perceptions, chez les enseignants, de leur
contrôle du curriculum n’influent pas sur la fréquence de l’enseignement des
concepts scientifiques au jardin d’enfants.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Das Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es herauszufinden,

wie oft Kindergarten-Lehrer den jungen Kindern wissenschaftliche Konzepte
vermitteln, und die Faktoren zu überprüfen, die diese Häufigkeit beeinflussen.
Ein theoretisches Model der beeinflussenden Faktoren für Wissenschaftslehre im

*Email: msackes@gmail.com

© 2012 EECERA
170 M. Saçkes

Kindergarten wurde entwickelt und mithilfe eines mehrebenen

Strukturgleichungsmodells getestet. Die Daten für diese Studie (n = 3305)
kommen vom Kindergarten – Datenbestand der ,,Early Childhood Longitudinal
Study” und beinhaltet eine national repräsentative Stichprobe von US-
amerikanischen Kindergarten-Lehrern. Das in dieser Studie getestete Model passt
gut zu den Stichprobendaten. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Anzahl der
wissenschaftlichen Kurse, die die Lehrer durchgeführt haben, die Verfügbarkeit
von wissenschaftlichem Lehrmaterial im Kindergarten sowie wie die Lehrer die
Lernkapazitäten der Kinder wahrnehmen, die Häufigkeit, in der Lehrer spezielle
wissenschaftliche Konzepte im Kindergarten vermitteln, beeinflussen
(z. B. unsere Erde und der Weltraum, Leben, Physik). Auf der anderen Seite
jedoch deuten die Ergebnisse an, dass die Lehr-Erfahrung und die Wahrnehmung
der Lehrer über die Kontrolle der Lehrstoffe nicht beeinflussen, wie oft
Kindergarten-Lehrer wissenschaftliche Konzepte im Kindergarten lehren.

RESUMEN: El propósito de este estudio fue explorar cómo a menudo los maestros
de niños pequeños enseñan conceptos científicos en los jardínes infantiles y
examinar los factores que influyen en la frecuencia de la enseñanza de ciencias
en los primeros años. Un modelo teórico de los determinantes de la frecuencia
de ciencia que da clases en los jardines infantiles fue desarrollado y probó la
utilización de un multinivel modelado de ecuación estructural. Los datos de este
estudio (N = 3305) vienen del dataset temprana infancia Longitudinal estudio –
Kinder, que incluyó nacionalmente representativa de los maestros de jardín de
infantes en Estados Unidos. El modelo probado en este estudio presenta un buen
ajuste a los datos. Los resultados demostraron que el número de ciencia método
cursos que maestros completados, la disponibilidad de la ciencia relacionados
con materiales de enseñanza en las aulas de preescolar y las percepciones de
docentes de la capacidad del niño para aprendizaje influencia la frecuencia que
maestros enseñaron conceptos de ciencia específica (por ejemplo, tierra y
espacio, la vida y ciencias físicas) en el jardín de infantes. Por otro lado, los
resultados indicaron que la enseñanza de experiencia y percepciones de los
profesores del control del plan de estudios no influye con que frecuencia los
profesores de infancia tempranos enseñan conceptos de ciencia en el jardín de
infancia.
Keywords: in-service early childhood teachers; science teaching; kindergarten;
multilevel structural equation modeling; Early Childhood Longitudinal Study –
Kindergarten

Introduction
According to state and national standards and current research findings, young children
are capable of performing various cognitive skills such as asking questions and making
predictions, which are the basis for scientific thinking and learning (Carey and Spelke
1994; Kuhn and Pearsall 2000; Metz 1997; National Research Council [NRC] 1996;
Opfer and Siegler 2004; Zimmerman 2000). Science learning experiences that are
developmentally appropriate can enhance children’s documented capabilities and
support the early development of science knowledge and skills, laying a foundation
for science learning throughout the children’s academic lives (Eshach and Fried
2005; Gilbert, Osborne, and Fensham 1982). Despite these capabilities, children’s
emerging skills usually are not the target of instructional practices in typical early child-
hood classrooms (Tu 2006; Saçkes et al. 2011). Indeed, recent studies suggest that chil-
dren have fewer opportunities to learn science than literacy, mathematics, social
studies, and art during the early years of education (Early et al. 2010; Greenfield
et al. 2009). For example, the findings of a recent study with a nationally representative
 European Early Childhood Education Research Journal 171

