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2020

BIOMEDICAL OPTICS
(BIOPHOTONICS)
A Brief Introduction to Photonics Technologies for
Diagnostics and Treatment

Biomedical Optics / Biophotonics

Use of photonics technologies for

• Diagnostics

• Monitoring

• Therapeutics

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What can you do with Optics and Photonics? Well, for starters…
GENERATE COOL STAGE EFFECTS · ENGAGE YOUR BRAIN · MONITOR THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE · OBSERVE OBJECTS IN OUTER SPACE · CREATE COMPLETELY NEW SOURCES OF ENERGY · MAKE DENTAL PROCEDURES FAST · REDUCE GREEN HOUSE GAS
UTILIZE NEW ARTISTIC MEDIUMS · CHANGE THE TELEVISION CHANNEL · CROSS THE ROAD SAFELY · MEASURE THE THICKNESS OF A HAIR · SEE IF AN ID IS REAL · ENJOY THE BEAUTY OF A SUGAR CRYSTAL · SCATTER LIGHT · DO A MAGIC SHOW

MANUFACTURE AN IPOD · SEE THINGS BIGGER · FIND YOUR WAY WITH A GPS · MAKE SURE ONLY YOU CAN OPEN THE DOOR · SCATTER LIGHT · DESIGN YOUR OWN EXPERIMENTS · SATELLITE DISHES
GET LOTS OF GREAT COLORS OF LIGHT · FIND ARCHEOLOGICAL AREAS · FIND HEAT LEAKS IN YOUR HOUSE · DESIGN NEW GENERATION CARS · TRAIN PILOTS IN SIMULATORS · CLEAN ARSENIC OUT OF WATER

What exactly is

CUT METAL · NO MORE STICKY LABELS ON PRODUCE · MAKE SURE LETTUCE IS SAFE TO EAT · FIND CELLS THAT MIGHT BECOME CANCEROUS · SEE SCORPIONS IN THE DARK · USE A COMPUTER MOUSE
CHECK OXYGEN LEVELS IN BLOOD · SEE INVISIBLE CREATURES · FIND CRIME EVIDENCE · POWER THE INTERNET · PLAY COMPUTER GAMES WIRELESS · TRANSMIT LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA OVER DISTANCES

Optics and Photonics?

Do you want to explore more?

www.spie.org/resources

USE A DIGITAL CAMERA · KEEP DRIVERS SAFE · SEE PEOPLE ON THE ROAD AT NIGHT · PROVIDE ENERGY IN REMOTE COMMUNITIES · DO A LAND SURVEY · STUDY A DROPLET OF WATER IN MOTION · CLOSE SURGICAL WOUNDS WITHOUT STITCHES
ENJOY A LASER SHOW · SCAN A BARCODE · PLAY A DVD OR CD · SEE INSIDE OF PEOPLE’S BRAINS · ILLUMINATE THE DARK · SEE IN RAINBOWS · ENSURE PERSONAL SAFETY · MANUFACTURE COMPUTER CHIPS · MAKE STUFF WITH ROBOTS
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What can you do with optics and photonics in healthcare? Well, for starters…
PHOTONICS IS CONSIDERED AS ONE OF THE KEY TECHNOLOGIES OF THE 21ST CENTURY. AT THE HEART OF PHOTONICS ARE TECHNOLOGIES FOR GENERATING LIGHT FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES IN HEALTH CARE AND LIFE SCIENCES
TREATMENT · IMAGING · THERAPY · OPTICS · PHOTONICS · LASER · PALLIATIVE · ABLATIVE · SURGEON · CURE · DOCTOR · RESEARCHER · DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS · MICROSCOPE · OTOSCOPE · CT SCAN · MRI · NURSE · DIAGNOSTIC TEST · SYMPTOMS
WITH THESE TECHNOLOGIES YOU CAN UNDERSTAND THE AFTERMATH OF A CONCUSSION BETTER WITH DIFFUSION TENSOR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING, RESTORE BLINDNESS WITH A PROSTHETIC RETINA
EXPLORE THE FUTURE OF OPTOGENETICS WHERE SPECIFIC AREAS OF THE BRAIN CAN BE TREATED WITH LIGHT FOR ADDICTIONS, ASSESS OBESITY LEVELS WITH THREE-DIMENSIONAL SURFACE IMAGING SYSTEM

