HCES - Module 2 Exercise Physiology

HFPA
FITNESS ACADEMY
HEALTH & FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ASSOCIATION ®
MODULE 2
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE

MODULE 2
Exercise Physiology
CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION 1
STANDARD STARTING POSITIONS 1
PLANES AND AXES OF MOTION 2
AXES OF MOTION OF THE BODY 4
HOW DOES MOVEMENT TAKE PLACE? 6
CONCLUSION 7
CHAPTER 2: THE ROLE OF THE NEURAL SYSTEM IN MOVEMENT

INTRODUCTION 1
COMPONENTS OF THE NEURAL SYSTEM 2
SENSORY AND MOTOR DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 2
THE BASIC CELL 4
THE NEURON 6
THE MOTOR UNIT 10
CONCLUSION 10
CHAPTER 3: THE ROLE OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN MOVEMENT

INTRODUCTION 1
SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE 3
SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION IN RESPONSE TO NEURAL STIMULUS 6
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION 7
VELOCITY AND LOAD 8
PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUE 12
CONCLUSION 14
CHAPTER 4: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION 1
BASIC MUSCLE TYPES 1
SKELETAL MUSCLE AND MOVEMENT 5
CATEGORIES OF MUSCLES 5
MUSCLE SHAPE AND FUNCTION 7
MAJOR SKELETAL MUSCLES 8
CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION 1
KNOWLEDGE OF THE SHAPE AND POSITION OF THE SKELETAL BONES 1
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 4
SKELETAL REFERENCE TERMS 4
STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL BONE 5
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES 6
BONE GROWTH 9
THE MECHANICAL AXIS OF A BONE 9
THE MAJOR BONES OF THE BODY 10
Spinal Column 10
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle 18
Bones of the Lower Limb 20
Bones of the Thorax 23
Upper Limb 26
CONCLUSION 29
CHAPTER 6: ARTICULATIONS
JOINTS 1
FUNCTION AND TYPES OF JOINTS 1
FACTORS AFFECTING JOINT RANGE OF MOTION 6
JOINT STABILITY 6
STRUCTURE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE 6
RANGE OF MOVEMENTS OF THE MAJOR SYNOVIAL JOINTS 9
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BONE AND SYNOVIAL JOINTS 17
CONCLUSION 18
CHAPTER 7: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: SPINE, SHOULDER AND SHOULDER

GIRDLE
CERVICAL SPINE 1
THORACIC AND LUMBAR SPINE 7
MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE SHOULDER JOINT
(GLENOHUMERAL JOINT) 13
CHAPTER 8: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION 1
THE LUNGS 2
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 5
CONCLUSION 6
CHAPTER 9: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION 1
THE HEART 1
PATHWAY OF BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART 2
NOURISHMENT REQUIRED BY THE HEART 2
AEROBIC EXERCISE 3
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO AEROBIC EXERCISE 3
HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE 7
INTERESTING ASPECTS OF THE HEART 8
CONCLUSION 9
CHAPTER 10: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: ARMS, LEGS

MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE ELBOW 1
MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE HIP AND PELVIC GIRDLE 4
MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE KNEE 11
MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE ANKLE 15
CHAPTER 11: ENERGY SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION 1
METABOLISM 1
PHOTOSYNTHESIS VS RESPIRATION 1
ENERGY FROM DIGESTION 2
ENZYMES 3
ENERGY MOLECULES 5
ENERGY SYSTEMS 8
METABOLISM IN SKELETAL MUSCLE 14
INTERACTION OF THE ENERGY SYSTEMS 15
CONCLUSION 16
CHAPTER 12: BIOMECHANICAL FACTORS IN HUMAN MOVEMENT

INTRODUCTION 1
ORIENTATION CONCEPTS 1
HOW MOVEMENT OCCURS 4
THE PRINCIPLE OF LEVERS 5
FORCE AND SPEED 5
RELATION OF SPEED TO RANGE OF MOVEMENT 6
CONCLUSION 7
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 1:
ORIENTATION
CONCEPTS
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the standard starting positions of
the body and the planes in which movement takes place. This chapter
serves to introduce concepts of movement that will be discussed in
detail in the chapters to follow.
OBJECTIVES:
The learner will be able to:
Define standard starting positions (anatomical and

fundamental standing positions).
Describe movements in terms of the orientation planes and
axes of motion.
Explain how movement takes place.
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 1
INTRODUCTION
This module is designed to provide you with a sound knowledge of the anatomical and physiological principles
required in the study of kinesiology.
ANATOMY: The study of the structures that make up the human body.
PHYSIOLOGY: The study of the way in which a living organism functions.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY: the study of the way in which the body’s structure and
functions respond and adapt to exercise (Wilmore and Costill, 2004).
KINESIOLOGY: The analysis and investigation of movement.

STUCTURAL KINESIOLOGY: the analysis and investigation of bones, joints and
muscles when the body is in motion (Floyd, 2007).
A knowledge of these concepts and a thorough understanding of the structure and function of the human body are
vital in enabling the fitness professional to assess clients accurately and design effective, individualized exercise
programmes.
The initial focus of this module is the terminology used in the field of exercise science. These anatomical terms and
definitions are used universally (all over the world) to describe the position of the structures of the human body
and/or its movements. The standard starting positions below are used as reference positions to describe joint
movements (Floyd, 2007).
1.1 STANDARD STARTING POSITIONS
The two standard starting positions are the anatomical position and the fundamental position.
These positions are used as the starting points of reference in all movements. Thus, when analyzing a body in
motion, always refer to these positions as the point from which the body started its motion.
(Refer to Figure 1.1 and 1.2 below to see the difference between these two positions)
Figure 1.1 Fundamental Figure 1.2 Anatomical standing position
HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE

1.2 PLANES AND AXES OF MOTION
1.2.1 Planes of Motion
An imaginary two-dimensional surface through which the body or body segment(s) move (Floyd, 2007).
The body is divided into imaginary sections in which movement takes place. These sections are called planes of
motion and are used to describe the direction in which the body or parts of the body move from the standard
starting positions.
There are three specific planes of motion in which movement can be classified: the sagittal plane, frontal plane and
transverse plane. The oblique plane is the plane that describes movement that does not take place in only one of the
previous mentioned planes, but through a combination of these planes (Floyd, 2007). (Refer to Figure 1.3)
When movement is described as taking place in one of these planes, it means that the movement occurs parallel to
that plane, e.g. a forearm movement in the sagittal plane means that the arm is moving parallel to the sagittal plane.
The sagittal, frontal and transverse planes lie perpendicular to each other and are referred to as cardinal planes as
each one divides the body exactly in half. Any movement that takes place in a cardinal plane passes through the
center of gravity.
When a movement does not pass through the center of gravity but is still parallel to one of the cardinal planes, it is
said to take place in a “sub” plane where the name of the cardinal plane is preceded by the prefix “para”, e.g.
parasagittal plane.
An example of movement in the sagittal plane is flexion of the spine or nodding of the head as this movement occurs
parallel to the sagittal plane and passes through the center of gravity. If the shoulder or hip is flexed during this
same movement, it would be said to occur in the parasagittal plane as it no longer passes through the center of
gravity (Floyd, 2007).

Figure 1.3 Illustration of the three cardinal planes of motion and the oblique/diagonal plane

1.3 AXES OF MOTION OF THE BODY
1.3.1 Axes of Motion
When movement takes place in a particular plane, the joint where the movement takes place turns at a ninety
degree relationship to that plane (Floyd, 2007). Just as there are three orientation planes, so there are three axes of
motion, each perpendicular to the plane in which the motion occurs.
The axis around which movement takes place is therefore always at right angles to the plane in which it occurs.
The axes are named in relation to their orientation which is explained in more detail below (Floyd, 2007):
Frontal-Horizontal Axis (lateral, coronal axis) - passes horizontally from side to side.
The frontal-horizontal axis is the axis for the sagittal plane. The sagittal plane runs from front
to back (anterior to posterior) and the frontal-horizontal axis runs from side to side at ninety
degrees to the plane. The axis runs in the same direction as the frontal plane and therefore is
referred to as the frontal axis.
Sagittal-Horizontal Axis (anteroposterior axis) - passes horizontally from front to back.

The sagittal-horizontal axis is the axis for the frontal plane. The frontal plane runs from side to
side and the sagittal-horizontal axis runs from front to back, perpendicular to the plane.
Because the axis runs in the same direction as the sagittal plane it is referred to as the sagittal
axis.
Vertical Axis (longitudinal axis) - perpendicular to the ground.

The vertical axis is the axis for the transverse plane. The transverse plane runs horizontally
through the center of the body from side to side. The vertical axis runs from the top of the
body downward, perpendicular to the plane.
Diagonal (oblique axis) - passes diagonally through the body.

The diagonal axis is the axis for the oblique plane. The oblique plane runs diagonally through
the center of gravity of the body and the diagonal axis runs at a right angle to the oblique
plane. Because the axis runs diagonally (oblique), the axis is named the same.
1.3.2 Combining Planes and Axes of Motion
Movements in the sagittal plane, about a frontal-horizontal axis
Flexion: the angle at the joint diminishes or becomes smaller, e.g. the bending of the body at
the hips; bending the arm at the elbow (flexion of the elbow – see Figure 1.4) and raising the
forearm straight forward (flexion of the shoulder).
Extension: the return movement from flexion, e.g. straightening an arm bent at the elbow
Hyperflexion: refers only to movement of the upper arm. The arm is hyperflexed when it is
flexed beyond the vertical. In other joints flexion is terminated when the moving segment
makes contact with another part of the body (e.g. the lower leg against the thigh) or by
structural limitations of the joints themselves (e.g. flexion of the spine).
Hyperextension: the continuation of extension beyond the straight line or the starting
position
Reduction of Hyperextension: return movement from hyperextension (may also be called

flexion to the starting position)

Figure 1.4 Movement in sagittal plane
Movements in the frontal plane about a sagittal-horizontal axis
Abduction: sideways movement away from the midline of the body or, in the case of the
fingers, away from the midline of the hand. This term is most commonly used for sideways
elevation of the arm or the leg away from the body. A good example of this movement is side
leg raising.
Adduction: the return from (opposite of) abduction, i.e. return movement towards the body
Lateral Flexion: refers to the lateral bending of the head or trunk
Reduction of lateral flexion: return movement from lateral flexion
Hyperabduction: refers to the abduction of the upper arm beyond the vertical (as seen from
the front or back)
Hyperadduction: usually the trunk blocks hyperadduction in the upper and lower
extremities, however, by combining slight flexion and hyperadduction the extremities can be
moved across in front of the body
Reduction of Hyperadduction/Hyperabduction: the return movement of

hyperadduction/hyperabduction)
Figure 1.5 Movement in the frontal plane

Movements in the horizontal plane about a vertical axis
Left and right rotation of the head or neck
Outward (lateral) or inward (medial) rotation applies to rotation of the forearm,

rotation of the hip, etc.
Reduction of outward rotation; inward rotation; supination (palms facing up) and
pronation (palms facing down): e.g. Rotation of the forearm back to the mid-position. By
combining flexion and abduction the extremities can be moved in the horizontal plane. In all
cases the axis remains perpendicular to the plane of movement.
Movements in an oblique plane about an oblique axis:
Many movements take place in planes that cannot be specifically defined, e.g. in a golf swing or tennis serve the arm
moves in the oblique plane. The breaststroke kick is also a movement in the oblique plane. It should be remembered
that however oblique the plane is, the axis remains perpendicular to it.
An example of obliquity is circumduction; where the segment performs a cone-shaped movement, moving
sequentially through the sagittal, frontal and intermediate oblique planes, (as in free style swimming).
1.4 HOW DOES MOVEMENT TAKE PLACE?
When movement takes place in any of the above mentioned planes, various structures and systems are involved in
facilitating motion. These systems include the neural, energy (bioenergetics), skeletal and muscular systems. The
interaction of these systems during motion is described below:
Stimulus
The nervous system co-ordinates all movements and functions of the body. The brain is the controlling unit, and the
spinal cord is the cable that connects the brain to the various parts of the body. SENSORY nerves send information to
the spinal cord and brain and MOTOR nerves carry instructions from the brain to the muscles to make them contract.
Energy
Nothing can take place without energy; there are two ways in which the body produces energy – aerobically and
anaerobically. Energy molecules are broken down to produce energy and oxygen is necessary to reform these energy
molecules to produce more energy. When we exercise at a low intensity, we can breathe in enough oxygen so that
energy is readily available – this is AEROBIC EXERCISE (Walking, jogging, etc.) When we exercise at a high intensity,
we cannot breathe in enough oxygen to reform the energy molecules as fast as the energy is required, glycogen
(stored carbohydrate) is therefore broken down to produce energy – this is ANAEROBIC EXERCISE (100 meter sprint,
etc.)
A Lever and a Joint