sample of kindergarten teachers indicated that the majority of teachers teach science
only once or twice per week for up to 60 minutes (Saçkes et al. 2011).
Previous studies have identified limited science and pedagogical content knowledge
(Appleton 1992; Kallery and Psillos 2001; Tobin, Briscoe, and Holman 1990), lack of
time and science related materials (Appleton and Kindt 1999, 2002; Early et al. 2010;
Greenfield et al. 2009), and low self-confidence (Appleton 1995; Garbett 2003; Pell and
Jarvis 2003) as the possible factors that influence teachers’ decision to teach less science
in early years. These studies suggest that teachers of young children do not feel competent
in teaching science and using science equipment in kindergarten (Greenfield et al. 2009;
Nayfeld 2008), and they have difficulty addressing children’s science related questions
and devising inquiry-based science activities in early childhood classrooms (Kallery
2004; Kallery and Psillos 2001). Moreover, early childhood teachers are not able to find
time in the school day to teach science because they feel pressured to devote most of
the instructional time teaching language and literacy (Greenfield et al. 2009).
The research on teachers’ practice of science instruction in early years to date tends
to focus on few variables in isolation. These studies have often been carried out with
small, non-random samples of early childhood teachers limiting the generalisation of
their findings. Moreover, previous studies mainly examined the variables that influence
the frequency of science teaching in general rather than the teaching of specific science
concepts or content areas. Furthermore, variables such as teachers’ perceptions of chil-
dren’s capacity for learning and teachers’ perceived control over the curriculum they
are supposed to implement have not been examined in relation to how often early child-
hood teachers teach science in kindergarten classrooms. Therefore, the present study
aims to explore how often teachers of young children teach science concepts in kinder-
garten and the factors that influence the frequency of science teaching in early years. To
this end, a theoretical model of the determinants of the frequency of science teaching in
kindergarten was developed and tested using a multi-level structural equation model-
ling in this study.

US science education content standards for early years

Many US states have utilised the National Science Education Content Standards
(National Research Council 1996) in developing their state level science standards.
Nevertheless, most state level science standards development efforts focused on kinder-
garten through twelfth grade and only few states developed science content standards
for preschool–kindergarten level (Saçkes, Trundle, and Flevares 2009). There are three
common content areas across the state science content standards developed for early
years: physical science, earth and space science, and life science. Common concepts
included in these content areas are presented on Table 1.
Science content standards expect children to develop understandings of basic
science concepts and inquiry skills and emphasise the use of inquiry-based instruction
in promoting conceptual understandings of science phenomena (National Research
Council 1996, 2000). Although science content standards provide clear expectations
for teachers of young children about the science concepts they are supposed to teach,
no studies has been conducted to examine how often standard-based science concepts
are being taught in kindergarten classrooms and the factors that influence the frequency
of science instruction. The present study aims to address this gap in the literature utilis-
ing a nationally representative sample of US kindergarten teachers, which is obtained
from a publicly available dataset.
172 M. Saçkes

Table 1. Common content areas and concepts in US early science content standards.
Content areas Concepts
Physical Science Physical properties of objects and materials
Classification of objects and materials
Movement of objects
Sound
Light
Physical changes
Earth and Space Science Weather
Day and night
Earth materials
Season
Life Science Life cycle of plants and animals
Plant and animal habitats
Classification of plants and animals
Common needs of plants and animals
Heredity