WELLNESS · NANOTECHNOLOGY · IMAGE ANALYSIS · PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY · HEAL · PAIN-FREE · LENS · ENDOSCOPE · LIGHT ENERGY · ENT CAMERA · WAVELENGTHS · PATIENT
HEAL · PAIN-FREE · LENS · ENDOSCOPE · LIGHT ENERGY · ENT CAMERA · WAVELENGTHS · PATIENT · SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY · OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY

How exactly are

optics and photonics
used in healthcare?
Doctors and researchers use optics and photonics
to treat disease, get images from inside our bodies,
provide cosmetic treatments, and more. Medical optics
Treat skin cancer with a bandage that emits light, known as
Treat chronic pain with low level laser therapy. photodynamic therapy. and photonics helps reduce or eliminate hospital stays,
Explore the future of optogenetics diagnose disease earlier for greater chance of cure, help
where specific areas of the brain can
be treated with light for addictions. With advanced imaging technologies, conduct a motion patients recover more quickly, and reduce pain.
analysis to reduce athletic injuries.
Medical researchers are exploring how to use optics and
photonics in ways never before imagined. Since different
wavelengths of light are absorbed differently in human
tissue, light can be applied in very selective areas down
to the microscopic level, both on the surface of tissues
Use medical imaging to see what is going on inside the body. or to parts of the body underneath the skin. This allows
Eliminate a newborn’s jaundice doctors to target the tissues they want while limiting the
with phototherapy.
Remove a tattoo with laser. harm to the rest of the body. Light technology also has
great potential to bring more and better medical care to
underserved areas of the world with its portability, lower
Correct your vision permanently costs, and more sterile applications that reduce the risk
with LASIK. Detect cancer or other illness with a breath test.
of infection.
Treat complexion
problems with a laser.

Do you want to explore more?

Detect cancer by measuring the
increased oxygen around a tumor.
Repair damaged neurons non-invasively with lasers.
Lifesaving surgery with a laser.
Get your blood sugar tested without a needle, using a skin
probe instead.
Whiten your teeth.
Overcome the winter blues
with a full spectrum LED light.
Restore blindness with a prosthetic retina using
nanomaterials and optics in a camera.
Determine distribution For cool websites that explore optics and photonics visit:
of body fat between
inside the abdomen
and under the skin
spie.org/resources
with computed
tomography images. Use optics to find disease causing pathogens.
Photos courtesy of: Explore the future of optogenetics where specific
areas of the brain can be treated with light for addictions (Spooky Pooka);
Remove a tattoo with laser (Celibre Medical); Detect cancer or other illness
with a breath test (The SIFT-MS team; Professor Patrik Spanel,
J. Heyrovsky Institute, Prague, and Professor David Smith, Keele University);
Treat chronic pain with low level laser therapy (Thor Laser); With advanced
imaging technologies, conduct a motion analysis to reduce athletic injuries
(Edmund YS Chao); Detect cancer by measuring the increased oxygen
around a tumor (Junjie Yao and Lihong Wang); Repair damaged neurons
non-invasively with lasers (Paul A. Lapchak, Patrick D. Lyden and Pramod
Butte); Determine distribution of body fat between inside the abdomen
and under the skin with computed tomography images (Bugao Xu,
Wurong Yu, Ming Yao, M. Reese Pepper, Jeanne H. Freeland-Graves);
Get your blood sugar tested without a needle, using a skin probe instead
(J. Patrick Gillooly); Restore blindness with a prosthetic retina using
Understand the aftermath of a concussion better with nanomaterials and optics in a camera (LLNL)
diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging.