* A LEVER – long bone * A JOINT – where the movement takes place * A FORCE – created by muscular action. In
order to create movement at a JOINT, the MUSCLE must span the JOINT and attach onto a LEVER.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLGY 7
Contraction
The brain sends a message via the motor nerves to the muscle “CONTRACT”; the energy molecule releases the
ENERGY for this to happen. As the muscle contracts (shortens) its end (insertion) pulls on the long bone (the
lever)and lifts it. The bone itself cannot bend – therefore the movement takes place at the joint. It is important to
note that a muscle can only PULL it cannot push.
In considering these various means, one notes that there is an interaction between the structure that makes up the
body and the way in which that structure functions. The musculoskeletal framework consists of muscles (muscular)
and bones (skeletal). Bones are joined to one another by joints (articulations) which provide for the movement of
articulating bones and muscles that span the joints provide the force for moving the bones to which they are attached.
The whole musculoskeletal system is the mechanism (machine) for motion (movement).
All the above systems are described in greater detail in the following chapters.
1.5 CONCLUSION
The body as a whole, or segments of it, can move through a number of different directions. These directional
movements take place in planes of motion. The axis of motion always lies perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Because the three planes lie perpendicular to one another, the direction of the forces exerted upon the joint (axis)
will always be from the direction of the other two planes of motion. When movement takes place in any one of the
planes various structures and systems are involved in facilitating motion. These are explained in more detail in the
following chapters.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 2:
THE ROLE OF THE
NEURAL SYSTEM
IN MOVEMENT
This chapter provides an overview of the structure and function of the
neural system and its role in controlling human movement.
OBJECTIVES:
Describe the components of the neural system.

Distinguish between the function of muscle spindles and Golgi
tendon organs.
Describe the structure and characteristics of the basic animal
cell.
Understand the way in which different structures enable the
body to perform various functions.
Explain the structure and function of the sensory and motor
neurons
Explain the term: motor unit.
INTRODUCTION
The neural system plays a central role in controlling movement. This chapter provides a broad description of the
components of the nervous system and explains how messages are conducted in the form of nerve impulses from one
part of the body to another, i.e. impulses received from the body create a response sending impulses (instructions) to
effector organs to facilitate muscle contraction and secretion of glands.
2.1 COMPONENTS OF THE NEURAL SYSTEM
The neural system can be divided into two principal parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous
system consists of the nerves (neurons) that link the CNS to all parts of the body (see Figure 2.1 and 2.2).
These neurons either send information from the body to the CNS or send information from the CNS to the different
parts of the body. Neurons that send information from the body to the CNS are called afferent neurons, while neurons
that send information from the CNS to the rest of the body are called efferent neurons. Afferent neurons form part of
the sensory system of the peripheral nervous system conveying impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors located
throughout the body, while efferent neurons form part of the motor division of the peripheral nervous system
transmitting impulses from the CNS to effector organs, muscles and glands.
The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The spinal nerves are divided into sections
corresponding to the sections of the vertebral column, namely:
8 pairs of cervical nerves

12 pairs of thoracic nerves
5 pairs of lumbar nerves
5 pairs of sacral nerves
1 pair of coccygeal nerves
These pairs of nerves continually divide and radiate out into all areas of the body, transmitting impulses to and from
the central nervous system [(Wilmore and Costill, 2004); (Vander et al., 1998)].
Figure 2.1 Central nervous system Figure 2.2 Peripheral nervous system
Derived from: https://cnx.org/contents/-xs7Ve8V@6/Parts-of-the-Nervous-System

2.2 SENSORY AND MOTOR DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The sensory division informs the CNS of what is going on in and around the body by transmitting impulses from
various sensory receptors located throughout the body. Examples of sensory receptors include muscle spindles and
Golgi tendon organs. The CNS processes this input received from the sensory division and then sends impulses
(instructions) to effector organs, muscles and glands through the motor division. These instructions sent from the
CNS through the motor division cause muscles to contract and move and glands to secrete hormones. This is a physical
response to the sensory input. The motor division is divided into two parts – the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system (voluntary nervous system) consists of somatic axons that send impulses from
the CNS to the skeletal muscles, allowing conscious control of skeletal muscles.
The autonomic nervous system (involuntary nervous system) consists of visceral motor nerves that regulate
the contraction of smooth muscles, glands and cardiac muscles. There are two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous
system: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated under
threatening situations; in contrast the parasympathetic nervous system is activated under calm and relaxed conditions.
The function of the sympathetic nervous system is to control the fight-or-flight response of the body. Wilmore and
Costill (2004) refer to the action of the sympathetic nervous system as a ‘massive discharge’ that is generated through
the body to prepare it for action in response to threatening conditions. The parasympathetic nervous system is
responsible for urination, digestion, energy conservation, etc. See table 2.1 for summary of the functions of these two
systems.
Table 2.1 Summary of the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems; page 73 of Wilmore
and Costill (2004).
Sympathetic nervous system System/organ Parasympathetic nervous system
Catabolism of triglycerides for ADIPOSE TISSUE None

fuel
Secretion of adrenaline and ADRENAL GLANDS None

norepinephrine
Blood vessels to constrict BLOOD VESSELS Some effect or none

found in skeletal
and cardiac muscle
CARIAC OUTPUT: CARDIAC SYSTEM CARIAC OUTPUT:
Force of ventricular Reduced heart rate
contraction and heart rate
Sweating SWEAT GLANDS None
This pathway of communication between the CNS and peripheral nervous system is illustrated in Figure 2.3 below.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Motor Division Sensory Division
Autonomic Somatic
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Figure 2.3 Pathway of communication between CNS and peripheral nervous system
(Derived from: Wilmore and Costil, 2004).
Example of interaction between sensory and motor divisions:

If muscles are to perform effectively it is important that the CNS be informed at all times as to the degree of contraction
or tension within the specific muscle. This information facilitates the central coordination necessary for muscles to act
in groups and in relation to each other and is largely supplied by 2 types of receptors: muscle spindles and Golgi
tendon organs (GTO). Muscle spindles are located in the belly of the muscles, while Golgi tendon organs are located
in the tendons. These receptors also act as a protective mechanism to protect the muscle against injury by initiating a
nervous reflex.
Muscle spindle
When a muscle is stretched suddenly or traumatically the spindle sends an immediate sensory signal to the spinal cord.
The spinal cord receives this signal and excites the motor nerves which, in turn, contract the muscle fibers surrounding
the spindle. In this way a sudden or ballistic stretch of a muscle can cause an immediate reflex contraction of that
same muscle. This is called the “stretch reflex” or “myotatic reflex”.
One of the best illustrations of the “stretch reflex” is the knee jerk, i.e. suddenly striking the quadriceps tendon below
the patella stretches the tendon which, in turn, stretches the muscle spindles. A reflex signal passes back to the
quadriceps muscle causing it to contract and the lower leg to kick (jerk) forward (see Figure 2.4).
Physicians use such muscle reflexes for 2 purposes:
The reflex indicates that sensory and motor nerve connections are intact (the knee jerk is
commonly used)
The degree of reactivity of the muscle reflex is a measure of the degree of excitability of the
spinal cord
The stretch reflex is primarily a postural reflex, but the principle can be used to aid contraction in voluntary movement
to improve performance, e.g. plyometric training.

Figure 2.4 Stretch reflex example knee jerk

Derived from: http://global.britannica.com/topic/knee-jerk-reflex
Golgi tendon organs

A function of the tendon receptors is to protect the muscle from over-stretching or from damage due to excessive
contraction. When tension in a muscle threatens to damage the muscle or rupture the tendon, a sensory signal from
the GTO’s to the spinal cord initiates a reflex that inhibits the anterior motor neurons which innervate (stimulate) the
muscle, so relaxing the muscle and relieving the tension. The Golgi tendon reflex is also used as an aid in flexibility
training (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation - the PNF method of stretching).
Before studying the structure and function of a nerve cell (neuron) it is important to have an overview of the basic
animal cell as provided below.
2.3 THE BASIC CELL
The word cell means chamber. The human organism is composed of trillions of cells (Vander, Sherman & Luciano,
1990); they are the structural and functional units of all living organisms.
Each cell is surrounded by a limiting barrier called the plasma membrane or plasmalemma. The ‘general’ role of this
membrane is to act as a selective barrier to the passage of substances into and out of the cell and to limit substances
to specific ‘areas’ in the cell.
The interior of the cell is divided into the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus, a spherical structure, is located near
the center of the cell with the primary function of transmitting and expressing genetic information. The cytoplasm
contains two components: the cell organelles (e.g. mitochondria) and the cytosol; a jelly-like substance that surrounds
the organelles.

In this course emphasis is placed on the mitochondria. These are ‘spherical or elongated, rod-like structures surrounded
by an inner membrane and an outer membrane’ (Vander, Sherman & Luciano, 1990, p.47). They are found throughout
the cytoplasm and are primarily concerned with the chemical processes by which energy or ATP is produced.
Groups of the same type of cells performing the same function are called tissues. Combinations of different kinds of
tissues form organs that unite to form a unit of organization called an organ system.
Figure 2.5 Anatomy of human cell

Derived from: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/461126449321754386/
2.3.1 Basic Characteristics of Cells
All cells have basic characteristics:
They require nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and fats) and oxygen
All cells produce energy
Nutrients are oxidized (combustion of food by oxygen) and waste products are produced
(including water, CO 2 and urea) which must be removed from the cell.
Each cell is enclosed in extracellular fluid in which the exchange of nutrients and waste products
takes place; this fluid is called the internal environment of the body.
The functional units of the cells (organelles) are contained in fluid (cytoplasm). Organelles
perform vital functions, e.g. the nucleus is responsible for cellular reproduction; the
mitochondria are responsible for storing and providing energy.

2.3.2 The Cell under Resting Conditions
In order to live under resting conditions, all human cells require the following:
Incoming blood bringing sugars, fats, oxygen and cooler temperatures
Energy generated from nutrients, aerobically and anaerobically, to maintain chemical activity
Removal of carbon dioxide, water, acid and heat produced during metabolism
Dissipation of the heat produced by all these chemical reactions (via the surface of the skin)
2.4 THE NEURON
There are a number of afferent and efferent neurons that send impulses to or from the CNS. The following notes
explain the structure of a neuron and the way in which it sends impulses to the effector organs, muscles and glands
resulting in muscle contraction and secretion of glands.
The basic anatomical unit of the nervous system is the neuron (nerve cell).
The neuron consists of:
A cell body or soma (a group of cell bodies in the CNS is referred to as the nuclei, while a group
of cell bodies in the PNS is referred to as ganglia)
Several short nerve fibers called dendrites
A longer nerve fiber (the axon)
Axon terminals
Secretory granules which are able to synthesize protein
Figure 2.6 Structure of a neuron

Derived from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron#mediaviewer/File:Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_en.svg