A theoretical model of the determinants of the frequency of science teaching in

kindergarten
A theoretical model that explains the frequency of teachers’ teaching of science con-
cepts in early childhood classrooms was developed utilising the relevant literature.
The model included three sets of observed independent variables that influence how
often science concepts are being taught in kindergarten. These independent variables
were classroom resources (the availability of a science and nature area and manipula-
tives), teachers’ background (teaching experience and the number of science methods
course completed), and teachers’ perceptions (children’s capacity for learning and tea-
chers’ control over curriculum). Three latent variables (the frequency of teaching life
science, earth and space science, and physical science concepts) were the dependent
variables of the study. Based on the relevant literature the following relationships
between the independent and the dependent variables were postulated.
Previous studies suggest that the availability of instructional materials influences
teachers’ choices of instructional practices (La Paro and Pianta 2000; Miller et al.
1975; Yi 2006). Likewise, the availability of science-related instructional materials
in kindergarten classrooms could increase teachers’ motivation, providing an opportu-
nity to teach basic science concepts and inquiry skills (Inan, Trundle, and Kantor, 2010;
Olmsted, Parks, and Rickel 1970; Saçkes et al. 2011; Tu 2006). Therefore, it was
hypothesised that the availability of a science and nature area and manipulatives (class-
room resources) would influence the frequency at which teachers taught science in
kindergarten.
Previous studies demonstrated a strong association between early childhood tea-
chers’ science content knowledge and their practice of teaching science (Kallery and
Psillos 2001; Pell and Jarvis 2003; Schoon and Boone 1998). Thus, teachers’ who com-
pleted a greater number of science methods courses might be more likely to teach
science due to their enhanced science content knowledge and the resulting heightened
self-confidence. Likewise, experienced early childhood teachers might be more likely
to teach science due to their confidence in teaching young children. Thus, the number of
method courses teachers completed and the years of teaching experience (teachers’
 European Early Childhood Education Research Journal 173

Figure 1. The theoretical model tested in the study.

background) were hypothesised to influence the teaching of science concepts in the

model.
Recent literature suggest that early childhood teachers feel pressured to devote most
of their instructional time to the teaching of language and literacy (Greenfield et al.
2009). Teachers with greater control over their curriculum might be more likely to
teach science than peers who believe that they have little control over the curriculum.
Thus, teachers’ perceptions of control over the curriculum (teachers’ perceptions) were
hypothesized to influence the teaching of science concepts. Previous studies indicated
that teachers’ expectations for students’ success and their perceptions of children’s
capacity for learning influence their instructional practices (Alvidrez and Weinstein
1999). One of the reasons early childhood teachers spend less time teaching science
concepts might be the perception that young children are incapable of learning
science concepts. Teachers who believe that children are capable of learning the con-
cepts that they are going to teach might be more likely to teach science concepts. There-
fore, we hypothesised that teachers’ perceptions of children’s capacities for learning
(teachers’ perceptions) will influence their teaching of science concepts.
The classroom resources variable and teachers’ background variables were allowed
to covary among themselves as well as the teachers’ perceptions variables. However,
error covariances were not modeled in the analysis. Figure 1 illustrates the theoretical
model tested in the study.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to test a structural equation model of the determinants of
the frequency of science teaching in kindergarten. More specifically, answers to the fol-
lowing research questions were sought in the study.

1. Does the hypothesised model of the determinants of the frequency of science

teaching in kindergarten fit the data well?
2. Do classroom resources (the availability of science a nature area and manipula-
tives) influence the frequency of which early childhood teachers’ teach earth and
space, life, and physical science concepts?
174 M. Saçkes

3. Do teachers’ background variables (the number of science method courses

completed and teaching experience) influence the frequency of which
early childhood teachers’ teach earth and space, life, and physical science
concepts?
4. Do teachers’ perceptions (perceptions of children’s capacities for learning and
perceptions of control over the curriculum) influence the frequency of which
early childhood teachers’ teach earth and space, life, and physical science
concepts?