THERAPEUTIC · IMAGE PROCESSING · SPECIALIST · TISSUE OPTICS · GENERAL PRACTITIONER · X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY · IN VIVO · HOSPITAL · FLUORESCENCE TOMOGRAPHY · LAB ON A CHIP · OPTOGENETICS · DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS
DETECT CANCER OR OTHER ILLNESS WITH A BREATH TEST, TREAT SKIN CANCER WITH A BANDAGE THAT EMITS LIGHT, TREAT COMPLEXION PROBLEMS WITH A LASER, REMOVE A TATTOO WITH LASER, REPAIR DAMAGED NEURONS NON-INVASIVELY WITH LASERS SPIE.org
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Photonics

• The scientific discipline dealing with the controlling, utilizing, and transforming light

• Photonics technologies: Optics, Quantum electronics, laser, detectors, fibers,

materials, …

• Photonics and photon engineering are the convergent terms

• XXth Century was the age of electronics, in XXIth century we live in the age of
photonics

What is Light?

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What is Light?

• A form of energy

• Electromagnetic radiation

• Can behave as a wave and a particle

• Can interact with materials and structures

What is Light?
Light plays a vital role in our daily lives and has become an important tool in meeting the needs of our 21st
This still image was taken from a new NASA movie of the sun based on data from NASA’s Solar Dynamics
century world. Light-based technologies protect health and safety, provide sustainable energy, enable space Observatory, or SDO, showing the wide range of wavelengths – invisible to the naked eye – that the
telescope can view. By examining pictures of the sun in a variety of wavelengths, scientists can track how
explorations, advance lighting options in rural areas, enable communication via the Internet, and hold the promise particles and heat move through the sun’s atmosphere. In this image, the various invisible wavelengths are
of limitless possibilities to improve the human condition and protect the earth. each colorized differently to show the range of components on the sun’s surface, helping scientists to paint
a complete picture of our star.
Light is part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum and is a form of energy. Light is usually considered to be
8
the visible part of the spectrum. However, in physics, light can be defined as all portions of the electromagnetic
scale, including invisible forms such as infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, radio waves, and more.

Electromagnetic waves can be described by their wavelengths, energy, and frequency.

Wavelength ( )-Light waves are vibrations in the electromagnetic field. The wavelength of a light
wave is measured as the distance between two wave crests. Light wavelengths can vary greatly; for example,
radio waves can be about the size of small buildings, while gamma rays are subatomic size. 4
Frequency ( )-The number of wave crests passing by a fixed point in a given time period—usually
What is Light?
one second—is called frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). Higher-frequency waves have shorter
wavelengths. Light plays a vital role in our daily lives and has become an important tool in meeting the needs of our 21st
This still image was taken from a new NASA movie of the sun based on data from NASA’s Solar Dynamics
century world. Light-based technologies protect health and safety, provide sustainable energy, enable space Observatory, or SDO, showing the wide range of wavelengths – invisible to the naked eye – that the
telescope can view. By examining pictures of the sun in a variety of wavelengths, scientists can track how
explorations, advance lighting options in rural areas, enable communication via the Internet, and hold the promise
 16.12.2020

What is Light?
Light plays a vital role in our daily lives and has become an important tool in meeting the needs of our 21st
century world. Light-based technologies protect health and safety, provide sustainable energy, enable space
explorations, advance lighting options in rural areas, enable communication via the Internet, and hold the promise
of limitless possibilities to improve the human condition and protect the earth.
Light is part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum and is a form of energy. Light is usually considered to be
This still image was taken from a new NASA movie of the sun based on data from NASA’s Solar Dynamics
Observatory, or SDO, showing the wide range of wavelengths – invisible to the naked eye – that the
telescope can view. By examining pictures of the sun in a variety of wavelengths, scientists can track how
particles and heat move through the sun’s atmosphere. In this image, the various invisible wavelengths are
each colorized differently to show the range of components on the sun’s surface, helping scientists to paint
a complete picture of our star.

What is Light? the visible part of the spectrum. However, in physics, light can be defined as all portions of the electromagnetic
scale, including invisible forms such as infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, radio waves, and more.

Electromagnetic waves can be described by their wavelengths, energy, and frequency.