2.4.1 Axon and Dendrites
The dendrites and axon(s) are extensions from the body of the neuron. The axon is surrounded by a myelin sheath
composed mainly of lipids and proteins. Nerve fibers surrounded by a myelin sheath are referred to as myelinated
fibers and those without a sheath, non-myelinated fibers.
Gaps occur at regular intervals along the myelin sheath, these are called nodes of Ranvier. The sheath and nodes
of Ranvier influence the speed at which the nerve impulse is transmitted along the axon. The point of termination of
the axon on a muscle fiber is called the myoneural or neuromuscular junction or the motor end plate.
2.4.2 The Function of Dendrites and Axons
The function of the dendrites is to receive sensory stimuli and transmit these to the cell body. The function of the axon
is to generate a nerve impulse at the junction of the axon hillock and transmit it down the axon to the axon terminals
(sacs filled with neurotransmitters found at the end of the branches of the axon). The manner in which the nerve
impulse is transmitted down through the axon is in essence an electrical disturbance and is called an action potential.
The transmission of the action potential through the axon is described below.
2.4.3 Transmission of the Action Potential
When a nerve fiber is at rest sodium ions (Na+) are most heavily concentrated on the outside of the nerve membrane;
causing it to be electrically positive while the inside of the nerve is negative. The potential difference between the
inside and outside of the nerve fiber is referred to as the resting membrane potential.
When a stimulus is applied to the nerve the nerve membrane becomes permeable to sodium ions that “leak” into the
nerve causing a reversal in polarity of the nerve, i.e. the outside becomes negative and the inside positive. This reversal
is referred to as an action potential (see figure 2.7).
In addition to the action potential, a local flow of current is created in the membrane at the site where the stimulus
was applied. This current is self-generating and flows to adjacent areas of the nerve causing a reversal of polarity that
evokes a new action potential and a local flow of current. This process is repeated over and over again until the action
potential has been propagated along the entire length of the nerve fiber.
Figure 2.7 Action potential along neuron

Derived from: https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/the-nervous-system-35

The myelin sheath (mentioned earlier) that surrounds sections of some large nerve fibers, has an insulating effect. A
nerve impulse cannot be generated or propagated over the part of the fiber covered by myelin. The impulse is
propagated only at the nodes of Ranvier, i.e. the impulse “jumps” from node to node along the fiber. This is referred
to as saltatory conduction. Saltatory conduction greatly increases the velocity of the nerve impulse, e.g. the conduction
velocity of large, myelinated fibers is 60 to 100 meters per second; whereas in unmyelinated fibers of the same diameter,
conduction velocity is approximately 6-10 meters per second (see figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8 Continuous conduction in unmyelinated axon (a); Saltatory conduction in myelinated axon (b)
Derived from: http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/Chaper9-Zoo145.htm
When the impulse reaches the axon terminal it releases excitatory neurotransmitters into an extracellular space referred
to as the synaptic cleft. The synapse is the space between two adjacent neurons. In order to transfer the impulse
from one nerve to the next, the neurotransmitters diffuse to the post synaptic neuron (neuron on the other side of the
synapse) and bind with the post synaptic receptors located on its dendrites (see figure 2.9). The impulse is transmitted
from one neuron to the next in this fashion until it reaches the target organ or muscle. The point of interaction between
the motor neuron and a muscle fiber (muscle cell) is called a neuromuscular junction.
Figure 2.9 Synaptic cleft

Derived from: https://cnx.org/contents/XTc1hV5-@2/OU-Human-Physiology-Synaptic-T

The impulse is transferred from the motor neuron to the muscle in much the same way as the impulse is transferred
from one neuron to the next; the motor axon releases the excitatory neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (Ach), into the
synaptic cleft (space between the axon terminal and the muscle fiber).
The Ach moves through the synaptic cleft to the motor endplate of the muscle fiber and is received by the Ach receptors
of the muscle fiber. When the neurotransmitter is received by the muscle, ACh receptor sodium ion channels are opened
allowing more sodium to enter the muscle fiber (muscle cell). This leads to initiation of an action potential across the
sarcolemma (plasma membrane surrounding each muscle fiber) into the T tubules (Transverse tubules) resulting in
the release of calcium ions thus activating muscle fiber contraction. See figure 2.10 for a graphic illustration of this
process.
(The responsive muscular contraction to the neural stimulation is explained in chapter three)
Figure 2.10 Transmission of action potential

Derived from: http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/F08.05.L.150.jpg

2.5 THE MOTOR UNIT
The point where the motor neuron innervates a muscle fiber is called the motor unit. A single motor nerve fiber
innervates anything from 1 to 150 or more muscle fibers because the number of muscle fibers in the body greatly
exceeds the number of nerve fibers, yet every muscle fiber must be innervated. All the muscle fibers served by the
same motor nerve contract and relax at the same time, working as a unit (see figure 2.11).
Motor units are arranged according to muscle fiber types, i.e. a neuron capable of conducting rapid impulses will
synapse with fast twitch muscle fibers and slower conducting neurons with slow twitch muscles (fiber types are
discussed later in chapter three). Many motor units exist within a single muscle and the number of muscle fibers
per motor unit depends on the precision of the movement required, i.e. the more muscle fibers per motor unit
the more gross the movement. Muscles that must perform precise and delicate work (such as the eye muscles) may
have as few as one muscle fiber per unit.
Figure 2.11 Motor unit

Derived from: http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio210/chap09/Slide26.JPG
CONCLUSION
Sensations of heat, light, touch, pressure, etc. are transmitted by the afferent nerves to the central nervous system
which perceives the sensation and triggers an appropriate response (e.g. withdrawal of your hand from a hot plate).
To complete a reflex response, motor nerves are required. These nerves originate in the CNS and terminate in effector
organs such as skeletal muscles. When stimulated they cause the relevant muscles to contract.
Every skeletal muscle has:
Sensory (afferent) nerves that transmit information from the periphery (outside) to the CNS
Motor (efferent) nerves that carry commands from the CNS to relevant muscles
Sensory receptors that carry information, via the spinal cord to the brain, as to the degree of
tension within the muscle
If a certain movement is repeated, the brain receives and stores a “programme” (pattern) of the movement. The
sequence of movements required for a particular movement is then carried out via the brain programme and it is no
longer necessary to think consciously about the movement, e.g. you don’t have to think about how to run, you just
run! This is referred to as the motor pathway. The next chapter will focus on the muscular system, another system
within the body responsible for movement.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 3: THE ROLE

OF THE MUSCULAR
SYSTEM IN MOVEMENT
This chapter provides an overview of skeletal muscle, its structure
and function in creating movement
OBJECTIVES:
Explain how a muscle contracts in order to produce

movement.
Understand the structure of muscle.
Describe the neuromuscular junction and its role in
creating movement.
Describe the sliding filament theory of muscle
contraction.
Differentiate between the types and characteristics of
muscle.
Classify the types of muscular contraction.
INTRODUCTION
There are more than 430 skeletal muscles. The major skeletal muscles which are responsible for human movement are
depicted in the figure 3.1 and 3.2. Skeletal muscles attach to the skeletal system (bones) (figure 3.3 and 3.4). The
skeletal system provides structure and support to the human body and allow movement at joints. Joints are formed by
the junction of bones. There are varying degrees of movement that can take place at different joints. Refer to
chapter 5 for more information regarding the skeletal system and type of joints.
Figure 3.1 Major skeletal muscles (anterior view) Figure 3.2 Major skeletal muscles (posterior view)
Derived from: Haff, G.G and Triplett, N.T., (2016). Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.

Figure 3.3. Human skeleton (anterior view) Figure 3.4 Human skeleton (posterior view)
Human Kinetics
Skeletal muscles span over a joint and either end of the muscle attached to the bone above (proximal) and the bone
below (distal) the joint (see figure 3.5). It is this arrangement that allows movement to take place at the joint. The
origin (start) of the muscle is the proximal attachment and the insertion is the distal (end) attachment of the muscle
to bone. When a muscle contracts (shortens) to pull on the bone it attaches to in effort to lead to movement at the
joint the insertion always moves closer to the origin of the muscle.
In figure 3.5 the biceps brachii muscle is illustrated spanning over the front of the elbow joint. The lower arm moves
up and toward the upper arm when the biceps brachii shortens (contracts) because the insertion of the biceps brachii
attaches below the elbow joint on the lower arm which moves toward its origin which is above the elbow and shoulder
joint on the shoulder blade (scapula). Because the biceps brachii spans over two joints (elbow and shoulder) it can
cause movement at joint.
This chapter provides and overview of skeletal muscular structure and the process of muscular contraction in response
to neural stimulus.

Figure 3.5 Example of skeletal muscular arrangement in relation to skeletal system

Derived from: http://biology-forums.com/gallery/medium_13_06_09_13_9_10_11_13446709.jpeg
3.1 SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE
Skeletal muscle tissue consists of bundles of long, slender cells referred to as muscle fibers which are wrapped and
held together by several different layers of connective tissue. The epimysium is a fibrous connective sheath that
surrounds the whole muscle. This stretches into the muscle dividing the muscle fibers into bundles (fasciculi). The thin
membrane around each bundle is called the perimysium.
From the perimysium connective tissue fibers form the endomysium which surrounds each individual muscle fiber.
Connective tissue provides strength and structural integrity to the muscles and is thought to be involved in some way
with delayed onset muscle soreness. Blood vessels and nerve fibers run within the connective tissue fibers of the
muscle.
The intramuscular network of connective tissue extends beyond the limits of the individual muscle fibers as a fibrous
band, forming the muscle tendon.
Figure 3.6 Skeletal muscle structure

Human Kinetics

These tendon fibers intermesh with the connective tissue fibers of the periosteum (the sheath covering a bone), forming
a strong point at which the muscle attaches to the lever (bone).
Each muscle fiber is surrounded by an excitable membrane (it can respond to stimuli), called the sarcolemma. As
explained in the previous chapter, the stimuli refers to the action potential that is passed across the sarcolemma
deeper into the muscle fiber upon receiving the excitatory neurotransmitter, acetylcholine.
Inside the sarcolemma is the nucleus which contains the cellular genetic components (genes) (refer to figure 3.7).
The nucleus is surrounded by the cytoplasm, a thick fluid that fills the cell (this is called sarcoplasm in muscle cells)
and contains mitochondria, enzymes, large amounts of stored glycogen and an oxygen-binding protein called
myoglobin (found only in muscle cells). The mitochondria (often called the “powerhouses” of the cell) are involved
in the oxidative conversion of foodstuffs into energy and are unusually large and numerous in muscle cells. The
sarcoplasm also contains the myofibrils (see description below).
Figure 3.7 Muscle fiber (cell)

Derived from: http://images.slideplayer.com/28/9410682/slides/slide_15.jpg
3.1.1 Myofibrils
Each muscle fiber consists of numerous fine protein threads called myofibrils (see figure 3.8) which lie parallel to and
run the entire length of the fiber. These are the contractile elements of skeletal muscle cells. There are hundreds to
thousands of myofibrils in a single muscle fiber depending on the size of the fiber. Myofibrils have repeated areas of
dark and light bands (A bands and I bands) that give skeletal muscles their striated (banded) appearance.
Each myofibril consists of several units of contraction called sarcomeres which are separated from each other by
structures called Z lines. A sarcomere contains two kinds of protein filaments which are involved in muscle contraction:
thick myosin filaments and thin actin filaments (see figure 3.9).
Actin filaments contain two other proteins important in the muscle contractile process, namely troponin and
tropomyosin. The role of these proteins is explained in paragraph 3.2. In an intact muscle fiber the actin and myosin
myofibril bands are nearly perfectly aligned with one another producing repeated areas of dark and light bands that
give skeletal muscles their striated (banded) appearance. The I bands (the light bands) are composed of actin filaments
directly attached to the Z lines. Z lines (also called Z discs) are midline interruptions in the I bands. The A bands (the
dark bands) are composed of myosin filaments overlapping actin filaments. A bands have a central region (the H Zone)
consisting only of myosin filaments. The H Zone is bisected by a dark line called the M line. A myosin filament has
globular parts called cross-bridges projecting outward along its length and an actin filament has binding sites
to which the myosin cross-bridges can attach.

Surrounding the myofibrils is a network of tubules and vesicles collectively called the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Longitudinal tubules run parallel to the myofibrils and terminate at either end into vesicles. This reticular pattern is
repeated regularly along the entire length of the myofibrils.
The outer vesicles (cisternae) of one reticular pattern are separated from those of another by transverse tubules called
T-tubules. These T-tubules, although functionally associated with the sarcoplasmic reticulum, are known to be
anatomically separate from it. They run transversely across the muscle fiber in the region of the Z lines and are
extensions of the sarcolemma.
The two outer vesicles and the T-tubule separating them are called a triad. The triad is believed to be of particular
importance in muscle contraction and the T-tubules are responsible for spreading the nervous impulse from the
sarcolemma into the deep parts of the fiber.
The outer vesicles of the reticulum contain large amounts of calcium (Ca 2+). As the nerve impulse travels over the T-
tubules and between the outer vesicles of the triad, Ca 2+ is released. Calcium is essential for muscle contraction to take
place.
Figure 3.8 Myofibril

Derived from: http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio110/chap07/210Figure9.5.jpg
Figure 3.9 Contractile units of muscle contraction.