Methodology
Sample
The data of this study came from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergar-
ten cohort (ECLS-K) dataset (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] 2002).
A complex sampling design procedure was used to collect ECLS-K data. This pro-
cedure uses stratification, clustering, and oversampling of certain subpopulations to
increase sampling efficiency, so that a representative sample of a large population,
such as kindergarten teachers in the United States, could be obtained. The base year
sample (1998–1999) included 3305 teachers from 953 public and 460 private
schools. The analytic sample of the current study included 3243 teachers who partici-
pated in both the fall 1998 and spring 1999 data collection. The majority of the partici-
pants were female (97.5%). The mean age was 39 years, and the percentage of teachers
at and below 30 years of age was 26% while the percentage of teachers over the age of
45 was 38%.

Data sources
The Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire was used to collect information about tea-
chers’ backgrounds, training, and classroom practices (NCES 2006). The content of
the Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire was designed and validated by the experts
of the ECLS-K advisory board (NCES 2006). The present study reports data obtained
through the questionnaire, which was administered during fall 1998 and spring 1999.
For the present study, teachers’ responses to the 15 items were extracted from the
data base. Five items were used as predictors of how often teachers of young children
teach science concepts in kindergarten (data collected in fall 1998), while the remaining
10 items were used as indicators of how often specific science concepts are taught in
kindergarten classrooms (data collected in spring 1999). Maximal reliability coeffi-
cients for the three latent dependent factors were calculated in the present study
(Hancock and Mueller 2001). The maximal reliabilities for the teaching of life, earth
and space science, and physical science were H = 0.75, H = 0.70, H = 0.88 respectively.
All three reliability coefficients were within the acceptable range (Hancock and Mueller
2001).

Independent variables of the study

The model tested in the present study included five observed independent variables in
three categories: (a) teachers’ background variables (the number of science method
courses completed and years of teaching experience in kindergarten); (b) teachers’ per-
ceptions variables (perceived control of curriculum and perceived capacity of children’s
 European Early Childhood Education Research Journal 175

learning); and (c) classroom resources variables (science or nature area and manipula-
tives). These variables are described in detail below.
(a) Teachers’ Background Variables (the number of science method courses com-
pleted and years of teaching experience in kindergarten). The model included
two types of teachers’ background variables. Teachers’ response to the item
regarding the number of science method courses that they previously com-
pleted was used as an indicator of their science background in the model. Tea-
chers’ response to the item regarding their years of teaching experiences in
kindergarten was used as an indicator of their teaching experience in the model.
(b) Teachers’ perceptions variables (perceived control of curriculum and per-
ceived capacity of children’s learning). Teachers’ responses to the item
‘How much control do you feel you have IN YOUR CLASSROOM over such
areas as selecting skills to be taught, deciding about teaching techniques,
and disciplining children?’ (No control = 1, Slight control = 2, Some control
= 3, Moderate control = 4, A great deal of control = 5) were used as an indicator
of their perceptions of the control of the curriculum in the model. Teachers’
responses to the item ‘Many of the children I teach are not capable of learning
the material I am supposed to teach them’ (Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2,
Neither agree or disagree = 3, Agree = 4, Strongly agree = 5) were used as an
indicator of their perceptions of children’s capacity of learning in the model.
Teachers’ responses to this item were reverse coded to ease the interpretation
of the results.
(c) Classroom Resources Variable (science or nature area and manipulatives).
This variable was extracted from the teachers’ responses to the following ques-
tion: ‘Does your classroom have the following interest areas or centers for
activities?’ (No = 0, Yes = 1). Of the 11 possible interest areas or centers,
science or nature area and manipulatives was directly related to the teaching
and learning of science concepts in kindergarten because it was likely to
contain science related instructional materials. Therefore, teachers’ responses
to this science education related category was utilised in this study. The
selected indicator for the availability of science materials clearly is not a repre-
sentative of the whole range of possible science materials in kindergarten class-
rooms. However, the types of materials available in a typical kindergarten
classroom tend to be rather limited, and a science or nature area and manipu-
latives serves as a fairly good proxy for the types of science materials that are
very typical in early childhood classrooms (Inan et al. 2010).

