GST211

ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

DIVISION OF GENERAL STUDIES

(2022/2023)

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 GST211: ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
The main concern of every society with regard to its environment is for the general populace and the generations
to follow. Environment is a broad concept, it refers to all or part of the universe, involving all living and nonliving
components. The rapid development in science and technology, coupled population growth and the increased
exploration of natural resources are major causes of environmental degradation. Environmental issues such as
climate change – higher temperature, shifting seasons, more frequent and extreme weather events such as floods
and droughts, the challenge for food production etc. are among the environmental challenges of the 21 st century.
Thus, improving the environment is the responsibility of all elements of the society, including educational
institutions, teachers and students for sustainable development
Sustainable development is defined as “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs (Shah, 2008). These needs are not only material but
include values, relationship, freedom to think, health care, Education etc. In 2012 the United Nation Conference on
sustainable development met and came up with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). Environment was recognized as an important area for poverty reduction and
prosperity of today's population. Thus it was included among the three major pillars of sustainable development
alongside economic and social development. Therefore, Sustainable development focuses more on economic
development, Social development and environmental protection for future generations.
Environmental protection is the need to the ecosystem, air quality, and sustainability of natural resources as well as
protecting technology from potentially damaging our greener future. Consequently, three out of the 17 SDGs are
environmentally oriented. They include:

1. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

2. Sustainably manage forest, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation and biodiversity loss
3. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans seas and marine resources

This course focuses on explaining those environmental concepts, issues and challenges which form the scope of
the three environmentally related Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Prior to that, a brief discussion was
made on science and technology, the two disciplines whose discoveries are central to environmental science.
MEANING OF SCIENCE
Several scientists and science educators attempt to provide a meaningful definition of science, so as to have a
universally accepted meaning. However, there is no universally accepted definition of science. Although, science
is universally regarded as a dynamic human activity concerned with understanding the natural phenomenon. It is

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simply defined “as a system of accumulating knowledge that uses observation and experiment to describe natural
phenomena”. However, scientists, educationists and researchers contributed in giving one definition or another,
below are some of their definitions.

● Science is an attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience correspond to a logically
uniform system of thought (Einstein, 1940).
● Science is an interconnected series of concepts and conceptual schemes that have developed as a result of
experimentation and observation and are fruitful for further experiment and observation (Conant, 1912).
● Science is defined as activities culminating into testable, falsifiable and verifiably body knowledge
● Science is an attempt by human beings to organize their experiment in nature into a meaningful system of
explanations (Ogunniyi, 1984).

Science is both a body of knowledge that represents current understanding of natural systems and the process
whereby that body of knowledge has been established and is being continually extended, refined, and revised. The
body of knowledge includes specific facts integrated and articulated into highly developed and well-tested
theories. These theories, in turn, can explain bodies of data and predict outcomes of experiments.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE
For any study to be termed science it must possess the following characteristics: -

1. It is a body knowledge
2. It is a process (as a method)
3. It is dynamic (open to change)
4. It is an institution

CHARACTERISTICS/QUALITIES OF A GOOD SCIENTIST

1. Curiosity: He must have that interest and drive for wanting to come up with new ideas especially in the
area of the unknown.
2. Open-mindedness: He must be very open in his mind, ready to accept everything, of course with the
mind that is ready to filter relevant from irrelevant information.
3. Skepticisms: He should possess the ability to look at things from both sides of the coin by looking at
advantages and disadvantages of any given argument etc.
4. Accuracy: A true scientist must try to be as accurate as he can, right from data collection up to his
conclusion.

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5. Objectives: He must be objective in both his data collection and recording. It must be done just the way it
was collected. Here the word sincerity must be his watchword.
6. Humility: He must not be so timid. Instead, he must be willing to learn from anybody from anywhere in
the world.
7. Avoidance of Dogmatism: As Ogbonna (1997) puts it, a true scientist must be able to shift forward
away from his old beliefs or training, especially when new information tends towards contradicting the old ones.
This is because knowledge is dynamic and continually assumes never horizons.
8. Positive approach to failure: A scientist should never have at the back of his mind that there is nothing
like failure in science. Instead it is only learning a new way of doing the right thing. As well as learning how not to
apply that procedure next time. The question of depression and frustration should be out of his mind. This is
because it is not always when we try and succeed.
9. Question of authority: He must be so conversant with different literature to detect false information or
data. That means he must read widely and be knowledgeable in his chosen discipline. He must be confident to
detect faults from other scientists.
10. Thoroughness: He must be very comprehensive in his words. Every step required must be followed
carefully and consistently. He should know that there is no shortcut to success in science.

BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Science can be divided into two main branches with some sub-branches as described by Wasagu (2004).