Derived from: http://cnx.org/resources/480d2d625370f0a0224a0ae94dbe3b10/1003_Thick_and_Thin_Filaments.jpg

The next section focuses on how the muscular structures explained above work together to produce muscular
contraction in response to the action potential across the sarcolemma and into the T tubules that responsively release
calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
3.2 SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION IN RESPONSE TO NEURAL STIMULUS
Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to neural stimulation binds to troponin. The bond moves
the tropomyosin away from its resting position which in turn exposes the actin filaments’ active binding sites.
The myosin globular head is in an energized state (contains energy from ATP) during rest and when the active sites
are available it uses this energy to attach to these sites (this attachment is called a cross-bridge) and pull the actin
filaments toward the center of the sarcomere by tilting its head. This is referred to as the power stroke.
In turn the filaments slide across each other in opposite directions thus shortening the sarcomere and generating force.
The myosin globular head requires another ATP molecule to detach from the actin filament, move the globular head
into an energized position and reattach to a new active binding site further along the actin filament.
The enzyme ATPase (Adenosine Triphosphatase), located on the myosin head, breaks down the ATP molecule to
release energy by splitting one phosphate from the ATP molecule resulting in the release of ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate and energy. If there is continued neural stimulation available to secrete calcium
and thus keep tropomyosin off the active binding sites for cross bridge formation, the myosin globular head will continue
to attach, pull and then detach from the actin filament until the myosin filaments reach the Z disks .
The success of shortening a muscle depends on the power stroke and the external force against which the power
stroke has to shorten the muscle. When neural stimulation stops the Ca 2+ returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum and
the tropomyosin moves back over the active binding sites thus preventing the myosin heads from attaching to the
active sites. Although the tropomyosin moves over the active sites during absence of neural stimulation some cross
bridges will form, however this is not enough for movement to occur.
The above description of movement is referred to as the sliding filament theory of Huxley (see figure 3.10).
Figure 3.10 Cross-bridge muscle contraction cycle

Derived from: http: http://biowiki.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/files/2002/Figure_38_04_05.png?revision=1

Please follow this link to further assist you in understanding muscle contraction: http://youtu.be/PaNFWYO1lb4
GLOSSARY:
Sarcolemma: The membrane surrounding a muscle fiber
Sarcoplasm: The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber which contains the many small, oval nuclei and mitochondria.
Myofibrils: The numerous threadlike proteins that lie parallel to one another and are contained in the
Sarcoplasm.
• Myosin – the primary protein of the myofibril is a thick protein filament running longitudinally within the muscle fiber.
• Actin – The thin protein filaments intertwined within the myosin filaments.
The alternating light and dark striations are named for their positions within the fiber.
• A bands – The primary location of the myosin filaments which produce the dark striations.
• I bands - The primary location of the actin filaments which produce the light striations.
• Z lines - The attachment point of the actin filaments at the ends of I bands.
Sarcomere: The segment of the myofibril extending from one Z line to the next. The regular arrangement of myosin and actin
filaments within the sarcomere causes the muscle fiber to appear striated.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (S.R) Specialized endoplasmic reticulum: The network of membranous channels surrounding each myofibril,
running parallel to them.
Transverse tubules (T-Tubules): The invaginations of the fiber’s sarcoplasm that extend inward and pass completely through the
fiber. These are open to the outside of the sarcoplasm at both ends and contain extracellular fluid. Each T-Tubule lies between two
enlarged portions of the S.R. called cisternae, near where the actin and myosin filaments overlap. With the S.R the T-Tubules activate
the muscle contraction mechanism.
3.3 TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Although a muscle fiber will always respond to neural stimulus by contracting and shortening the external resistance
against which the muscle works will determine the type of contraction that takes place.
3.3.1 Types of Muscle Contraction:

Isotonic/dynamic contraction – concentric or eccentric contraction
Isometric/static
Isokinetic
3.3.1.1 Isotonic/Dynamic Contraction
Isotonic/dynamic contraction causes movement at a joint. Most types of exercise or sports involve isotonic contractions.
Tension develops throughout the muscle as it contracts, changing the angle of the joint.
The greatest force is generated at the muscle’s optimal length when the maximum number of cross-bridges between
the myofibrils can be activated simultaneously. As the muscle shortens, fewer cross-bridges are coupled simultaneously
to actin myofilaments so that less tension can be developed by the myofibril.
There are two types of isotonic contraction:
Concentric contraction: occurs when muscle exerts greater force than the external
resistance and shortens, e.g. flexion of the elbow.
Eccentric contraction: occurs when external resistance is greater than the force exerted
by the muscle. The muscle develops tension as it lengthens against resistance, e.g.
extension of the elbow (against gravity). Eccentric contraction is sometimes called “negative
work”.

3.3.1.2 Isometric/Static Contraction
An isometric muscle contraction occurs when the force of the muscle is equal to the external resistance. This contraction
is without any appreciable muscle shortening or joint movement. This occurs when one applies force against an
immovable object.
3.3.1.3 Isokinetic Contraction
Isokinetic contraction is accomplished using special equipment. The equipment alters resistance throughout the
movement so that the muscle contracts at a constant velocity, i.e. the muscle develops maximal tension throughout
its range of motion, whereas in isotonic contraction maximal tension is developed only at optimal length. Isokinetic
contraction is also called “variable resistance” exercise or “accommodating resistance”.
Figure 3.11 Types of muscle contraction (bicep curl example)

Derived from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/1015_Types_of_Contraction_new.jpg
3.4 VELOCITY AND LOAD
As previously mentioned, muscle contracts against resistance. The greater the resistance/ load, the lower the velocity
(speed and direction) of muscle shortening. According to the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction, this can be
explained by the possibility that increased load requires an increase in the number of cross-bridges between actin and
myosin filaments.

The level of resistance also affects the type of muscle fiber used in exercise (see Table 3.1 and figure 3.12). During
exercise of low intensity/ resistance, the slow-twitch fibers (endurance) come into play first and as the exercise intensity
increases, fast twitch fibers are progressively activated.
Muscle fiber distribution is genetically determined, but all fiber types are trainable, i.e. they are able to adapt to the
specific metabolic demands placed on them. Thus if a person regularly performs low intensity, endurance exercise,
his/her aerobic capacity will improve as the slow-twitch fibers respond to this type of training.
On the other hand, if short-duration, high intensity exercise is performed, the anaerobic abilities of the fast twitch
fibers will improve. Type 2A fibers respond according to whichever type of training is performed.
Table 3.1 Mechanical characteristics of muscle fibers

Red (dark) fibers White (light) fibers Combination
- slow twitch (ST), type 1 -fast twitch (FT), type 2B fibers - - type 2A fibers
fibers ability to break down and build - no mitochondria,
- high oxidative phosphorylation ability, up ATP rapidly generate ATP anaerobically -
i.e. the speed at which ATP is produced -thicker in width, little quick to fatigue
keeps pace with the relatively slower myoglobin (hence white colour) - quickest to contract
speed of ATP use - high glycogen content; suited
- smaller in width, good capillary blood to anaerobic glycolysis
supply and lots of myoglobin (hence
the red colour)
- aerobic, therefore suited to
endurance activity
Refer to figure below for illustration of muscle fiber types.
Figure 3.12 Fiber Types (darker= slow twitch (long distance)/ lighter=fast twitch (sprinter))
Derived from: https://cdn.muscleandstrength.com/sites/default/files/images/articles/
musclefiber.jpg and http://kettlebellworkouts.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/sprinter-vs-
distance.jpg

Maximum Muscle Power is attained between 20 and 30 years of age. Thereafter there is a gradual decrease until
at 60 years muscles have approximately 80% of their original maximum power.
3.4.1 Frequency of Neural Stimulation
Frequency of stimulus affects muscular contractile response. Muscular contraction only occurs for the duration a
stimulus is exerted upon the particular muscle fibers. When a muscle fiber contracts it contracts to its full extent or
not at all. This is referred to as the all-or-none law.
Muscle twitch
The time of the total contraction of a particular muscle is called the muscle twitch. The frequency of neural
stimulation can result in:
short term twitches of a few muscle fibers
Tetanus - greater muscular contraction due to an increase in the number of muscle fibers
recruited
Summation – recruitment of additional muscle fibers in response to stimuli following

closely after one another
Figure 3.13 Frequency of neural stimulation

Derived from: http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/eprolab/comlab/sttop/sttop-bm/figures/Myogram%20-
20contractions%2001.gif
The time taken for the muscle twitch to run its course varies according to muscle type, but can be divided into 3 phases
(refer to figure 3.14):
The latent period, i.e. the time between the stimulus and the start of the contraction
The contraction period
The relaxation period
The extent of the twitch depends on the stimulus reaching a threshold before there is any response from the muscle.
Individual fibers contract maximally when the threshold is reached. Weak stimuli may cause contraction of only some
of the fibers that make up the muscle as the stimulus increases more fibers will be recruited to contract.

When the stimulus is above the threshold of the contracting fibers, additional fibers are recruited (activated). When
the stimulus frequency is high it is possible for the maximum number of fibers to be contracted; increasing the stimulus
at this stage will not result in increased contraction. This state, referred to as Tetanus, is seen when muscles handle
very heavy loads.
Figure 3.14 Muscular response to a single stimulus (muscle twitch)

Derived from: https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRfPLO6_U8I4mA_LxgnPpDK9SSjNiJ36-
N6vG8dMJVhK1qAI2qE
Summation
Summation refers to the recruiting of additional muscle fibers in response to stimuli following closely after one another.
The force of muscle contraction increases progressively as the number of contracting motor units increases (refer to
figure 3.15).
The tension exerted by the muscle is continuous and smooth as different motor units fire asynchronously, i.e. as one
contracts another relaxes, another fires, followed by another, etc. summation of contraction can be explained as
follows:
The stimulated muscle fiber, initially in an excited state, enters into a refractory state when it is unresponsive to any
more stimuli. The refractory period ends before the fiber is fully relaxed, a further stimulus, equal to the first, will result
in a contraction greater than the original one. Even when motor units fire as infrequently as 5 times per second, the
muscle contraction although weak, is smooth.
The muscle’s ability to receive neural stimulation and the ability to contract in response to neural stimulation are both
part of the four functional properties of muscle tissue. Next follows a description of all four of the properties of muscle
tissue, including an overview of muscular contractile functionality.