Dependent variables of the study

The model tested in this study included three latent dependent variables that contain
information about how often earth and space, physical, and life science concepts are
taught in kindergarten classrooms. These variables are described below.
Frequency of Teaching Science Concepts in Kindergarten (frequency of teaching
earth and space, physical, and life science concepts). The indicators of the latent depen-
dent variables were constructed based on teachers’ responses to the following main
question in the Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire: ‘For this school year as a
whole, please indicate how each of the following SCIENCE or SOCIAL STUDIES
topics or skills is taught in your class(es)?’ The response categories for this item
176 M. Saçkes

were not taught (taught at a higher grade level, children should already know), once a
month or less, 2–3 times a month, 1–2 times a week, 3–4 times a week, and daily. Of the
22 possible topics or skills provided in the instrument, 10 were directly related to
science concepts (human body, plants and animals, dinosaurs and fossils, solar
system and space, weather, temperature, water, sound, light, and magnetism and elec-
tricity). These 10 variables were used as indicators of the frequency of teaching of
science concepts in the model. These representative concepts are among the concepts
that kindergarten teachers are expected to teach according to the National Science Edu-
cation Content Standards (NRC 1996).

Data analysis
Multi-level structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the hypothesised
model in this study. Multi-level SEM analysis is a subset of the structural equation
modeling approach that allows researchers to accommodate the analysis of data col-
lected through a multistage probability sampling design (Kline 2005). Hierarchical
linear modeling (HLM) and Multilevel SEM are two common analytical tools that
are used to analyse multilevel data. Research studies demonstrated that HLM and Mul-
tilevel SEM produce similar results and conclusions about the data (Chou, Bentler, and
Pentz 1998; Li et al. 1998). Multilevel SEM allows researchers more flexibility in
model specification and hypothesis testing (Wendorf 2002). Thus, Multi-level SEM
was used to analyse the data in the present study.
The maximum-likelihood (ML) method of estimation is typically used in SEM.
However, the ML method assumes simple random sampling which is not appropriate
to analyse the data collected with multistage probability sampling design, like the
ECLS-K data (Jöreskog and Sörbom 1993). Therefore, the complex survey design pro-
cedure, which employs full information maximum likelihood method of estimation
(FIML), was used to analyse the data in the present study (Jöreskog and Sörbom
2006). The missing data for the study variables were estimated by PRELIS within
the Lisrel software. Multistage probability sampling design requires using appropriate
weight, stratification, and cluster variables in analysing the ECLS-K data. Therefore,
data in this study were weighted to correct for the study design effect to ensure that
results are nationally representative. The complex survey design estimation procedure
was employed using LISREL version 8.80.
Several goodness-of-fit indices (e.g. Goodness-of-fit-index, Comparative Fit Index,
and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) are used to evaluate the fit of the struc-
tural equation models to the sample data (Hu and Bentler 1999). However, in the
complex survey design analysis only the following values are provided by the
LISREL software version 8.80 to evaluate the model fit: the full information
maximum likelihood chi-square and its corresponding p value, and the root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA). Therefore, these values were used to evaluate
the fit of the model tested in the study.

Results
Percentages for teachers’ background variables and classroom resources variable
Analysis of the teachers’ background related variables showed that more than half of
the teachers completed two or fewer science method courses (61.1%) and less than
 European Early Childhood Education Research Journal 177

Table 2. Teachers’ background variables.

Science methods courses Teaching experience
Number completed % of respondents Years % of respondents
0 10.4 2≤ 28.6
1 35.6 3–4 14.7
2 25.5 5–7 15.3
3 13 8–9 7.3
4 5.4 10–13 12.4
5 1.7 14–19 11.4
≥6 8.4 ≥20 4.2
Total 100 Total 100

9% completed six or a higher number of science method courses. The percentage of

teachers who reported that they did not complete a science methods course was
10.4%. The majority of the teachers had less than 10 years of teaching experiences
(65.9%) and slightly over 4% of the teachers reported that they had 20 years or more
teaching experience (see Table 2). The percentages of teachers who had science
related instructional materials in their classrooms was 47.2%.