1. Pure science (Factual): this is concerned with psychological pursuit of theoretical knowledge, which is
formal and deductive. Having sub-branches as
i. Formal science which is classified as physical science e.g. mathematics, theoretical physics, statistics, algebra
and geometry
ii. Empirical science is classified as natural science e.g. biology, chemistry, physics, botany and zoology.
2. Applied science (professional) this is concerned with control, planning, technological progress and
utilization of the forces of nature for partial purpose.
i. Medical sciences which is characterized as medicine and applied pharmaceutical science
ii. Technological science characterized as engineering and agricultural sciences e.g. (chemical, mechanical
and electrical engineering)

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Science is a collection of „facts‟ (body of knowledge) that describe and explain the workings of nature. Although
these facts are interesting or even fascinating- they are not the essence of science. Rather, the excitement of

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science lies in the intriguing observation and the carefully designed experiments that scientists have devised to
help us learn about nature. The important thing here is the process of science not just knowing the facts, but
appreciating how scientists discover and continue to discover those facts. This involves several processes which
include observing, classifying, measuring, hypothesizing or predicting, describing, or making conclusions from
data, asking insightful questions about nature, formulating problems, designing investigations including
experiments constructing from data, principles, laws and theories. Some of these processes are described as
follows: -

i. Observation/collection of data
ii. Identification of problems
iii. Hypothesis formulation
iv. Experimentation or testing
v. Conclusion

LOGIC OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Scientific investigation is a development from observation to general statement (theory, laws or principles),
through inductive deductive logic. The observations that end the cycle of one scientific investigation, form the
basis for the next cycle and the process continue using inductive and deductive logic.

Inductive logic: it is the philosophical idea or view point that scientific theories or knowledge are generally
developed as a result of single observation. An inference is called inductive if it passes from a single statement
such as the account of the result of an observation or experiment to a universal statement such as theories and
laws.
Deductive logic: it is the process of comparing conclusions, theories or hypotheses with one another and with
other relevant statements so as to find out what logical relation exists between or among them. The basic idea of

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deductivism is that theories are not built bottom-up from theory-free data, but they are deductively tested against
data. In this form of logic, Specific hypotheses or statements are logically deducted from general hypotheses or
statements that can be compared with empirical data.
SCIENTIFIC FACTS, THEORIES AND LAWS
There is a crucial relationship between facts, laws and theories. And it all starts with observation. The relationship
can be described diagrammatically as:
Observation

Facts (Tentative)

Law Testing/experiment

Theory

It follows from this diagram that scientific facts are derived through observations and testing. The facts established
(although they are tentative) lead to certain scientific theories, which subsequently lead to scientific laws. These
theories may stay in the air for quite a long time before they develop into crisis and extraordinary science (as
Popper will insist). After being falsified, these theories are subjected to more observations and experimentation
and the whole process starts again, given facts and theories to work with.

i. Scientific facts: it is important to emphasize that there is always a difference between scientific facts and
everyday facts. This is because in science, there is more to seeing than meeting the eyeball; to see is to interpret.
Seeing is not just a passive reception, it is an active exercise in problem solving. And to observe is to pay great
attention to details. That is why, what we regard as the facts in science, depends upon the way in which our
language, belief, commitment, expectations and sensory apparatus contribute to our conceptual patterns of
organization.
ii. Scientific theory: when a hypothesis or groups of hypotheses have been proved by various independent
groups of researchers at various times, the hypothesis is accepted as a scientific theory. To scientists, a theory is a
coherent explanation for a large number of facts and observations about the natural world. In popular use, a theory
is often assumed to imply mere speculations, but in science, something is not called a theory until it has been
confirmed over many independent experiments. Theories are more certain than hypotheses, but less certain than
laws. It is often said that theories can never be proved, but can only be disproved. This is because there is always
the possibility that a new observation or experiment will be in conflict with long-standing theories. This conflict
often leads to what is called paradigm shift
iii. Scientific law: These are generalizations that are based on particular events (inductive or deductive
reasoning). Scientific laws are generalizations which sum up all facts established by the scientists. Therefore, the
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best law is the quality of the facts established. As soon as the facts are wrong, the law may also flop. When
overwhelming evidence is obtained over a period of time to support scientific theory, the theory becomes a
scientific law. A scientific law is a description of a natural phenomenon or principle that invariably holds true
under specific conditions and will occur under certain circumstances

CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY
The word „„Technology‟‟ was derived from the Greek word „technologia‟ in which „techne‟ means “craft” and „logia‟
which means “study”. Technology is a body of knowledge devoted to creating tools, processing actions and
extracting materials. The term „Technology‟ is wide and everyone has his own way of understanding its meaning.
It involves the study of mastery and utilization of scientific knowledge practically with the view to solving
practical problems of society. It also refers to the systematic application of scientific principles on matter, motion,
space, time and energy in technical processes. Technology is also regarded as:
 The innovation, change, or modification of the natural environment in order to satisfy perceived human
wants and needs.
 Deals with how humans modify, change, alter, or control the natural world.
 Is concerned with what can or should be designed, made, or developed from natural world materials and
substances to satisfy human needs and wants.
TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY

1. Informal/indigenous/low level technology: is concerned with the local production of goods and
services. It involves production of materials locally to make work easy. For example, production of local materials
such as hoes, cutlasses, soap, dyes, canoe, bows and arrows, mat and clay pot molding.
2. Formal/modern/high level technology: involves production of sophisticated materials such as machines,
cars, generators, aeroplanes, ships etc. using scientific research processes.

ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT

Wherever you may be living (i.e. village or town), you are likely to see, hear, and touch or use various products of
Science and Technology.. Such objects include soap, toothpaste, broom, knife, safety razors, hot water, telephones,
cars, buses, trains, and objects in offices, factories, homes, schools, restaurants and theatres. In addition to all
these, you are likely to touch and use such devices designed to save physical labour such as tractors, those
designed to help in communication, entertainment, transportation, high-speed computers and medicines. All these
and many more are called products of technology. It is interesting to note that before each of these products
developed, a significant scientific discovery had been made. Each of these examples demonstrates a symbiotic

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 relationship between science and technology. To discuss the role of science and technology in the society, will
mean to look at the impact of science and technology on the following areas:

a. Food Production: Application of discoveries in biological sciences couple with advancement in

technology have enable man to raise agriculture production per unit farm land, thus improve food production
through the followings
i. Provision of chemical compounds such as pesticides and herbicides
ii. Development of improved crop varieties.
iii. Artificially produced fertilizers to improve the soil fertility of farmland.
iv. Development of machineries such as tractors for improving the efficiency of farming operations during
the critical period of seeding and harvesting.
v. Irrigation technology has made it possible to produce extra crops during the non-rainy seasons.
vi. Production of synthetic foodstuffs for human and animal consumption..
b. Housing: One of the basic needs of man is shelter. Progress in various branches of engineering has been
quite remarkable and makes the following contributions.
i.Development of Air conditioning devices for comfort living of man.
ii.Multi–storey buildings or skyscrapers have made it possible to lessen space shortages in cities and towns.
c. Transport:
i.Developments of vehicles, such as motor cars, ships and planes, have made it easy to transport people and goods
by land, sea and air.
ii.Man has been able to explore outer space by the use of spaceships such as rockets;
d. Communication:
i.Provision of mobile phones
ii.Remarkable progress in the field of Radio, Television services
iii.Development of computer and various software
iv.Internet services and many other microelectronic devices
e. Medicine/Health: Science and Technology have made significant contribution in the areas of medicine
and health care through:
i.Manufacturing of a wide range of drugs in large quantities
ii.Partial or complete eradication of certain deadly diseases, such as smallpox, Polio, cholera, etc.
iii.Development of scientific instruments such as electron microscope, X-ray, scanning machines for better
understanding of the nature of diseases and their possible cure.
iv.Complicated surgical operations such as heart transplantation have been made possible.
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i.Security: for every nation or society to survive, it must depend on its sovereignty and protect its territorial
integrity. Science and technology have provided modern societies with effective defense system comprising
Fighter jets, Artilleries and machine guns , Warships and War drones
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Although Science and Technology are interdependent disciplines that cannot be separated considering their
common features and aims, there are certain distinctive features that exist between them. The following are some
of the differences:

 Science emphasizes on acquiring knowledge whereas technology focuses on practical implementation of

knowledge.
 While science seeks to understand the natural world, technology deals with how humans modify, change,
alter, or control the natural world.
 Science concerned with what is (exists) in the natural world. (i.e.: Biology, Chemistry, Physics,
Astronomy, Geology, etc.), technology concerned with what can or should be designed, made, or developed from
natural world materials and substances to satisfy human needs and wants
 Science deals with processes that seek out the meaning of the natural world by “inquiry”, “discovering
what is”, “exploring”, and using “the Scientific Method”, technology concerned with such processes that we use to
alter/change the natural world such as “Invention”, Innovation”, Practical Problem Solving, and Design.
 Science refers to the development of some hypotheses. Then the hypothesis is conducted under controlled
experimentation, then the observations and findings are analyzed and results are drawn leading the experiment to
some conclusion. On the other hand technology is related with designing and developing a solution that solves a
problem and creates a product, process or environment that is implemented in real life.
 To excel in the field of science good experimental and logical skills are required whereas for the
technology a set of skills like design, construction, planning, decision making, problem solving and good
interpersonal skills is required.