Recruitment of additional muscle fibers in response to stimuli relative to stimuli as depicted in table above
Figure 3.15 Muscle Response to Increased Stimuli: Multiple Motor Unit Summation (Recruitment)
Derived from: http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio210/chap09/lecture1.html
3.5 PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle tissue has four functional properties:
Table 3.2 Functional Properties of Muscular Tissue

Functional properties Description Illustration
Contractility it can shorten
Irritability it can respond to electrical

stimuli
Distensibility it can stretch
Elasticity it can return to its original

shape

3.5.1 Muscle and Tendon Contractility
When stimulated by an electrical impulse muscle tissue attempts to contract pulling on the bones to which it is attached
and, provided the resistance of the bone is not too great, causing movement of one bone towards the other. The force
with which a muscle contracts depends on:
The number of fibers stimulated – the greater the stimulation, the stronger the contraction.
The strength of nervous stimulation – the greater the stimulation, the stronger the
contraction.
The type of fiber stimulated – essentially fast-twitch fibers contract more quickly than slow-
twitch fibers.
The length of the muscle at the time of stimulation.
As a muscle contracts it will cause changes in all articulations (joints) spanned by that muscle. A uniarticular muscle
crosses only one joint; a biarticular muscle crosses two joints, while a multiarticular muscle crosses more than two
joints.
It is important to know which muscles are uni-, bi- or multi-articular as, for instance, the exercises used to strengthen
a multi-articulate muscle may be completely different from those used to strengthen a uni-articulate muscle. For
example the hamstrings are responsible for knee flexion and hip extension.
Table 3.3 Uniarticular, biarticular and multiarticular muscles

Uniarticular muscle Biarticular muscle Multiarticular
Brachioradial: Biceps brachii: Flexor digitorum profundus crosses

crosses one joint (elbow joint) crosses two joints (shoulder and multiple joints in the wrist and hand
elbow joints)
Derived from: http://healthfavo.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/flexor-digitorum-profundus.jpg and

http://cdn2.omidoo.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/full_width/images/bydate/20130412/shutterstock109588451c
opy.jpg

3.5.2 Muscle and Tendon Distensibility and Elasticity
Muscles have the ability to stretch and, provided the lengthening has not been excessive, return to their original length
after being stretched (distensibility). If stretched beyond its elastic limit a muscle or ligament will remain elongated,
e.g. an ankle sprain can be the result of excessive stretching of connective tissue beyond its elastic limit.
Flexibility exercises attempt to stretch a muscle and its tendon within safe limits. Slow stretching exercises are
recommended.
Muscle tone or tonus
Many muscles (apart from smooth muscles), in particular postural muscles, react to stretching by contracting. This
resistance to passive stretching is termed muscle tone and is produced by the contraction of only some of the fibers
of a muscle.
When there is no stretch response (e.g. postural muscles in pathological conditions), the muscle is termed flaccid.
When muscles are hyper-stimulated and become abnormally contracted, they are termed spastic.
Muscle fatigue
The cause of muscle fatigue is not clear, but it appears that metabolic dysfunction (insufficient ATP or oxygen), rather
than impaired synaptic function (decreased sensitivity to stimuli), is the major cause.
Some oxygen is stored by muscles in combination with the myoglobin (an iron-rich molecule in muscles similar to
hemoglobin in the blood).
During exercise the increase in ventilation and circulation increases arterial pressure which, in turn, increases the supply
of oxygen to the muscles. In spite of this increased oxygen, sustained and arduous exercise can result in muscle
fatigue.
A muscle that contracts continuously will eventually fatigue and no longer have the ability to contract.
During contraction under normal conditions oxygen and glycogen are consumed and carbon dioxide is produced.
Research has shown that if contraction occurs in an atmosphere where sufficient oxygen is available further contraction
is possible after a period of rest.
However, if it occurs in a nitrogen-containing atmosphere the muscle is unable to recover because glycogen is
consumed, and lactic acid is produced. Therefore oxygen is required for the muscle to recover.
CONCLUSION
Muscle tissue responds to neural stimulation by contracting (shortening) the muscle - the sliding filament theory. A
certain level of stimulation is required for a muscle fiber to respond and contract. A number of neurons innervate
different muscle fibers within a particular muscle.
There are fast motor units (neurons attached to a number of fast twitch muscle fibers) and slow motor units (neurons
innervated by a number of slow twitch muscle fibers). Neurons activate muscle fibers relative to the type of work being
done, e.g. during endurance activities such as a marathon, aerobic muscle fibers are predominantly activated, while
during anaerobic activities such as a slam dunk in basketball, anaerobic muscle fibers are predominantly activated.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 4:
INTRODUCTION
TO THE HUMAN
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
This chapter presents detailed descriptions and illustrations of the muscular system of
the human body. A sound knowledge of the muscular system is imperative for the
trainer to choose appropriate exercises to target specific muscle groups.
OBJECTIVES:
Differentiate between types of muscle (specifically skeletal muscles), locate all

major muscles and name the movements in which each muscle is involved.
Describe the three types of muscle in the body: cardiac, smooth and skeletal.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of joint movements and muscles responsible for the various joint actions.
4.1 BASIC MUSCLE TYPES
4.1.1 Smooth Muscle (Involuntary, Visceral)
Smooth muscle is controlled by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system and is the least specialized of the 3
types of muscle tissue. Smooth muscle is particularly sensitive to stretching and is found in the hollow organs of
the body, e.g. Bowel, bladder (see figure 4.1).
The entrances and exits to the hollow organs are controlled by specialized contracting circular bands of smooth
muscle (sphincters) that are normally in a state of contraction.
Figure 4.1 Smooth muscle of bladder Figure 4.2 Smooth musculature (uninucleated, no striations)
4.1.2 Cardiac Muscle
This refers to the heart muscle (see figure 4.3). Fibers are cross-striated but are not under voluntary control.
There is no clear demarcation between individual muscle cells and each cell has its own intrinsic rhythm.
Figure 4.3 Cardiac muscle of heart Figure 4.4 Cardiac musculature (uni- or binucleate striations)
4.1.3 Skeletal Muscle (Striated, Somatic or Voluntary)
This chapter focuses on skeletal muscle which attaches to bone and is under conscious control. Skeletal muscle
constitutes about 40% of the total body mass (Figure 4.5) and is controlled by the central nervous system.
Skeletal muscles, of which there are about 600, can be considered the “cables” of the body because they pull on
the bones to which they are attached and so cause movement.
Figure 4.5 Skeletal muscle Figure 4.6 Skeletal musculature

(Single, very long, cylindrical muscle fibers; multinucleated;
obvious striation)
Table 4.1 Types of muscle tissue

Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Skeletal muscle

Characteristics: Characteristics: Characteristics:
Uninucleated fibers Uninucleated fibers Multinucleated fibers
Non striated fibers Striated fibers Striated fibers
Found in walls of internal Found in walls of heart Found in skeletal muscles
organs and blood vessels Involuntary Voluntary
Narrow, tapered rod-shaped
cells
The following pictures are courtesy of Department of Radiology: Saint Vincent Hospital: http://www.svhrad.com
4.2 SKELETAL MUSCLE AND MOVEMENT
When studying and analyzing movement it is important to understand the following:
A muscle contracts in the direction of its fibers (striations are always shown in
anatomical diagrams) and usually towards the origin of the muscle.
The origin of a muscle is usually wider than its insertion.
The muscles of the lower extremity tend to be larger and more powerful than those
of the upper extremity.
Some muscles span more than one joint. Multi-joint muscles are more prone to cramp
than single joint muscles, particularly when movement takes place simultaneously at both
joints.
A muscle may contract fully or partially, isometrically or isotonically, singly (in very
rare instances) or as part of a coordinated group of muscles.
The role of a muscle is determined by its function at a specific stage of a movement,

i.e. it can act as agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposing muscle), stabilizer (fixator) or
neutralizer at different times during the same movement. In other words muscles act
synergistically to carry out movement, e.g. The biceps brachii muscle causes elbow
flexion, shoulder flexion or supination of the forearm depending on the action of other
muscles. When only one action is required other movements are neutralized by the co-
ordinated contraction of other muscles.
Muscular contraction is necessary for:
a. Movement
b. Maintenance of posture
c. Heat production (muscle contraction produces heat and plays a role in maintaining normal body
temperature)
4.3 CATEGORIES OF MUSCLES

The categories of muscles include:
Flexor muscles
Extensor muscles
Abductor muscles
Adductor muscles
Agonist
o Muscle causing movement
Antagonist
o Muscle that opposes the agonist muscle
o For example, triceps brachii which extends the elbow opposes the biceps brachii which flexes
the elbow
o The antagonist muscle, in this case the triceps brachii muscle group relaxes to allow the biceps
brachii muscle group to flex the elbow. If both muscles contract at the same time the two
muscles oppose each other (tug of war scenario) and result in:
§ either no movement - if both muscles contract equally or
§ movement takes place (flexion or extension) relative to the muscle which has a
stronger contraction. This movement will not be a smooth action.
Table 4.2 Categories of muscle

Images derived from:http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio210/chap10/lecture1.html;
http://visitcore.com/are-yourmuscles-working-as-a-team/
Flexor muscles Flexor muscles allow a limb to bend at a
joint
Extensor muscles Extensor muscles allow a limb to extend

at a joint
Abductor muscles
Abductor muscles allow movement of a
limb away from the center line of the body
Adductor muscles
Adductor muscles allow movement of a
limb towards the center line of the body
Agonist and Antagonist

Agonist and Antagonist muscles oppose
each other. The two contractions must be
synchronized otherwise movements will be
jerky and may result in injury.
Elbow flexion:
Elbow extension:
4.4 MUSCLE SHAPE AND FUNCTION
The shape of a muscle affects the way it contracts and thus, affects its function. In some cases the muscle’s
function is range of movement and in other cases it may be force and/or speed.
Table 4.3 Muscle shape and function

Images derived from: https://s-media
cacheak0.pinimg.com/736x/9e/e0/18/9ee01814debcdddadb17b6b1a69e1d15.jpg
Pennate Pennate muscles have shorter fibers that are
arranged obliquely (diagonally) to their tendons in
a structure similar to that of a feather. This
arrangement increases the cross-sectional area of
the muscle, thereby increasing its force
production capability.
Pennate muscles are short and are classified as
uni-pennate (one insertion point), bi-pennate
(two insertion points) and multi-pennate (many
insertion points).
This means that pennate muscles are able to
generate high force. An example of a pennate
muscle is the deltoid muscle.
Parallel Parallel muscle fibers run parallel to the length

of the muscle. Generally, parallel muscles will
produce a greater range of movement than
similar-sized muscles with a pennate
arrangement.
Fusiform Fusiform muscles are arranged parallel to the

long axis of the muscle. The longer and more
parallel, the greater the range of motion. The
longer the muscle, the lower the force generated
by the muscle, e.g. hamstrings.
Convergent Convergent muscles are triangular in shape, being

wide at the origin and narrow at the insertion,
e.g. Pectoralis major.
Circular Circular muscles are arranged so that their

circular openings close when they contract; their
function is to close external body openings, e.g.
pelvic floor muscles.
4.5 MAJOR SKELETAL MUSCLES
This section discusses various muscles, bone structures and joint types and the movements for which they are
responsible. Only the main muscles are mentioned here, there are many smaller, deeper muscles involved in
movement which you should study (with their origins and insertions) as your knowledge increases.
Notice that names of muscles are often descriptive, indicating relative size, shape, location, action, etc.
During muscle contraction a muscle shortens, the insertion moves toward the origin.
When studying the images, identify the origin and insertion of each muscle, i.e. the bones to which each muscle
attaches. Also consider the body position and the direction of the muscle fibers to identify the movement each
muscle will cause.
The following images featuring the origin and insertion of skeletal muscles are all derived from Floyd (2007).
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 5:
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
This chapter provides an overview of the skeletal system, its structure and
function in relation to the muscular and neural systems.
OBJECTIVES:
Identify the structures that form the axial and appendicular skeleton
of the human body.
List the functions of the skeletal system.
Describe the skeleton using the reference terms (anterior, posterior,
distal, superior, etc.).
Explain bone growth and the importance of epiphyseal growth
plates.
Classify and identify the major bones of the skeleton.
Identify the points of muscle attachment (origin and insertion) on all
major bones.
Describe the structure and function of the vertebral column (spine).
INTRODUCTION
1.1 KNOWLEDGE OF THE SHAPE AND POSITION OF THE SKELETAL BONES
Knowledge of the shape and position of the skeletal bones aids the understanding of how and in which directions
the body can move.
There are 206 bones in the human skeleton, but only 177 of them are involved in voluntary movement.
Figure 1.1 Skeleton (anterior view)

Figure 1.2 Skeleton (posterior view)

The skeleton consists of two major parts:
The axial skeleton – this comprises the skull, spinal column, sternum and ribs.
Figure 1.3 Axial skeleton (anterior and posterior view)
The appendicular skeleton – this includes the bones of the upper and lower extremities:
Bones of the upper extremities include the scapula, clavicle, humerus, ulna, radius, carpal
bones, metacarpals and phalanges.
Bones of the lower extremities include the 3 fused bones of the pelvis, femur, tibia, fibula,
tarsal bones, metatarsals and phalanges. Although the pelvis may be classified with either
the axial or the appendicular skeleton, it is actually a link between the axial skeleton and
the lower extremity branch of the appendicular skeleton and is functionally as important to
one as it is to the other.
Figure 1.4 Appendicular skeleton (anterior and posterior view)

1.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
It provides support for the body as a whole and for the tissue surrounding bone.
It provides protection for vital organs and other soft tissue of the body.
It constitutes the moving parts (levers) of the body and provides attachments for skeletal
muscles.
It manufactures red blood cells; this hematopoietic function occurs in the red bone marrow.
→ It stores mineral salts, especially phosphorus and calcium, to supply the body’s needs.
1.3 SKELETAL REFERENCE TERMS
Anterior: in the anatomic standing position, anterior refers to the front of the body.
Posterior: in the anatomic standing position, posterior refers to the back of the body.
Proximal: when describing any point of reference (distance), proximal is the point located
towards the midline of the body OR nearest the point of reference.
Distal: when describing any point of reference (distance), distal is the point furthest from
the body midline OR point of reference.
Superior: describes the upper surface of an organ or muscle.
Inferior: describes the lower surface of an organ or muscle, i.e. the superior part lies above
the inferior part.
Medial: towards the midline of the body.
Lateral: away from the midline of the body. (Lateral flexion implies bending away from the
body i.e. bending sideways).
Supine: the body is lying face up; thus supination of the hand implies the palm is facing
upward.
Prone: the body is lying face down; thus pronation of the hand implies the palm is facing
downward.
Dorsal: refers to the top part of the foot.
Plantar: refers to the bottom of the foot (underneath).
Contralateral: opposite side of body.
Ipsilateral: same side of body.
Unilateral: one side of body only.
Bilateral: both sides of body.
Superficial: nearer the surface.
Deep: further away from the surface.