Percentages for teachers perceptions variables

Analysis of the teachers’ responses to the items regarding their perceptions of children’
capacity for learning and teachers’ control over curriculum showed that the majority of
the teachers believe that their students are capable of learning (87.1%) and more than
half of the teachers reported that they have a great deal of control (58.2%) over the cur-
riculum (see Table 3).

Percentages for the frequency of teaching science concepts in kindergarten

More than half of the children were taught life science concepts at least one to two times
per month in kindergarten. The concepts of human body and plants were the most
popular life science concept taught to these children. Physical science concepts were
the least frequently taught concepts in kindergarten, while the concepts of water and
sound were the most popular physical science concepts. Almost half of the teachers

Table 3. Teachers’ perceptions variables.

Children have capacity for learning Teachers control the curriculum
Rating % of Respondents Rating % of Respondents
Strongly agree 31.1 No control 0.4
Agree 56 Slight control 2.4
Neither agree nor disagree 6.7 Some control 10.6
Disagree 5.2 Moderate control 28.4
Strongly disagree 1 A great deal of control 58.2
Total 100 Total 100
178 M. Saçkes

Table 4. The frequency of teaching of life, physical, and earth and space science concepts in
kindergarten.
Earth & space science
Life science concepts Physical science concepts concepts
Body Plant Dinosaurs Water Sound Light Magnet Solar Weather Temp
Do not teach 13% 1.5% 30.5% 20.7% 33.7% 39.2% 45.5% 38.1% 1.7% 32.6%
Once a 34.9% 24.5% 45.7% 47.2% 41.8% 40% 38.2% 40.9% 8.6% 28.3%
month or
less
2–3 times a 30.4% 40.8% 14.2% 19.5% 15.2% 13.3% 10.2% 12.8% 7.6% 13.7%
month
1–2 times a 11.9% 19.1% 5.2% 7.2% 5.5% 4.5% 3.3% 3.7% 9.6% 7.8%
week
3–4 times a 4.8% 8.6% 2.1% 2.6% 1.6% 1.4% 1.3% 2.1% 13.9% 4.2%
week
Daily 5% 5.6% 2.3% 2.9% 2.2% 1.7% 1.6% 2.5% 58.6% 13.4%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

reported that they taught about water concepts at least once a month. Earth and space
science concepts also were among the least frequently taught concepts in kindergarten.
About one third of the teachers reported that they do not teach about solar and temp-
erature concepts. The concept of weather was the most popular Earth science
concept. Over 98% of the teachers reported that they teach about weather concepts
and 58.6% of the children received daily instruction on weather. Table 4 presents the
frequency of instruction for each science concept.

Evaluation of the model fit

The significance levels of all hypothesised paths were assessed using two-tailed tests.
Path coefficients with z-statistics equal or larger than ± 1.96 (α = .05) were declared as
statistically significant. The model tested in this study provided a good fit to the data
(Full Information ML Chi-Square= 485.08, df = 72, p < 0.01; RMSEA= 0.042). The
chi-square statistics were significant at the 0.01 level indicating the model tested in
the study significantly differed from the true population model that generated the
data. This result is not surprising as the χ2 statistic is easily influenced by large
sample sizes (Bentler and Bonett 1980). Given the large sample size of the study, we
based our evaluation of the model fit on the RMSEA value, which is not affected by
the sample size. Traditionally RMSEA values lower than 0.10 are considered indictors
of an acceptable fit (Browne and Cudeck 1993; Schumacker and Lomax 1996) and
RMSEA values lower than 0.06 are considered indicators of a well-fitting model (Hu
and Bentler 1999). In the present study the RMSEA value was 0.042 (90% CI:
0.39–0.46) indicating the model fits the data very well. Figure 2 illustrates the structural
model tested in the study.