MAN AND HIS ORIGIN

Whenever one is seeking to find out the origin of something, one may be tempted to ask the following questions
such as: "when did it start?", "how did it start?" and "where did it start? Our major concern here is to find out about
the origin of man. How did man start on? How did the man race start off? Who are man's ancestors? Additional
questions which might bother the minds of every man, woman, boy or girl are that "where did human beings come
from?" and how did man originate? The answers to these questions are not far fetched. If you ask a boy or a girl
where he/she comes from, the boy or girl would say he/she comes from his/her parents and they originate from
them. But one may be tempted to ask further where do the parents come from? Truly, one may say they came from
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grandparents. Again, where do the grandparents come from? They came from great grandparents. All these
answers are correct but they do not truly reflect the origin of man.
The puzzle which requires an answer is "has man always been in existence? "Has mankind been around forever?"
Is man eternal, or was there a time when man was not here? Specifically, there was a time when there was no man
on earth and a time when there was no earth. But today, there are billions of men, women, and children on the
planet earth. The question is how do these people get there? Where do they originate from? The origin of man can
be explained from two perspectives, view point or theories; namely Creation and evolution
Creation Perspective
The origin of man from the creation point of view was that Man and all living organisms were created by one
supernatural being, “God”. According to this perspective Man did not evolve from any living organism or even
share ancestor with them. This explanation was supported by many verses from the holy Qur‟an. For example,
chapter 38, verse 71 which clearly indicated that man was created from clay.
Evolutionary theories
The evolutionary point of view tries to provide explanations on the origin of man without making reference to
creation or God. In an attempt to do so, several theories were postulated including:
1. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) a French biologist was one of the first biologists to put forward a
theory of evolution in 1801. Lamarck‟s theory states that “modifications which the organism acquires in
adaptation to the environments which it meets during its lifetime are automatically handed down to its descendants
and so become part of heredity”
2. Natural Selection theory: this theory was credited to Charles Darwin 1809-1824. According to him, in
order for an organism to exist in a community with diverse organisms, both food and a favourable environment
are essential. As such only living organisms with those characteristics that enable them to feed on available food
and to survive the effects of the environment can continue its line of development or evolution to a higher form.
Meaning that, it is only the organisms that are best adapted to that environment survive, while the least adapted to
that environment soon becomes extinct.
CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT
The term environment is one of the most commonly and widely used by almost everybody in many areas and
disciplines. Hence, it has a broad range of definitions, meanings and interpretations. The term environment has
been derived from a French word “Environia” meaning to surround. Literally, environment simply means
“surroundings”; hence the environment of an individual or object includes all of the other entities which surround
it. The word environment therefore means surroundings, in which organisms live. Other definitions of the
environment are:
⮚ It is the sum total of conditions in which an organism has to survive or maintain its life process.
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⮚ Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and exerting a direct influence on it
⮚ Environment includes the surroundings, conditions or influences that affect an organism (Davis, 1989)
⮚ Environment may be regarded as a 'space' or a 'field' in which networks of relationships, interconnections
and interactions between entities occur
⮚ Environment can also be referred to as the sum total of conditions, which surround living things (Singh,
2006; McDougal, 2008).
MAN AND HIS COSMIC ENVIRONMENT

● The term “cosmic” comes from the word “cosmos” meaning universe. The cosmic environment on the
other hand refers to the parts of the universe that are connected to human life, survival and interest. The study of
the structure, origin and parts of the universe is called Cosmology
● The universe is considered to be a system whose parts are connected orderly. It consists of the earth and
other planets, the sun, planetary satellites and galaxies (group of stars).
● The earth is the only part of the universe where human habitations are commonly found, thus, there is no
evidence of human habitation in other planets.
● Astronomical evidence revealed that the earth is one of the nine planets that form our solar system with
the sun. It has the ability to rotate and revolve around the sun.
● It takes the earth 24 hours to make complete rotation (a 360o turn on its axis). This resulted in day and
night. When one part of the earth faces the sun, it results in day time for the inhabitant of that part, when it moves
away from the sun, it results in night time in that part.
● A complete movement of the earth around the sun is called revolution, it occurs in 365 days or one year.
● The distance between the earth and the sun is approximately 149,668,992km (93 million miles). The earth
is also found to be spherical in shape with many spheres or layers like Biosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and
Atmosphere.