Supination: foot and ankle to roll outward.
Pronation: foot and ankle to roll inward.
This terminology is important as it will be used in further discussions of bones and muscles.

1.4 STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL BONE
Characteristics of bone:
They are Weight-bearing (carry the body weight), e.g. pelvis, femur, tibia.
They act as levers for fine rapid movements, e.g. bones of the hand and wrist.
They afford protection to the structures encased within them, e.g. skull bones and ribs.
Bone must be hard to perform its function adequately. The connective tissue (cartilage) from which long bones
develop, must be a hard, rigid structure capable of carrying out the rigorous (demanding) functions of support and
movement of the body.
Salts of calcium and phosphorus and, to a lesser extent, those of sodium and magnesium make the bones hard.
The remaining composition of bone (approx. 33%) is organic matter (contains carbon).
The outside of a typical bone is covered in 2 dense layers of fibrous membrane, the periosteum. This adheres
(sticks) closely to the bone, especially at the points where muscles are attached.
At the point where the muscle tendons attach to the periosteum, the fibers of the periosteum penetrate (enter)
the bone, anchoring the muscle firmly to the bone.
Figure 1.5 Typical bone Structure
1.4.1 The Functions of the Periosteum:
To protect the bone

To nourish the bone by sending small blood vessels into it
To help in the formation of bony tissue
To remould and limit the growth of bony tissue
To provide attachment for ligaments and tendons

Inside the periosteum is the compact or ivory bone. This is the hardest part of the bone that forms a plating
around the shaft (long length) of the long bone. This plating is thickest halfway down the shaft and gradually thins
out towards the ends of the bone.
The compact bone consists of a series of concentric rings of bone called lamellae, each of which contains several
tiny bone-forming cells called osteoblasts.
Deep inside the compact bone is the cancellous or spongy bone which is a honeycomb of small needle-like
pieces called trabeculae.
Stronger weight bearing bones will therefore have a greater proportion (quantity) of solid matter, while bones such
as skull bones, ribs and vertebrae (with a protective function) will have minimal compact bone and more spongy
bone.
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Bones are classified according to their shape:
1.5.1 Long Bones
Description: Long Bones consist of an elongated shaft with 2 extremities. The shaft consists of a cylinder of
compact bone down the center of which runs a cavity filled with cancellous bone, open spaces between the
trabeculae are filled with red and yellow bone marrow containing mature and immature blood vessels, fat cells,
fibrous tissue and fluid. This is the bone marrow and is important for the nutrition of the bone. It is also concerned
with the manufacture of red blood cells.
Examples: Humerus, femur, tibia fibula, radius, ulna and the bones of the hands and feet.
Function: Long bones act as levers for movement and hematopoiesis.
Figure 1.6 Humerus


1.5.2 Short Bones
Description: Short Bones are relatively small chunky bones. They have no shaft but consist of smaller masses of
spongy bone surrounded by a shell of compact bone. These bones are located where there is limited motion but
where strength is necessary.
Examples: The small bones of the wrist (carpus), ankle (tarsus) and vertebrae.
Function: Balance and force.
Figure 1.7 Wrist
1.5.3 Flat Bones
Description: 2 layers of compact bone between which is a layer of cancellous bone.

Examples: Scapula, sternum, ribs, pelvic bones and bones of the skull.
Function: Protection.
Figure 1.8 Scapula

1.5.4 Irregular Bones
Description: Of variable shape and size.

Examples: Vertebrae, sacrum and coccyx.
Function: Combination of protection, force and support.
Figure 1.9 Vertebrae
1.5.5 Sesamoid Bones
Description: Small bones found in certain tendons at points of friction.

Example: The largest is the patella (kneecap).
Figure 1.10 Patella

1.6 BONE GROWTH
An epiphysis is a layer of cartilage in bone where growth takes place and, as growth ceases, the cartilage gradually
becomes ossified. When closure is complete, no more growth can occur. When the bone stops growing, a line of
fusion is marked by a layer of dense bone (often noticeable on adult X-ray plates).
The age at which fusion occurs varies. Some epiphyses take up to 25 years to ossify completely – as a result many
high school boys and university men are engaged in vigorous sports before their bones are fully matured. With
non-contact sports this is of minor importance, but, with contact sports, damage may be done to the epiphyses of
bones with extremely serious consequences.
Possible injury to the epiphyseal disc is the reason why many physicians advise young people against taking part
in such sports as long distance running and weightlifting.
1.6.1 Approximate Ages of Epiphyseal Closures
Table 1.1 Approximate Age
7 - 8 years Inferior rami of pubis and ischium almost complete
15 – 17 years Upper extremity: scapula, lateral epicondyle of humerus and olecranon process of ulna
18 – 19 years Upper extremity: medial epicondyle(a projection situated above a condyle) of humerus,
head (an enlargement on the end of the bone) and shaft of radius
Lower extremity: femoral head and greater and lesser trochanters, lower end of tibia
About 20 years Upper extremity: humeral head, lower ends of radius and ulna
Lower extremity: lower ends of femur and fibula, upper end of tibia
20 – 25 years Lower extremity: acetabulum in pelvis
25 years Spine: vertebrae and sacrum

Upper extremity: clavicle
Lower extremity: upper end of fibula
Thorax: sternum and ribs
Data from Goss, 1980 (Reference Kinesiology: Luttgens & Hamilton: 9th edition. p.27)
1.7 THE MECHANICAL AXIS OF A BONE
Definition: A straight line that connects the midpoint of the joint at

one end of a bone with the midpoints of the joint at the other end.
In kinesiological analysis of movement, the mechanical axis of a bone

or segment that serves as the lever, is a straight line that connects
the midpoints of the joints either side of that bone. The axis does not
necessarily pass lengthwise through the shaft of the bone – if the
bone itself is curved (as in the case of the femur) or if it is angled
from the shaft, most of the axis may lie outside the shaft.
Figure 1.11 Mechanical axis

Image derived from: http://d3rzbccgedqypw.cloudfront.net/content/jbjsam/96/24/e199/F1.large.jpg

1.8 THE MAJOR BONES OF THE BODY
1.8.1 Spinal Column
The spinal (vertebral) column consists of 33 vertebrae.

These are divided into five functional units:
→ Cervical vertebrae – the vertebrae of the neck (C1-C7).
→ 12 thoracic vertebrae – the vertebrae of the upper body to which the ribs are attached (T1-T12).
→ 5 lumbar vertebrae – the vertebrae of the lower body (L1-L5).
→ The sacrum - 5 bones fused into a single unit.
→ The coccyx - 4 fused bones which form the “tail” bone (caudal vertebrae).
Figure 1.12 Vertebral column
Natural curves of the spine:
The spine has 4 natural curves – a baby is born with a C shaped vertebral column and the curvatures develop
during infancy. The first curve appears when the infant supports his/her head, the second when he/she sits upright
unassisted.

Figure 1.13 Natural spinal curves
Movements of the spinal column:

Movement between each individual vertebra is limited, but the sum of this limited movement adds up to allow a
considerable range of motion. Apart from the movements of nodding and rotating the head, which take place at
the atlas and axis respectively, flexion (bending forward), extension (bending backwards), lateral movements
(sideways) and rotation (twisting) are all possible.
Table 1.2 Spinal range of motion

Flexion Forward bending is maximal in the lumbar region, but also occurs to a considerable extent in
the cervical region.
Extension Backward bending is maximal in the lumbar region but also takes place in the neck.
Rotation Twisting of the column on the longitudinal (vertical) axis, traversing the nuclei of the discs, is
maximal in the upper thoracic region and negligible elsewhere.
Lateral flexion Bending sideways is maximal in the lumbar and cervical regions.
Circumduction This is the swaying movement which combines all of the above and in which the trunk
describes the surface of a cone, apex down.
The intervertebral discs are thick cushions of fibrocartilage that act as shock absorbers for all movement. They
increase in size down the column until in the lumbar region they are 13mm thick. Together these discs make up

about a quarter of the length of the spine. Each consists of an outer fibrous ring enclosing a marble-like gelatinous
core under considerable tension.
The intervertebral joint therefore consists of the disc between the bodies of the vertebrae and the simple plane
(gliding) synovial joints between the pairs of articular processes on the arches.
Strong strap-like ligaments bind the individual vertebrae together. The anterior and posterior longitudinal
ligaments run the whole length of the spine connecting the anterior and posterior aspects of the bodies
respectively.
Ligamentaflava connect the laminae and help to maintain the erect posture.
Supraspinous ligaments connect the spines.
Because the spine is made up of a number of separate bones united by ligaments and by tough discs of
fibrocartilage (the intervertebral discs), it is constructed to combine strength and mobility.
The connective tissue discs also cushion the vertebrae against jarring (grating) when walking, running, etc. It is
interesting to note that someone can be taller in the morning than at night because during the day the weight of
the body compresses the discs, and the vertebral column can shrink as much as 2 to 3 cm (+ 1 inch).
The bony column protects the spinal cord, supports the viscera and provides surfaces for muscle attachment.
The vertebrae differ in size and shape indicating a division of function.

The atlas and axis (the first 2 cervical vertebrae) are specially adapted to carry the weight of the head and to
facilitate its movement.
The spinal cord passes through the vertebral canal.

The axis (C2) has an odontoid process (dens) that projects upwards and fits into the atlas.
The odontoid process is a stabilizing structure for the articulating skull-atlas-axis unit that is adapted to perform
the simple motions of nodding and shaking the head.
The skull and atlas together rotate on this peg in sideways turning of the head.
The upper facets of the axis articulate with the atlas, the lower facets with C3 (the third cervical vertebra).
The vertebrae fit together so as to leave an opening (intervertebral foramen -an opening through a bone that
usually is the passageway for blood vessels, nerves or ligaments) on each side for the exit of the spinal nerve
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which exit the spine through the intervertebral foramen.
The first cervical nerve emerges between the base of the skull and the first cervical vertebra (C1).
There is only one coccygeal nerve.
Refer to the image on the next page for more detail on spinal nerves location and function.

Figure 1.14 Spinal nerves

Derived from: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/0f/0c/da/0f0cda3e8b7b1796c2333808493c1d27.jpg
A typical vertebra consists of:
A body (core or centrum) - solid box shaped structure situated anteriorly (in front) that
has slightly concave upper and lower surfaces.
The vertebral arch
2 pedicles - short pieces of bone project backwards on posterior of body.
4 articular processes- situated on the upper and lower surface of each vertebra at the
junction of the pedicles and laminae.
2 laminae- project backwards and inwards meeting in the midline.

2 transverse processes - project outwards on each side of the bone.