Wavelength ( )-Light waves are vibrations in the electromagnetic field. The wavelength of a light
Light plays a vital role in our daily lives andwavehas become
is measured as thean important
distance between twotool
wave in meeting
crests. the needs
Light wavelengths of our
can vary greatly; 21st
for example,
This still image was taken from a new NASA movie of the sun based on data from NASA’s S
century world. Light-based technologies protect health and safety, provide sustainable energy, enable space
radio waves can be about the size of small buildings, while gamma rays are subatomic size.
Observatory, or SDO, showing the wide range of wavelengths – invisible to the naked e
explorations, advance lighting options in ruralFrequency ( )-communication
areas, enable via the Internet, and hold the promise
The number of wave crests passing by a fixed point in a given time period—usually telescope can view. By examining pictures of the sun in a variety of wavelengths, scientists
particles and heat move through the sun’s atmosphere. In this image, the various invisible w
one second—is called frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). Higher-frequency waves have shorter
of limitless possibilities to improve the human condition and protect the earth.
wavelengths. each colorized differently to show the range of components on the sun’s surface, helping sci
a complete picture of our star.
Light is part of the electromagnetic radiationEnergy
spectrum ( )-andThe greater the energy, the higher the frequency and the shorter (smaller) the wavelength. Given
is a form of energy. Light is usually considered to be
the relationship between wavelength and frequency—the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength—it
the visible part of the spectrum. However, infollows
physics, light
that short can be
wavelengths defined
are more energeticas
thanall
longportions
wavelengths.of the electromagnetic

scale, including invisible forms such as infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, radio waves, and more.

Electromagnetic waves can be described by their wavelengths, energy, and frequency.

www.SPIEDigitalLibrary.org www.SPIE.org/IYL
Wavelength ( )-Light waves are vibrations in the electromagnetic field. The wavelength of a light
wave is measured as the distance between two wave crests. Light wavelengths can vary greatly; for example,
radio waves can be about the size of small buildings, while gamma rays are subatomic size.

Frequency ( )-The number of wave crests passing by a fixed point in a given time period—usually
one second—is called frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). Higher-frequency waves have shorter
wavelengths.

Energy ( )-The greater the energy, the higher the frequency and the shorter (smaller) the wavelength. Given
the relationship between wavelength and frequency—the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength—it
follows that short wavelengths are more energetic than long wavelengths.

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What is Light?
Light is part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, which is a form of energy. Light is usually considered to
be the visible part of the spectrum; however, in physics, light is defined by all portions of the electromagnetic
scale including invisible forms such as infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, radio waves, and more.

Light energy can be described as a wave, a particle (or photon), or a combination of both (called the wave-particle
duality). Another approach is to consider light energy as a ray. The observations of how light behaves with matter
demonstrates the various properties as a wave, particle, or ray.

The unique properties of light are studied and utilized in the field of Optics and Photonics. Besides light enabling
us to see, it cuts and welds, controls electrical circuits, transmits sound, and is used in a remarkable range of
products and industries. Uses have expanded into areas that are critical to the health and quality of human life,
and also the health of the entire planet. New discoveries in these fields open the door to addressing and solving
the challenges of a modern world.

Refraction - A ray of light is a thin beam that travels in a straight line. Refraction is the phenomenon when
light travels from one medium into another, such as through air into water, causing the ray to change speed and
direction. Refraction can be observed through droplets of water, where the neighboring vegetation is miniaturized
and reversed, or in light traveling through a water glass. A physical property of the medium, called refractive
index, is related to these changes and used in the design of lenses and prisms.

Reflection - Reflection is when a ray of light strikes a surface and bounces back, or is reflected. The light
bounces in a predictable way, which is described by the law of reflection. Because of reflection, you can see
yourself in a mirror. In astronomy, mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes to visualize distant objects. Objects
are visible because of the light reflected from their surfaces, such as the moon, and color is the result of certain
wavelengths of light being absorbed while others are reflected. www.SPIE
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10 What is Light?
Light is part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, which is a form of energy. Light is usually considered to
be the visible part of the spectrum; however, in physics, light is defined by all portions of the electromagnetic
scale including invisible forms such as infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, radio waves, and more.