● Biosphere: This contains the entire community of living organisms that can be found in the Lithosphere,
Hydrosphere and Atmosphere
● Hydrosphere: this comprises the water component of the environment including the oceans, lakes, rivers,
and icecaps.
● Lithosphere: The rocky part of the environment which forms the solid surface of the land
● Atmosphere: The gaseous or airy part that surround the environment above the lithosphere and
hydrosphere,

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The relationship between the environment and human beings cannot be separated from one another. The
environment has considerably affected human beings right from his evolution. The environment impacted
significantly on man. Man's development takes place in the environment. Like all other organisms, Man depends
on his cosmic environment (earth) for air, food, shelter, energy, water and other resources necessary for his
survival. However, the ability of humans to understand, manipulate, and control his environment lead to possible
damage of the natural ecosystems, resulting in many environmental issues and challenges like; Climate change,
Global warming, Loss of biodiversity, Pollution and Conservation of natural resources etc., hence the need for
environmental science and environmentally literate society.

Environmental Science:
Environmental science is the field of science which deals with the way the natural environment functions
(Postlethwait & Hopson, 2006). It is concerned with changes produced by human activities, and their immediate
and long-term implications for the welfare of living organisms, including humans (Allaby, 200). It is therefore the
study of the interaction between humans and their own environment. A person who studies and works in the field
of environmental sciences. Environmental Scientist (Singh, 2006).
Environmental Literacy
Environmental Literacy is a field of education concerned with promoting the awareness and understanding of the
environment, its relationship with man and his activities. It is also aimed at developing responsible actions
necessary for Protection, preservation, conservation and improvement of the environment and its components.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Climate Change
Climate can be described as the mean and variability of temperature, rainfall and wind over a period of time,
ranging from months to millions of years. climate change is a term used to describe trends in the earth‟s climate. It
means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of
the global atmosphere (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1992). Scientific
discoveries revealed that climate change occurs as a result of human activities like burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil,
and natural gas) for daily cooking, vehicles, making electricity, bush clearing etc. which resulted in the release of
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides into the atmosphere. When these gases
accumulate in the atmosphere, they absorb and hold heat radiating back from the earth, and causes earth‟s
temperature to rise, this phenomenon is termed greenhouse effect. When greenhouse effect increases over time, it
resulted to global warming

Global Warming

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Global warming refers to the general increase in the earth‟s average temperature, which causes changes in climate
patterns across the globe. Global warming is a consequence of climate change which can trigger other changes in
the climate like, rainfall pattern and frequency, distributions of weather events like drought, floods, storms and
heat waves
Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats resulting in loss of
biodiversity. Eco systems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger when any species population is
decimating. Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the ecosystem and human
activity threatens the same. Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms, this includes diversity within
species, between species and of an ecosystem. Biodiversity provides valuable bioresources that support the
existence of man on earth (Aguilera 2019). It also provides uncountable services to humans. These services
include nutrient and water cycling, soil formation and retention, resistance against invasive species, pollination of
plants, and regulation of climates as well as pest and pollution control by ecosystems. Nigeria for instance is rich
in Biodiversity, it is endowed with a variety of flora and fauna species. There are about 7, 895 plant species
identified in 338 families and 2, 215 genera. There are 22, 000 vertebrates and invertebrates species. These species
include about 20, 000 insects, about 1, 000 birds, about 1, 000 fishes, 247 mammals and 123 reptiles. Of these
animals about 0.14% is threatened while 0.22% is endangered. About 1, 489 species of microorganisms have also
been identified. All of these animal and plant species occur in different numbers within the country‟s vegetation
that range from the mangrove along the coast in the south to the Sahel in the north.
Biodiversity Nigeria is seriously under the threat of extinction from climate change, economic development, land
use changes from agriculture, invasive species and pollution crude oil exploration and exploitation, canalization
that has threatened mainly the mangroves, deforestation, desert encroachment, over hunting, land use, road and
residential buildings construction etc.
Deforestation: Forests are natural absorbers of carbon dioxide which is used by plants to produce food and fresh
oxygen as well as helps in regulating temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of the land but every
year tree cover is lost due to growing population demand for more food, shelter and cloth. Deforestation simply
means clearing of green cover and making that land available for residential, industrial or commercial purposes.

ENVIRONMENTAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste refers to a substance that is discarded after its primary use and not used afterward. We generate a large
amount of waste every day. For instance, the wrappers of the food that we eat and throw away contribute to the
generation of waste. The problem of waste has troubled us since the time of the Industrial Revolution. Technology
has created automated machines, which in turn have had a major impact on our environment. Waste accumulation

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affects the planet adversely from non-biodegradable plastics to CFCs that destroy the ozone layer. By recognizing
the type of waste, you can identify the sources of various wastes and therefore take steps to manage it further.
Types of Environmental Waste
Solid Waste: Solid Waste refers to the unwanted substances that are thrown away by human society. These
include industrial, biomedical, radioactive, municipal, and agricultural waste.
Liquid Waste: Liquid Waste refers to the waste generated by industrial cleaning, discharge, or manufacturing
processes.
Gaseous Waste: Gaseous Waste is the one that is released in the form of gas from the combustion of fossil fuels
such as factories, automobiles, or petroleum. They mix with other gases in the atmosphere and can lead to smog
and acid rain.

SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL WASTE

Waste generation is an essential element of everyday human life. A variety of sources can produce waste. Daily
necessities such as food waste, used plastic bags, soda cans, water bottles, broken furniture, broken utensils, and
clothes make up for waste from various sources. The various kinds of sources of wastes are listed below.

Construction or Demolition waste: Concrete debris, wood, large packaging cabinets, and plastic building
materials are made up of construction waste that results from the construction of roads and buildings. Demolition
of old buildings and structures also produces waste, which is called demolition waste.

Commercial Waste: Commercial waste refers to waste from commerce or commercial enterprises. With the
advancement of modern cities, industries, and automobiles, commercial enterprises routinely generate large
amounts of waste. This includes food, disposable medical products, textiles, and more. Garbage and waste from
restaurants, hotels, markets, or offices are all commercial waste. Industrial waste and household waste are not
included in this category. Paper, food, plastic, glass, tissue, and even toxins are examples of commercial waste.

Household Waste: Household Waste is garbage that is taken out of the home. Household waste can be organic or
inorganic. Food, plastic, cardboard, rubber, metal, paper, wood, materials, chemicals, and more are regarded as
this type of waste. Most food waste generated at home is organic. Batteries, electronics, and metals are inorganic
wastes. Disposable mattresses and furniture are important elements of household waste. In the absence of proper
recycling, a mattress might clog badly in the landfill. Chemicals in household cleaners contribute to the pollution
of water resources.

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Medical or Clinical Waste: Waste generated in medical facilities such as hospitals, clinics, operating rooms,
veterinary hospitals, and laboratories is called clinical/medical waste. These include surgical supplies, medicines,
blood, body parts, wound dressings, needles, and syringes.

Agricultural Waste: Agricultural waste refers to waste generated by agricultural activities. Waste generated
includes empty pesticide containers, old silage packages, obsolete medicines, used tires, extra milk, cocoa pods,
and wheat husks. Chemicals from fertilizer plants, crop waste from agricultural activities, and fertilizer spills from
fields are different types of agricultural waste. It also contains waste from slaughterhouses, poultry farms, feedlots,
vineyards, dairy farms, and agricultural farms. Fertilizer spills are an important source of waste that significantly
pollutes local water sources, soil, and the sea (via other bodies of water). Pesticides and chemicals can also cause
agricultural waste.

Industrial Waste: The waste from manufacturing and processing industries such as chemical plants, cement
factories, power plants, textile industries, food processing industries, and petroleum industries is known as
Industrial Waste. They can take the form of solids, liquids, or gases. Sources of industrial waste are power plants,
metal processing industries, cement factories, steel manufacturing industries, leather product units, food
packaging, chemicals, transportation equipment, resins, plastics, and paper. Even water treatment plants produce
industrial waste. It also includes metals, chemicals, plastics, demolition materials, medical waste, ash, packaging
and other hazardous materials. Industrial sludge contains toxins that are harmful to the environment.

Electronic Waste: DVDs, music players, TVs, phones, computers, vacuum cleaners, and all other household
appliances that are no longer useful are electronic waste. It is also known as e-waste and some e-waste (such as
televisions) contains lead, mercury, and cadmium, which are harmful to humans and the environment.

Chemical Waste: The chemical waste contains all of the waste consisting of a chemical substance. Sources
include industry, farms, commercial enterprises, and even housing. Cleaners and coolants are examples of
household chemical waste. If the waste is not recycled properly, both industrial and household batteries can be
harmful. TV tubes, computers, and electrical appliance components contain chemicals that can cause chemical
contamination. Lead and mercury from electronic components can seep into the soil and increase its toxicity in the
soil and water.
Mining Waste: Mining activities might alter the physical and chemical properties of the land and the atmosphere.
Waste includes overloaded material, mine debris (waste left over after ore is extracted from rock), and harmful
gases released by blasting.