Vertebral (spinal) foramen or neural canal through which the spinal cord passes.
1 spine or spinous process - projects backwards to form bony protrusions on the back.
Figure 1.15 Typical cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae
Atlanto-occipital articulation
Condyles of occipital bone articulate with

articular fossa of the atlas
The two joints act like a hinge joint
Permit flexion & extension
Figure 1.16 Atlanto-Occipital Articulation

Derived from: http://studydroid.com/imageCards/0l/qb/card-22883897-front.jpg

Atlantoaxial joint
First two cervical vertebrae are the atlas and axis.
Atlas sits on the axis, pivot joint

Sole function is rotation
Held in place by transverse ligament
Figure 1.17 Atlas and axis
Atlas
The atlas (C1) is a simple bony ring without a body. It has 2 articular facets–AF (small, almost flat surfaces)
which are part of the joint with the occipital bone of the skull, where the movement of nodding occurs.
Figure 1.18 Atlas
Except for the atlantoaxial joint, there is not a great deal of movement possible between any two vertebrae.
However, the cumulative effect of combining the movement of several adjacent vertebrae allows for substantial
movements within a given area.
Most of the rotation within the cervical region occurs in the atlantoaxial joint, pivot-type joint. The remainder of
the vertebral articulations are classified as arthrodial or gliding-type joints because of their limited gliding
movements. Gliding movement occurs between the superior and inferior articular processes that form the facet
joints of the vertebrae. Located in between and adhering to the articular cartilage of the vertebral bodies are the
intervertebral disks.

Vertebrae C2-L5 have a similar architecture:
A bony block anteriorly, known as the body

Vertebral foramen (opening) centrally for the spinal cord to pass through
A transverse process projecting out laterally to each side
A spinous process projecting posteriorly that is easily palpable
Figure 1.19 Cervical vertebrae
Thoracic vertebrae:
Facets face backward, slightly upward & sideward

Permit rotation & lateral bending
The thoracic vertebrae have regions for attachment of the ribs.
Figure 1.20 Thoracic vertebrae

Lumbar vertebrae:
Facets face inward & slightly backward

Locked against rotation
Permits flexion & hyperextension
Figure 1.21 Lumbar vertebrae
The sacrum
The sacrum has achieved greater strength through fusion.
Figure 1.22 Sacrum

1.8.2 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
The lower pelvic girdle is quite immobile. This rigidity (firmness) is necessary (essential) as the function of the
pelvis is to support the trunk and transmit weight to the legs and to protect and support the abdominal and pelvic
viscera.
The pelvis is composed of 2 large bones, the coxal on each side and the sacrum in the middle. In early life the
coxal bone consists of 3 parts separated by cartilage and, although in the adult these have become united, the
bone is usually described in 3 parts:
Figure 1.23 Coxal bone
All 3 bones are united and each forms part of the deep socket (the acetabulum) in which the head of the femur
fits.
The ilium’s external surface has 3 gluteal ridges from which the gluteal muscles arise – the gluteus maximus
from above the superior gluteal line, the gluteus medius between the superior and middle lines and the gluteus
minimus below the middle line. The iliacus muscle arises from the internal surface.
The two ilia meet at the sacrum where strong ligaments bind these bones together (the sacroiliac joint).
Immediately below the sacroiliac joint is the great sciatic notch through which the sciatic nerve passes.
The iliac crest (a narrow ridge like process) ends in a process of bone called the anterior superior spine.
This anterior spine of the ilium and the pubic tubercle are spanned in a straight line by the inguinal
ligament of the groin. The inguinal ligament separates the thigh from the abdomen. The great vessels and
nerves pass under the ligament into the limb from the trunk.
The iliopectineal line marks the junction of the ilium with the ischium.
The ischium, the lower posterior part of the coxal bone carries the broad ischial tuberosity (a knoblike process
usually larger than a tubercle) that takes the body weight in sitting. The bone you sit on (the ischium) is the origin
of the hamstring muscles.

Figure 1.24 Pelvis (medial and lateral view)
The pubis is the front part of the coxal bone. It articulates with the pubis on the opposite coxal bone at the
symphysis pubis.
Projecting from its outer part and joining it to the ilium is a bridge of bone called the superior ramus. Projecting
from the lower part and joining it to the ischium is the inferior ramus.
On the superior ramus is a process called the pubic tubercle (that can be felt at the inner end of the fold of the
groin) to which the medial end of the inguinal ligament is attached. The pubis is the origin of the adductor
muscles.
The bony pelvis falls naturally into two parts. The upper part, the “false pelvis” formed by the two iliac bones
and the “true pelvis” which is bound by the ischium, pubis and sacrum. The upper opening of the true pelvis is
called the pelvic brim.
Figure 1.25 Pelvis (anterior view)

1.8.3 Bones of the Lower Limb
The femur
The rounded head of the femur fits into the acetabulum.

The large process at the upper end of the shaft is called the great trochanter (a relatively large process); the
smaller bony prominence is the lesser trochanter. The raised bony ridge (anterior) that runs from the greater to
the lesser trochanter, is called the intertrochanteric crest.
The lineaaspera is a rough and defined ridge for the attachment of muscles on the posterior aspect of the shaft.
Towards the lower end of the shaft the lineaaspera divides into 2 smaller ridges, one of which passes to each of
the condyles. The triangular area enclosed by these ridges is the popliteal surface of the femur. The medial
and lateral condyles of the femur (separated behind by the intercondyle fossa - a relatively deep pit or
depression) are the articular surfaces that form part of the knee joint.
Not far below the neck of the femur, the posterior surface is marked by the gluteal tuberosity, the insertion of
the gluteus maximus muscle. The adductor tubercle (a small, knoblike process) at the summit of the medial
condyle (a rounded process that usually articulates with another bone) is the lowest attachment of the adductor
group of muscles.
Figure 1.26 Femur (a) anterior (b) posterior view

Patella
The patella or kneecap is a sesamoid bone situated entirely within the tendon of the quadriceps extensor
muscle. It is roughly triangular (apex downward). The posterior surface articulates with the smooth surface of the
femur just above the origin of the condyles.
Figure 1.27 Patella
Tibia and fibula
The quadriceps tendon is inserted into the upper pole and the muscle pull is transmitted to the patellar
ligament that connects the lower pole to the tubercle of the tibia. The tibia and the fibula are the paired
bones of the leg on the medial and lateral sides respectively.
They articulate with each other at the superior (proximal) and inferior (distal) tibiofibular joint. Only the tibia
articulates with the femur at the knee, both the tibia and the fibula articulate with the talus bone of the tarsus
at the ankle joint.
The lower ends of the tibia and fibula are held firmly together by ligaments and by the interosseous membrane,
which divides the leg into anterior and posterior compartments?
The tibia has a long shaft, triangular in cross section, with medial, lateral and posterior surfaces and medial,
lateral and posterior borders. The anterior border is the sharp subcutaneous crest that can be felt at the shin from
the knee to ankle.
The fibula transmits little body weight and takes no part in the formation of the knee joint.
The head (at the upper extremity) articulates with the lateral condyle of the tibia and carries at its
apex a pointed styloid process, the insertion of the biceps femoris and the attachment of the lateral ligament of
the knee. The lower extremity forms the lateral malleolus on the inner aspect that is the articular
surface for the talus.

Figure 1.28 Tibia and fibula
The bones of the foot
There are:
Tarsal bones (in the
ankle)
5 Metatarsal
(between the ankle
and the toes)
14 Phalanges (the
bones of the toes - 3
in each toe except
the big toe which has
2)
The long axis of the foot, to which adduction

and abduction of the toes are referred, is the
2nd metatarsal (not the middle bone as in the
hand).
On the posterior margin of the calcaneus

is attached the important Achilles tendon.
Figure 1.29 Bones of the foot

The arches of the foot
A study of the general architecture of the foot shows that it is not flat, but consists of a longitudinal arch (most
marked on its medial aspect). The medial arch originates at the calcaneus and rises to the talus, then descends to
the three medial metatarsals. The lateral longitudinal arch is very low. It elevates the lateral part of the foot just
enough to redistribute some of the weight to the calcaneus and the head of the fifth metatarsal.
The foot is also arched transversely (the metatarsal arch). This arch is most marked at the level of the base of the
metatarsal bones.
These arches are maintained by strong ligaments aided by muscles and are important in maintaining correct
posture throughout the body. Therefore the feet should be exercised.
Figure 1.30 Arches of the foot

1.8.4 Bones of the Thorax
Ribs
The 12 RIBS are situated in the upper body, 7 are attached to the STERNUM (breastbone) and the spinal
column.
Figure 1.31 Rib cage

Ribs (12 Pairs)
True ribs: Seven upper ribs on each side of the sternum (joined to the sternum directly by cartilage).
False ribs: The next three pairs are called false ribs because they are not joined directly to the sternum, only
fastened by cartilage to the cartilage of the rib directly above.
Floating ribs: The last two ribs, have no cartilage, their anterior ends being embedded in the flank muscles of
the abdomen.
A typical rib has a head (side of the vertebral body), a neck, a shaft and an anterior end that is hollowed out
and attaches to the costal cartilage. In this way ribs connect the vertebrae to the sternum. The intercostal spaces
are filled with layers of muscle between which run nerves, arteries and veins (one of each in each space).
Sternum
The sternum is the flat bone in the center of the chest with anterior (front) and posterior (back) surfaces. It is
divided into 3 parts, namely the manubrium, the gladiolus or body and the xiphoid (ensiform) process (a prominent
projection on a bone).
The manubrium sterni is the broad, flat and uppermost part of the bone to which the inner ends of the clavicle
(the sternoclavicular joint) and the first ribs on each side are attached. The body is a flat, oblong bone – the
cartilage of the second rib joins it at the level of its union (joining) with the manubrium; the cartilages of the 3rd,
4th, 5th and 6th ribs are attached along the length of the bone, the 7th meeting at its junction with the xiphoid
process.
The xiphoid (lower extremity of the sternum) sometimes remains cartilaginous but it is usually ossified in the adult.
The fibers of the lineusalba and rectus abdominus muscles and part of the diaphragm are attached to the xiphoid.
Figure 1.32 Sternum

Derived from: http://images.wisegeek.com/latin-labels-of-the-sternum.jpg

Scapular/shoulder girdle
The shoulder girdle is an encircling arrangement of bones designed to connect the shoulder region to the
central axial skeleton. Stability in this area is provided by muscle rather than bone to allow maximum mobility
of the arm and hand. To achieve this mobility the shoulder girdle is wide and open behind, where the scapula are
attached to the spine by muscle so that they can move freely on the trunk.
Each half of the shoulder girdle is made up of 2 bones, the scapula and the clavicle (it is responsible for bearing
a considerable part of the burden of the hanging arm). Halfway round the girdle on each side is the shallow
glenoid fossa of the scapula accommodating the humeral head and the shoulder joint.
The scapula or shoulder blade is a flat, triangular bone with 2 surfaces. The anterior surface (known as the
subscapular fossa) is slightly concave. It lies nearest the ribs and gives attachment to the subscapularis muscle
The posterior surface is slightly convex and is divided into 2 equal parts by a ridge of bone (the spine of the
scapula). The upper, smaller part (the supraspinous fossa) gives origin to the supraspinatus muscle and the
larger part (the infraspinous fossa) provides the attachment for the infraspinatus muscle.
The upper part of the spine gives attachment to the trapezius muscle and the lower part of the deltoid muscle.
The acromion process of the scapula has a facet for articulation with the clavicle. On the superior border
outward from the superior angle is the suprascapular notch for the passage of an artery and nerve. Further
outward on the border is the coracoid process for attachment of the short head of the biceps and pectoralis
minor muscles.
At the upper end of the glenoid cavity a small tubercle is the attachment site of the long head of the biceps
and from just below the glenoid cavity begins the long head of the triceps.
Figure 1.33 Shoulder girdle

Figure 1.34 Right Scapula (a) posterior (b) medial (c) anterior view
The clavicle is a long curved bone connecting the acromium process to the upper part of the sternum (the
manubrium). Ligaments hold the clavicle firmly in position.
Figure 1.35 The clavicle

Image derived from: http://kreativestudios.com/Tooltip/06Skeletal/03AppendicularSkeleton/images/clavicle.png
1.8.5 Upper Limb
Humerus - upper arm
The Humerus extends from shoulder to elbow. The humeral head articulates with the glenoid cavity of
the scapula to form the shoulder joint (ball and socket).
Opposite the humeral head are 2 prominences, the greater and lesser tuberosities, that give attachment to
the small rotator muscles that surround the joint. The greater tuberosity forms the point of the shoulder beneath
the overhanging acromion.
The tuberosities are separated by the bicipital groove that carries the tendon of the long head of the biceps.
Halfway down the outer side of the shaft is the area for attachment of the deltoid muscle (the deltoid tuberosity).
On the posterior surface curving just below the deltoid tubercle is the spiral groove for the radial nerve. At the
lower end of the shaft 2 prominences overhang the elbow joint on each side – these are the medial and lateral
epicondyles.
The former is the origin of the flexor muscles of the wrist and fingers. The ulna nerve passes down behind
the medial epicondyle.