Light energy can be described as a wave, a particle (or photon), or a combination of both (called the wave-particle
duality). Another approach is to consider light energy as a ray. The observations of how light behaves with matter
demonstrates the various properties as a wave, particle, or ray.
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The unique properties of light are studied and utilized in the field of Optics and Photonics. Besides light enabling
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us to see, it cuts and welds, controls electrical circuits, transmits sound, and is used in a remarkable range of
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products and industries. Uses have expanded into areas that are critical to the health and quality of human life,
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and also the health of the entire planet. New discoveries in these fields open the door to addressing and solving
the challenges of a modern world.

Refraction - A ray of light is a thin beam that travels in a straight line. Refraction is the phenomenon when
light travels from one medium into another, such as through air into water, causing the ray to change speed and
direction. Refraction can be observed through droplets of water, where the neighboring vegetation is miniaturized
and reversed, or in light traveling through a water glass. A physical property of the medium, called refractive
index, is related to these changes and used in the design of lenses and prisms.

Reflection - Reflection is when a ray of light strikes a surface and bounces back, or is reflected. The light
bounces in a predictable way, which is described by the law of reflection. Because of reflection, you can see
yourself in a mirror. In astronomy, mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes to visualize distant objects. Objects
are visible because of the light reflected from their surfaces, such as the moon, and color is the result of certain
wavelengths of light being absorbed while others are reflected. www.SPIEDigitalLibrary.org www.SPIE.org/IYL
 16.12.2020

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Light

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EM and Photon Spectrum

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Electromagnetic and Photon Spectrum

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Radio Frequency Waves

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Microwaves

Microwave ovens, wireless and cellular phones…

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THz Waves (or T-rays)

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Infrared

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Infrared

• Thermal imaging cameras: cooled or uncooled technologies

• Fiber communications is in near IR (1.3um and 1.55um)
• CO2 lasers at 10.6um are used for laser welding
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Infrared

• Thermal imaging cameras: cooled or uncooled technologies

• Fiber communications is in near IR (1.3um and 1.55um)
• CO2 lasers at 10.6um are used for laser welding
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Infrared

• Thermal imaging cameras:

cooled or uncooled technologies
• Fiber communications is in near
IR (1.3um and 1.55um)
• CO2 lasers at 10.6um are used
for laser welding
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Infrared

• Thermal imaging cameras: cooled or uncooled

technologies
• Fiber communications is in near IR (1.3um and
1.55um)
• CO2 lasers at 10.6um are used for laser welding
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Visible Light

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Ultraviolet

Deep UV Excimer lasers used in photolithography for IC industry

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Ultraviolet

Deep UV Excimer lasers used in photolithography for IC industry

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Ultraviolet

Deep UV Excimer lasers used in photolithography for IC industry

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X-rays

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Gamma Rays

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Wavelength and Frequency

Wavelength x Frequency = Speed of EM radiation in the medium

Radio waves (speed: 3x108 m/s in vacuum):

f=100MHz FM radio waves « l=c/f = 3 meters

Visible Light (speed: 3x108m/s in vacuum):

l=0.5 mm « f = 6.1014 Hz (600 THz)

Acoustic Waves - Sound (speed: 340m/s in air):

f=100Hz « l=3.4m
f=17KHz « l=20mm

All waves satisfy wave equation derived from the Maxwell’s

Equations. (EM theory of optical beams is covered later in the course)
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Regions of Approximation in the EM Spectrum

Within this vaste range of wavelengths, there are three regions of approximation which are especially
interesting:

• (λ<<dimensions of equipment) - available for their study&photon energy are small compared to
energy semitivity of equipment àwe can make a rough approximation with a method called
Geometrical Optics.

• (λ ~ comparable to the dimensions of equipment) (used to be difficult to arrange with visible light,
possible nowadays). Easier with radiowaves/microwaves and if photon energies are negligibly
small; we can still disregard quantum mechanics and study the behaviour of waves using the
classical theory of EM radiation or Wave Optics

• (Very short λ), we could disregard the wave character but photons have a large energy (E=hn
=h(c/λ)), things get simple again. This is the simple photon picture, we will not discuss in any detail
here. The complete picture which unifies the whole thing into one model is the Quantum Optics
theory, which will not be covered here. Sub-wavelength optics and photonic crystals fall into this
category.
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Waves and wave fronts

• A wave front is the locus of
all adjacent points at which
the phase of a wave is the same.
• Spherical wave fronts of
sound spread out uniformly
in all directions from a point
source.
• Electromagnetic waves in
vacuum also spread out as
shown here.