Evaluation of the model tested in the study

The number of science methods courses that teachers previously completed was a
statistically significant predictor of the frequency of teachers’ teaching of life science
 European Early Childhood Education Research Journal 179

Figure 2. The results of the multi-level SEM analysis.

Note: Standardised solution. Dashed lines not significant at α = 0.05. Error terms are not
illustrated.

(β = 0.11, p < .01), earth and space science (β = 0.20, p < .01), and physical science
concepts (β = 0.12, p < .01). Teachers who completed a higher number of science
methods courses tended to teach life science, earth and space science, and physical
science concepts more frequently. The number of years of teaching experience, on
the other hand, was not a statistically significant predictor of the frequency of teaching
science concepts in kindergarten (p > .05).
The availability of science and nature areas in kindergarten classrooms was a
statistically significant predictor of the frequency of teachers’ teaching of life science
(β = 0.16, p < .01), earth and space science (β = 0.23, p < .01), and physical science con-
cepts (β = 0.14, p < .01). In other words, teachers who reported that they had a science
and nature area in their classrooms were more likely to often teach science concepts
across all the content domains.
Teachers’ perceptions of their students capacity for learning was a statistically
significant predictor of how frequently they teach life science (β = −0.09, p < .01),
earth and space science (β = −0.07, p < .01), and physical science concepts (β =
−0.04, p < .01). Teachers who believe that their students are capable of learning
were more likely to teach science concepts in kindergarten. Teachers’ perceived
control over the curriculum, on the other hand, was not a statistically significant predic-
tor of their teachings of science concepts in kindergarten (p > .05).
The relationships between the frequency of teaching life, physical, and earth and
space science concepts were all statistically significant and in a positive direction.
The strong correlation coefficient between life science and earth and space science con-
cepts suggests that teachers who more frequently teach life science concepts also tended
to more frequently teach earth and space science concepts in kindergarten.
The results demonstrated that experienced teachers tended to have completed a
higher number of science methods courses (r = 0.19, p < .05) and they were more
180 M. Saçkes

likely to have science and nature area with manipulatives in their classrooms (r = 0.08,
p < .05). Likewise, teachers who completed a higher number of science methods
courses were more likely to have science teaching materials in their classrooms (r =
0.15, p < .05). Teachers who reported that they believed that they had greater control
over the curriculum were more likely to perceive their children as capable of learning
the concepts they teach (r = 0.20, p < .05).

Discussion
This study examined how often early childhood teachers’ teach life science, physical
science, and earth and space science concepts in kindergarten classrooms and the
factors that influence the frequency of teaching these science concepts by testing a
theoretical model of the determinants of the frequency of science teaching in kindergar-
ten. The results demonstrated that the number of science method course teachers pre-
viously completed, the availability of science related instructional materials in
kindergarten classrooms, and teachers’ perceptions of children’s capacity for learning
influenced the frequency of teaching of science concepts in kindergarten. However,
teaching experience and teachers’ perceptions of control over the curriculum did not
influence how often early childhood teachers teach science in early childhood
classrooms.
These findings suggest that teachers who completed a higher number of science
methods courses were more likely to teach science concepts in kindergarten. Science
methods courses influenced the frequency of how often various science concepts
were taught in kindergarten classrooms. Previous studies indicated a lack of science
and pedagogical content knowledge as one of the reasons for limited science teaching
during the early years (Appleton 1992; Kallery and Psillos 2001; Tobin et al. 1990).
Results of the current study are consistent with this previous research and suggest
that participating in-service and pre-service science methods courses that address
science and pedagogical content knowledge of teachers might contribute to the increase
in the frequency of science teaching in kindergarten.
Teachers who had science and nature area and manipulatives were more likely to
teach science. Thus, the availability of science related instructional materials encour-
aged teachers’ to teach specific science content (e.g. life, physical, and earth and
space science) more frequently. Although this finding is not surprising, it does empha-
sise the importance of availability of manipulatives for the teaching of science concepts
in kindergarten classrooms. Larger availability of science teaching materials in kinder-
garten classrooms may increase teachers’ motivation to teach basic science concepts
(Inan et al. 2010; Olmsted et al. 1970; Saçkes et al. 2011; Tu 2006). However,
recent studies indicated that early childhood teachers tended to not utilise available
science teaching materials effectively to teach science (Nayfeld 2008; Saçkes et al.
2011; Tu 2006). Effective science teaching in early years involves intentionally pro-
vided inquiry opportunities where children use developmentally appropriate materials
to make observations, predictions, and answer questions (Saçkes et al. 2011). There-
fore, science methods courses that are geared toward the teachers of young children
should provide knowledge and skills of effective use of science teaching materials in
early years.
Teachers who perceived their children as capable of learning the concepts taught
were more likely to teach science. Limited science instruction in kindergarten might
be due to teachers’ perceptions of young children’s inability to learn science. Previous
 European Early Childhood Education Research Journal 181