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Radioactive Waste: Sources of radioactive waste include nuclear reactors, extraction of radioactive materials, and
atomic explosions.
Waste Management
Waste management is done in order to ensure that all types of waste and garbage are collected, transported, and
disposed properly. At times, it may include recycling waste so that it can be used again.
Methods of Waste Disposal
● Incineration: Combusting waste in a controlled manner to minimize incombustible matter like waste gas and ash.
● Waste Compaction: Waste materials are compacted in blocks and are further sent away for the purpose of
recycling.
● Landfill: Waste that can‟t be recycled or reused can be thinly spread out in the low-lying areas of the city.
● Composting: Decay of organic material over time by microorganisms.
● Biogas Generation: With the help of fungi, bacteria, and microbes, biodegradable waste is converted to biogas in
bio-degradation plants.
● Vermicomposting: Transforming the organic waste into nutrient-rich manure by degradation through worms.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants (substance that does the contamination) into an environment that
causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem. Pollution can take the form of chemical
substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Environmental Pollution in broad terms may be defined as an
undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water and land that may harmfully
affect human lives, or deteriorate Natural resources. Pollutants are substances, chemicals or factors which cause
adverse effects on the natural quality of any constituent of the environment. Pollutants are generally by- products
or waste - products. There are six basic types of environmental pollution, and each one has detrimental effects on
wildlife, human habitation and the quality of life in the affected area.
1. Air Pollution: Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural
composition and chemistry of the air. This can be in the form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases
like carbon dioxide or other vapours that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon
cycle or the nitrogen cycle. Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive
sources include vehicle or manufacturing exhaust, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, other natural
sources and building construction or demolition, among others. Depending on the concentration of air pollutants,
several effects can be noticed. Smog increases; higher rain acidity, crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, higher
rates of asthma, and global warming are all related to increased air pollution.
2. Water Pollution: Water pollution involves contamination of water, whether from chemical, particulate,
or bacteria that degrades the quality and purity of water. Water pollution can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and
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underground reservoirs, and as different water sources flow together the pollution can spread. Causes of water
pollution include increased sediment from soil erosion, improper waste disposal and littering, leaching of soil
pollution into water supplies and organic material decay in water supplies. The effects of water pollution include
decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available, lowering water supplies for crop irrigation and impacting fish
and wildlife populations that require water of certain purity for survival.
3. Soil Pollution: Soil, or land pollution, is contamination of the soil that prevents natural growth and
balance in the land whether it is used for cultivation, habitation, or a wildlife reserve. Soil pollution sources
include Hazardous waste and sewage spills, non-sustainable farming practices, such as heavy use of inorganic
pesticides, strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices, household dumping and littering. Soil
contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced crop yields, loss of wildlife habitat, water and visual pollution,
soil erosion and desertification.
4. Noise Pollution: Noise pollution refers to undesirable levels of noises caused by human activity that
disrupt the standard of living in the affected area. Noise pollution can come from traffic, airports, railroads,
manufacturing plants, construction, demolition or concerts. Some noise pollution may be temporary, while other
sources are more permanent. Effects may include hearing loss, wildlife disturbances and a general degradation of
lifestyle.
5. Radioactive Pollution: Radioactive pollution is a type of pollution that is rare but extremely detrimental,
even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the difficulty of reversing damage, there are strict
government regulations to control radioactive pollution. Sources of radioactive contamination include nuclear
power plant accidents or leakage, improper nuclear waste disposal and uranium mining operations. Radiation
pollution can cause birth defects, cancer, sterilization, and other health problems for human and wildlife
populations. It can also sterilize the soil and contribute to water and air pollution.
6. Light Pollution: Cities cause light pollution. Light pollution is the over-illumination of an area that is
considered obtrusive. Sources include large cities, billboards, night-time sporting events and other night-time
entertainment. Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical observation
and personal enjoyment. If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also degrade the quality of life for
residents.

NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural Resources, in general sense, refer to all living and nonliving endowments of the earth, including human
beings and others like energy, gold, plants, etc. It was also defined as anything mental or material single or
compound, living or dead, extractable or non-extractable, on the surface or in the atmosphere, on the earth or other
planet which can directly or indirectly become useful to man within the level of his technology or skills. A

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different definition of natural resources is anything with potential use in creating wealth or giving satisfaction.
These definitions of resources have a lot in common; generally, all definitions of resources are human-centered
since it is human value system and technological know-how that give roles and socio-economic values to the
materials defined as resources. Natural resource depletion is another crucial environmental problem. For instance,
fossil fuel consumption results in emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global warming and
climate change. Globally, people are making efforts to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas
and geothermal energy. Hence, the need to classify natural resources.
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