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Fields of a sinusoidal wave

• Shown is a linearly polarized sinusoidal electromagnetic wave traveling in the +x-
direction.
• One wavelength of the
wave is shown at time
t = 0.
• The fields are shown for
only a few points along
the x-axis.

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Wave fronts and rays

• It’s often convenient to represent a light wave by rays rather than by wave fronts.
• A ray is an imaginary line along the direction of travel of the wave.
• When waves travel in a
homogeneous isotropic
material, the rays are
always straight lines
normal to the wave
fronts.

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Wave fronts and rays

• Far away from a source, where the radii of the spheres have become very large, a
section of a spherical surface can be considered as a plane, and we have a plane
wave.

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Reflection and refraction

• When a light wave strikes a smooth interface separating two transparent materials
(such as air and glass or water and glass), the wave is in general partly reflected
and partly refracted (transmitted) into the second material.
• The segments of plane waves
can be represented by bundles
of rays forming beams of light.
• For simplicity we often draw
only one ray in each beam.

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Diffuse and specular reflection

• Our primary concern in this
chapter will be with specular
reflection from a very smooth
surface such as highly
polished glass or metal (a).
• Scattered reflection from a
rough surface is called
diffuse reflection (b).
• The vast majority of objects in
your environment are visible
to you because they reflect
light in a diffuse manner.

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Index of refraction
• The index of refraction of an optical material (also called the refractive index),
denoted by n, is defined as:

• For the case shown here, material b has a larger index of refraction than material a
(nb > na) and the angle θb is smaller than θa.

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The law of refraction

• This result is also called Snell’s law, after the Dutch

scientist Willebrord Snell (1591–1626).

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Reflection and refraction: Case 1 of 3

• When a ray passes from one material into another material having a larger index of
refraction and hence a slower wave speed, the angle θb with the normal is smaller
in the second material than the angle θa in the first.

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Reflection and refraction: Case 2 of 3

• When a ray passes from one material into another material having a smaller index
of refraction and hence a faster wave speed, the angle θb with the normal is larger
in the second material than the angle θa in the first.

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Index of refraction for yellow light

Index of
Substance Refraction,
n
Ice (H2O) 1.309
Water (H2O) at 20°C 1.333
Glycerine at 20°C 1.473
Crown glass (typical
1.52
value)
Rock salt (NaCl) 1.544
Quartz (SiO2) 1.544

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Diamond (C) 2.417
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Index of refraction and the wave aspects of light

• The frequency f of a wave does not change when passing from one material to
another.
• In any material, v = λf ; since f is the same in any material as in vacuum and v is
always less than the wave speed c in vacuum, λ is also correspondingly reduced.

• When a wave passes from one material into a second material the waves get
“squeezed” (the wavelength gets shorter) if the wave speed decreases and get
“stretched” (the wavelength gets longer) if the wave speed increases.

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Total internal reflection

• Under certain circumstances, all of the light can be reflected back from an
interface, even though the second material is transparent.
• This is true for rays 3
and 4.
• The reflected portions
of rays 1, 2, and 3 are
omitted for clarity.

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Total internal reflection

• If the angle of incidence is
larger than a critical angle,
the ray cannot pass into the
upper material; it is
completely reflected at the
boundary surface.
• This situation occurs only
when nb < na.

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Fiber optics
• When a beam of light
enters at one end of
a transparent rod, the
light can be totally
reflected internally if
the index of refraction
of the rod is greater
than that of the
surrounding material.
• The light is “trapped”
within even a curved
rod, provided that the
curvature is not too
great.

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Dispersion
• The speed of light in vacuum is the same
for all wavelengths, but the speed in a
material substance is different for
different wavelengths.
• The dependence of wave speed and
index of refraction on wavelength is
called dispersion.
• In most materials the value of n
decreases with increasing wavelength
and decreasing frequency.