studies have clearly documented that young children are capable of learning basic
science concepts and skills (Carey and Spelke 1994; Kuhn and Pearsall 2000; Metz
1997; Opfer and Siegler 2004). Science methods courses should emphasise young chil-
dren’s capacities for learning science, thus increasing the likelihood that early child-
hood teacher might include science concepts in their instruction. Design of the
science methods courses for the teachers of young children should also be informed
by the Developmentally Appropriate Practice framework of National Association for
the Education of Young Children (Copple and Bredekamp 2009).
Results demonstrated that years of teaching experience and teachers’ perceptions of
control over the curriculum did not influence how often early childhood teachers
teach science in kindergarten classrooms. These findings are interesting in the light
of results from previous studies, which indicated that teachers of young children feel
pressured to teach literacy concepts (Early et al. 2010; Greenfield et al. 2009). The
results from the current study indicate that even teachers who believe that they have
control over and choice in their curricula are no more likely to teach science than
other teachers. Thus, this finding suggests that other factors, such as limited content
knowledge and low efficacy for teaching, affect teachers’ decision about what
content to teach and how frequently to teach science concepts. Future research
should focus on teachers’ beliefs about the importance and the utility of teaching
science in the early years.
The results of this study demonstrated that early childhood teachers tend to focus on
teaching life science concepts more than physical and earth and space science concepts
in kindergarten classrooms. These results support the findings of previous studies that
early childhood teachers feel confident in teaching life science related concepts
(Akerson 2004; Appleton 1992). Physical science concepts and, to some extent,
earth and space science concepts are often neglected in kindergarten classrooms.
Growing numbers of teachers use children’s literature, including picture books,
fiction and nonfiction books, as instructional tools to teach science (Morrow et al.
1997; Saçkes et al. 2009; Zeece 1999). Thus, underrepresentation of physical science
and earth science concepts in early childhood classrooms might be, partly, due to
larger availability of life science concepts related children’s books relative to physical
science and earth science related children’s books in the market (Ford 2004, 2006;
Saçkes et al. 2009).
There are several limitations of the current study. For example, variables analysed in
this study were based on self-reports. Also, teachers’ perceptions variables were not
science content specific. Additionally, the study focused on the frequency of teaching
science concepts in kindergarten and did not assess the quality of science instruction
provided to children. These limitations mostly stem from the fact that the present
study focuses on the analysis of secondary data. Future studies should focus on provid-
ing richer descriptions of the early childhood teachers’ science teaching practices in
kindergarten classrooms by conducting small-scale interpretive studies. Future investi-
gations should employ mixed methods and gather a variety of data, such as obser-
vations of science teaching practices, artifacts produced by children during their
science activities, and teachers’ perceptions of effective science teaching practices
and their confidence in delivering effective science instruction in early childhood class-
rooms. Findings of such studies could enhance our understandings of the current state
of teaching science in early years and our ability to make decisions on the quality of the
science instruction provided in early childhood classrooms. By providing implications
for science education training for pre- and in-service early childhood teachers, results of
182 M. Saçkes

such studies could also inform teacher educators in addressing the needs of the teachers
of young children.

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