There are numerous ways of classifying or categorizing natural resources. Each classification emphasizes some
aspects different from another classification. Thus, natural resources are classified based on their Renewability.
Renewable resources, as the name implies, means resources that can be replaced even after they have been used.
On the basis of renewability, resources can be categorized into:
1. Renewable resources or Flow resources: These are resources that can be replaced, replenished or
recovered after its usage; for example, forest or vegetal resources, fishery, wind, rain, soil, animals etc. These
types of resources, after their depletion, can be replaced within a human time frame. Renewable resources are the
type of resources that are less or not affected by how much quantity of it is being consumed because they are
quickly replenished; for instance, solar, wind, geothermal and hydroelectric energy.
2. Non-renewable resources or Stock resources: These are resources that cannot be replenished or
recovered once depleted or exhausted. Their cycle of regeneration takes a very long time that exceeds the human
time frame (million(s) or billion(s) of years). Non-renewable are finite and can eventually be exhausted due to the
fact that their formation rates are incalculable (they can take millions of years to form), and, unfortunately, the rate
at which it is consumed is greater than the rate at which it is replaced,; for example, fossil fuel, nuclear. Resources
in this category include mainly mineral resources and fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum, gold copper etc.
3. Perpetual resources: These are resources that are of continued supply in the environment; their quantity
is not affected by human consumption; examples of resources in this category include sunlight, air, etc.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE AVAILABILITY AND SCARCITY OF NATURAL RESOURCES
One important attribute of natural resource is its availability/scarcity, which is as result of wide range of factors
which include the following:
i. Physical factor: This relates to occurrence and abundance of some mineral resources.
ii. Cultural factor: This may include the tastes and values of a community as they change over space and
time.

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iii. Social change: These are Changes in the roles and functions within society; for instance, the changing
role of women.
iv. Technology: The ability to make use of certain environmental elements may vary with technology; for
instance, the meaning and usage of certain minerals.
v. Economic factors: Price and market demand and supply.

The availability and scarcity of resources makes the sustainable management and conservation of resources
essential. Thus, the major goal of sustainable management and resources conservation is to ensure a sustained
production of resources and the preservation of stock resources.
CONCEPT OF ENERGY

Energy does things for us. It moves cars along the road and boats on the water. It bakes a cake in the oven and
keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favourite songs and lights our homes at night so that we can read good
books. Energy helps our bodies grow and our minds think. Energy is a changing, doing, moving, working thing.

Energy is defined as the ability to produce change or do work, and that work can be divided into several main tasks
we easily recognize:

⮚ Energy produces light, heat, motion, sound, growth and technology

SOURCES OF ENERGY

People have always used energy to do work for them. Thousands of years ago, early humans burned wood to
provide light, heat their living spaces, and cook their food. Later, people used the wind to move their boats from
place to place. A hundred years ago, people began using falling water to make electricity.
Today, people use more energy than ever from a variety of sources for a multitude of tasks and our lives are
undoubtedly better for it. Our homes are comfortable and full of useful and entertaining electrical devices. We
communicate instantaneously in many ways. We live longer, healthier lives. We travel the world, or at least see it
on television and the internet.

The major energy sources we use today are classified into two broad groups; non-renewable and renewable.

1. Nonrenewable energy sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas, and uranium. They are used to
generate electricity, to heat our homes, to move our cars, and to manufacture products from food to clothes. These
energy sources are called non-renewable because they cannot be replenished in a short period of time. Petroleum,
for example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea organisms. We could run out of
economically recoverable non-renewable resources some day.

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2. Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind. They are called
renewable energy sources because their supplies are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the
wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity.

FORMS OF ENERGY
There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories– potential or kinetic.
1. Potential Energy
Potential Energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational energy. There are several forms of
potential energy, including:

i. Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that holds these particles
together. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical energy.

During photosynthesis, sunlight gives plants the energy they need to build complex chemical compounds. When
these compounds are later broken down, the stored chemical energy is released as heat, light, motion, and sound.

ii. Stored Mechanical Energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs
and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.
iii. Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom; it is also the energy that holds the nucleus
together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the
nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium
atoms in a process called fusion. In both fission and fusion, mass is converted into energy, according to Einstein‟s
Theory, E = mc2.
iv. Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains
gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam.

2. Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy is motion; the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects. Different
forms of kinetic energy include:

i. Electrical Energy is due to the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms
are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the
electrons move. Electrons moving through a wire are called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical
energy.
ii. Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes
visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy. Solar energy is an example
of radiant energy.

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iii. Thermal Energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances; the vibration and movement of atoms and
molecules within substances. The faster molecules and atoms vibrate and move within substances, the more energy
they possess and the hotter they become. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
iv. Motion Energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another. According to
Newton’s Laws of Motion, objects and substances move when force is applied. Wind is an example
v. Sound Energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal waves. Sound is produced
when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate. The energy is transferred through the substance in a wave

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