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Dispersion
• Ordinary white light is a superposition of waves with all visible wavelengths.
• The band of dispersed colors is called a spectrum.

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How rainbows form: Slide 2 of 3

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Polarization
• An electromagnetic wave is
linearly polarized if the electric
field has only one component.
• Light from most sources such
as light bulbs is a random
mixture of waves linearly
polarized in all possible
transverse directions; such
light is called unpolarized
light or natural light.
• A Polaroid polarizing filter
can convert unpolarized light
to linearly polarized light.

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Graphical method of locating images

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Graphical method of locating images

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Image formed by a thin converging lens

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Types of lenses
• Shown below are various types of lenses, both converging and diverging.
• Any lens that is thicker at its center than at its edges is a converging lens with
positive f; and any lens that is thicker at its edges than at its center is a diverging
lens with negative f.

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Lensmaker’s equation

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Graphical methods for lenses

• Shown below is the method for drawing the three principal rays for a real image
formed by a converging lens.

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Graphical methods for a diverging lens

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The eye
• The optical behavior of the eye is similar to that of a camera.

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Defects of vision
• A normal eye forms an
image on the retina of an
object at infinity when the
eye is relaxed.
• In the myopic (nearsighted)
eye, the eyeball is too long
from front to back in
comparison with the radius
of curvature of the cornea,
and rays from an object at
infinity are focused in front
of the retina.

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Nearsighted correction
• The far point of a certain myopic eye is 50 cm in front of
the eye.
• When a diverging lens of focal length f = −48 cm is worn
2 cm in front of the eye, it creates a virtual image at 50 cm that permits the wearer
to see clearly.

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Farsighted correction
• A converging lens can be used to create an image far enough away from the
hyperopic eye at a point where the wearer can see it clearly.

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Angular size
• The maximum angular size of an object viewed at a comfortable distance is the
angle it subtends at a distance
of 25 cm.

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The magnifier
• The angular magnification of a simple magnifier is:

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The compound microscope

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Wave fronts from a disturbance

• Interference effects are
most easily seen when we
combine sinusoidal waves
with a single frequency
and wavelength.
• Shown is a “snapshot” of
a single source S1 of
sinusoidal waves and
some of the wave fronts
produced by this source.

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Constructive and destructive interference

• Shown are two identical
sources of
monochromatic waves, S1
and S2.
• The two sources are
permanently in phase;
they vibrate in unison.
• Constructive interference
occurs at point a
(equidistant from the two
sources).

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Conditions for constructive interference

• The distance from S2
to point b is exactly
two wavelengths
greater than the
distance from S1 to b.
• The two waves arrive
in phase, and they
reinforce each other.
• This is called
constructive
interference.

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Conditions for destructive interference

• The distance from S1
to point c is a half-
integral number of
wavelengths greater
than the distance
from S2 to c.
• The two waves
cancel or partly
cancel each other.
• This is called
destructive
interference.

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Constructive and destructive interference

• The concepts of
constructive
interference and
destructive
interference apply
to these water
waves as well as to
light waves and
sound waves.

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Two-source interference of light

• Shown below is one of the earliest quantitative experiments to reveal the
interference of light from two sources, first performed by Thomas Young.
• The interference of waves from slits S1 and S2 produces a pattern on the screen.

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Interference in thin films

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Phase shifts during reflection

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Interference in thin films

• For light of normal incidence on a thin film with wavelength λ in the film, in which
neither or both of the reflected waves have a half-cycle phase shift:

• When only one of the reflected waves has a half-cycle phase shift:

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Nonreflective coatings

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Diffraction
• According to geometric
optics, when an opaque
object is placed between a
point light source and a
screen, the shadow of the
object forms a perfectly
sharp line.
• However, the wave nature
of light causes interference
patterns, which blur the
edge of the shadow.
• This is one effect of
diffraction.

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Diffraction and Huygen’s principle

• This photograph was made by
placing a razor blade halfway
between a pinhole, illuminated
by monochromatic light, and a
photographic film.
• The film recorded the shadow
cast by the blade.
• Note the fringe pattern around
the blade outline, which is
caused by diffraction.

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Diffraction from a single slit

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Diffraction from a single slit

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The diffraction grating

• An array of a large number of
parallel slits is called a diffraction
grating.
• In the figure, is a cross section
of a transmission grating.
• The slits are perpendicular to the
plane of the page.
• The diagram shows only six slits; an
actual grating may contain several
thousand.

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The reflection grating

• The rainbow-colored reflections from the surface of a DVD are a reflection-grating
effect.
• The “grooves” are tiny pits 0.12 mm deep in the surface of the disc, with a uniform
radial spacing of 0.74 mm = 740 nm.
• Information is coded on the
DVD by varying the length of
the pits.
• The reflection-grating aspect
of the disc is merely an
aesthetic side benefit.

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Diagram of a grating spectrograph

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Resolution of a grating spectrograph

• In spectroscopy it is often important to distinguish slightly differing wavelengths.
• The minimum wavelength difference Δλ that can be distinguished by a
spectrograph is described by the chromatic resolving power R.
• For a grating spectrograph with a total of N slits, used in the mth order, the
chromatic resolving power is:

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Diffraction by a circular aperture

• The central bright spot in
the diffraction pattern of a
circular aperture is called
the Airy disk.
• We can describe the radius
of the Airy disk by the
angular radius θ1 of the first
dark ring:

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Diffraction and image formation

• Diffraction limits the resolution of
optical equipment, such as
telescopes.
• The larger the aperture, the better
the resolution.
• A widely used criterion for resolution
of two point objects, is called
Rayleigh’s criterion:
– Two objects are just barely resolved (that
is, distinguishable) if the center of one
diffraction pattern coincides with the first
minimum of the other.

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What is holography?
• By using a beam splitter and mirrors, coherent laser light illuminates an object from
different perspectives.
• Interference effects provide the depth that makes a three-dimensional image from
two-dimensional views.

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Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue

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Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue

• The Case of Pure Absorption

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Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue

• The Case of Pure Absorption

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Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue

• Absorption Spectroscopy

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Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue

• Emission

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Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue

• Fluorescence

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Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue

• Fluorescence Spectroscopy

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Photoplethysmography

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Photoplethysmography
• Peripheral Oxygen Saturation (SpO2)

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Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light

Sources

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Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light

Sources
• Photodynamic Theraphy

• Photothermal Theraphy

• Ultrafast Ablation

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Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light

Sources
• Photodynamic Theraphy

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Sources
• Photothermal Theraphy

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Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light

Sources
• Photothermal Theraphy

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Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light

Sources
• Photothermal Theraphy

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Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light

Sources
• Ultrafast Ablation

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Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light

Sources
• Ultrafast Ablation

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Fiber Optics and Waveguides in Medicine

• Fiber Optics

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Fiber Optics and Waveguides in Medicine

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Fiber Optics and Waveguides in Medicine

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Fiber Optics and Waveguides in Medicine

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Fluorescence Microscopy

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Fluorescence Microscopy

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Phase Contrast Microscopy Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscopy

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Phase Contrast

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• DIC

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

Classical Phase Contrast DIC Quantitative Phase

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Quantitative Phase Microscopy

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Quantitative Phase Microscopy

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Quantitative Phase Microscopy

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

Lensfree Inline Holographic Hyperspectral Phase

Microscope

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Phototoxicity in Fluorescence Microscopy

With Fluorescence Excitation Light Without Fluorescence Excitation Light
(𝜆 = 470𝑛𝑚, Δ𝜆 = 30𝑛𝑚)
(2.2% Duty Cycle: 1 sec ON, 44 sec OFF)

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Optical Diffraction Tomography

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Optical Diffraction Tomography

a 2μm d g h i
SEM DHM 2π-DHM

y
π/5 0.2μm
x
j 1.0 75
nm
Intensity [a.u.]

0.5

160
nm 0
b c e f -600 -200 0 200 600
x [nm]

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Biomedical Optical Imaging

• Optical Diffraction Tomography

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