The medial portion, the trochlea, articulates with the trochlear (great sigmoid) notch of the ulna. The lateral
portion (capitellum or capitulum) articulates with the head of the radius. On the anterior surface of the bone
immediately above the articular surface is a deep depression, the coronoid fossa that accommodates the
coronoid process of the ulna when the elbow is flexed. On the posterior surface is the olecranon fossa for the
olecranon process of the ulna when the elbow is extended.
Figure 1.36 Humerus (a) anterior (b) posterior view
Ulna & Radius - forearm
The Radius is the lateral bone of the forearm. At the upper extremity is a circular head on which is a depression
for articulation with the capitulum of the humerus. The circumference of the head articulates within the ring formed
by the radial notch (lesser sigmoid cavity) of the ulna and the annular ligament of the elbow joint. It is within this
ring that the head rotates during movements of pronation and supination. The neck is the narrower portion of
bone below the head and, below the neck, on the medial side, is the bicipital tuberosity for the insertion of the
biceps.
The lower end of the radius carries the styloid process that lies lower than the ulna styloid (this can be felt on the
medial aspect just above the base of the thumb). Both forearm bones have a sharp interosseous border to which
the interosseous membrane is attached. This stretches between the two bones. This divides the length of the
forearm into anterior (flexor muscles of the wrist and fingers) and posterior compartments (extensor muscles).

The Ulna, the medial bone of the forearm, is slightly longer than the radius. The upper end carries the olecranon
process (the point of the elbow). This fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus and the coronoid process in
front corresponds to the coronoid fossa.
The C shaped trochlear notch separates these two processes. The trochlear notch articulates with the trochlear
process of the humerus. Just below this, on the outer aspect of the ulna, is the radial notch that articulates with
the circumference of the head of the radius.
NOTE: When the arm is in the anatomic position the radius and ulna are parallel (i.e. with the forearm and hand
in supination). When the forearm is rotated so that the back of the hand faces forwards the radius lies partly across
the ulna, i.e. in pronation)
Figure 1.37 Radius and ulna

The bones of the wrist and hand
8 forming the wrist – carpus.

5 metacarpal bones (between the carpus and phalanges).
14 phalanges – the bones of the fingers (3 in each finger and 2 in the thumb). The joints
between the metacarpals and the phalanges are the metacarpo-phalangeal joints. The joints
between the phalanges are the interphalangeal joints.
Figure 1.38 Bones of wrist and hand
CONCLUSION
Knowledge of the shape and position of the skeletal bones aids the understanding of how and in which directions
the body can move. The axial and appendicular skeleton discussed in this chapter provides the foundation for the
understanding of the articulations covered in the following chapter.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 6:
ARTICULATIONS
The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the different types of joints in
the body, the various joint structures, direction and range of motion of these joints.
OBJECTIVES:
Explain how the joints of the body enable movement.

Classify the joints according to movement.
Describe the structure and function of the synovial joint.
Explain the factors that affect joint range of motion and stability.
Explain the structure and function of connective tissue in joint stability.

2.1 JOINTS
Joints occur wherever 2 or more bones meet. They vary considerably in structure and function and are classified in
two ways:
According to the degree of movement they allow, i.e. they may be immovable, slightly movable
or freely movable.
Currently, structural classification is more commonly used. In other words, they are classified
according to the type of tissue that binds the joint together, i.e. fibrous, cartilaginous or
synovial.
Bones forming the joints of the limbs are protected by 2 factors that limit the amount of friction between articulating
bones and also act as shock absorbers:
A special type of spongy, elastic tissue called cartilage
A fluid-filled hollow within the joint
Strands of fibrous tissue known as ligaments connect the bones and act as stabilizers of the joints by preventing
unnecessary movement.
Fibrous tissue is composed of threads of protein called collagen. Collagen forms the framework of all the tissues of
the body. When threads of collagen are packed closely together in dense bundles, they form the fibrous connective
tissue that is found in joint ligaments, muscles, tendons, etc. (See ‘Structure of Connective tissue’ at the end of this
section).
2.2 FUNCTION AND TYPES OF JOINTS
The primary function of a joint is to allow movement, while the secondary function is that of providing stability
without interfering with movement.
2.2.1 Fibrous Joints
Look at the sutures between the flat bones of the skull. These bones are bound together by a thin layer of dense
connective tissue. No appreciable movement takes place at a fibrous joint although some fibrous joints have limited
movement, e.g. joint between the distal ends of the tibia and fibula.
Figure 2.1 Fibrous joints

2.2.2 Ligamentous Joints
Two bones joined together by one or more ligaments in the form of cords, bands or flat sheets. The movement that
occurs is usually limited and non-specific, e.g. Coraco-acromial union, mid-union of radius and ulna.
2.2.3 Cartilaginous Joints
These are slightly moveable joints. Discs of cartilage or hyaline cartilage connect the bones. The cartilage is both
strong and elastic. Cartilage joins the ribs to the sternum and the two halves of the pelvis at the pubis symphysis.
Each intervertebral disk is composed of a band of fibrocartilage (annulus fibrosis) surrounding a pulpy or gelatinous
core (nucleus pulposus). The discs act as shock absorbers and help to equalize pressure between adjacent vertebrae
during movement. Hyaline cartilage joints such as the epiphyseal unions allow only slight compression.
2.2.4 Synovial Joints
Most joints within the skeletal system are synovial joints which allow free movement. They are structurally more
complex than fibrous and cartilaginous joints.
Figure 2.2 Structure of a synovial joint
The articulating ends of the bones are covered with a layer of hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage).
The articular surfaces fit closely together and are held in position by a tubular capsule of dense connective tissue. This
joint/articular capsule is composed of an outer layer of ligaments and an inner lining of synovial membrane
which secretes synovial fluid. Synovial fluid acts as a lubricant for the joint, nourishes the articular cartilage and
carries away waste products.

Some synovial joints have flattened, shock-absorbing pads of fibrocartilage that project from the deep surface of the
capsule into the joint cavity, e.g. the ends of the clavicles, between lower jaw and skull, the wrist and the knee joints.
The menisci (also known as semilunar cartilages because of their half-moon shape) of the knee are particularly
susceptible to injury. (NB. Singular of menisci is meniscus). Such joints may also have fluid filled sacs called bursae
which act to decrease friction during movement. Each bursa is lined with synovial membrane that may be continuous
with the synovial membrane of a nearby joint cavity.
Bursae are “protective structures” commonly located between skin and underlying bony prominences. They aid the
movement of tendons over bones or other tendons .
Types of Synovial Joints
Based on the shapes of their parts and the movements they permit; synovial joints are classified as follows:
Gliding joints (also known as plane joints):

Definition: Joint surfaces are irregularly shaped – usually flat or slightly curved. They are non-axial joints
that only allow sliding and twisting movements.
Found: This group includes the joints between the closely articulating bones of the wrist and the ankle, as
well as those between the articular processes of adjacent vertebrae. The sacro-iliac joints and the joints
connecting ribs 2-7 with the sternum are also gliding joints.
Hinge joints:
Definition: The convex surface of one bone is gripped within the concave surface of another. These are
uni-axial joints with strong collateral ligaments that permit movement in one plane about a single axis of
motion only (like the hinge of a door).
Found: Movements that occur are flexion and extension, e.g. elbow joint. The knee is referred to as a
modified hinge joint as it allows bi-axial movement when flexed.
Pivot joints:
Definition: This type of joint allows rotation around a central axis and may be characterized by a peg-like
pivot (joint between the atlas and axis vertebrae) or by 2 long bones fitting against each other, e.g. the
proximal radioulnar joint of the forearm where the head of the radius rotates within a ring-like ligament
secured to the ulna in such a way that one bone can roll around the other. The only movement permitted in
either kind of pivot joint is rotation.
Found: Radio-ulnar joint in pronation and supination, atlanto-axial joint.
Condyloid joints:
Definition: An oval or egg-shaped convex surface fits into an elliptical cavity forming a bi-axial joint that
allows movement in 2 planes – forward and backward (flexion and extension) and from side to side
(abduction and adduction).
Performed sequentially, these movements allow circumduction, although rotational movement is not
possible.
Found: the joints between the metacarpals and phalanges.
Saddle joints:
Definition: This may be thought of as a modification of a condyloid joint since it allows movement in 2
planes of motion, but in this case one bone sits in the articular surface of the other – like a western saddle –
allowing a greater range of movement than the condyloid joint. It is also a bi-axial joint permitting flexion,
extension, abduction, adduction and circumduction.
Found: Carpo-metacarpal joint of the thumb.
Ball and Socket joints:

Definition: The ball shaped head of one bone fits into the cup-shaped cavity of another bone forming a tri-
axial joint that permits movement in all planes of motion, as well as rotational movement around a central
axis.
Found: Shoulder and hip joints.

Table 2.1 Type of joints
Type of joint Description Possible Movements
Fibrous A thin layer of dense connective tissue None

holds articulating bones together.
Articulating bones are connected by

Cartilaginous hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage Limited movements, as when
the back is bent or twisted
Synovial A joint capsule of ligaments and Allow free movement
synovial membranes surrounds
articulating bones; ends of articulating
bones are covered by hyaline cartilage
and separated by synovial fluid
Types of Synovial Joints
Ball and socket Ball-shaped head of one bone Movements in all planes and
articulates with cup-shaped cavity of rotation
another
Condyloid Oval-shaped condyle of one bone Variety of movements in

articulates with elliptical cavity of different planes, but no rotation
another

Gliding Articulating surfaces are nearly flat or Sliding or twisting

slightly curved
Hinge Convex surface of one bone articulates Flexion and extension

with concave surface of another
Pivot Cylindrical surface of one bone Rotation around a central

articulates with ring of bone and axis
ligament
Saddle Articulating surfaces have both concave Variety of movements

and convex regions; the surface of one
bone fits the complementary surface of
another

2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING JOINT RANGE OF MOTION
Main factors affecting range of movement and joint stability:
The shape of the articular surfaces

The restraining effect of the ligaments/capsule tension
The controlling action of the muscles and their tendons
Additional factors affecting ROM:
Body type and apposition of soft tissues, e.g. ROM in endomorph or mesomorph may be
limited by fat or muscle mass.
Personal exercise habits
Current state of physical fitness
Age
2.4 JOINT STABILITY
The main factors contributing to joint stability are:
Joint ligaments, e.g. lateral ligaments of hinge joints. Joint specific warm-up exercises will
increase area temperature and allow the ligament to stretch without injury.
Muscle tension: As a general rule, the smaller the angle of attachment between muscle and
bone, the greater the stabilizing action.
Fascia: Fibrous connective tissue sheath around muscles.
Atmospheric pressure (Steindler 1970).
The shape of the bone structure (Luttgen & Hamilton, 1997).
Dislocation of the elbow, hip and ankle are rare because of the stability of the bony articulation.
The articulations of the shoulder, intervertebral joints and knee are far less stable and must rely
on strong ligaments and muscles to maintain their integrity. Exercises to strengthen the
muscles supporting these bony structures should therefore be incorporated into exercise
programmes.
NB: The hip and shoulder joints are both ball and socket joints, but they differ markedly
in stability. Compare the depth of the cup-like acetabulum of the hip joint with that of
the smaller, shallower glenoid fossa of the shoulder joint.
2.5 STRUCTURE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissue has a number of functions:
It binds structures
Provides support and protection
Serves as a framework
Fills spaces
Stores fat
Produces blood cells
Protects against infections
Repairs tissue damage

Connective tissue consists of a variety of cells embedded in an extracellular matrix. This matrix consists of fibers and
a ground substance that varies from semisolid to solid.
The following cell types are found within the matrix:
Fibroblasts: Produce fibers by secreting proteins into the extracellular matrix of connective
tissue.
Macrophages: Protective cell type. Clears foreign debris from tissue.
Mast cells: Release heparin which prevents clotting of the blood and histamine which has arole
in the body’s inflammatory process and allergies.
Connective tissue proper has two subclasses:
Loose connective tissue consists of areolar, adipose and reticular (this is not discussed in
the context of this course).
Dense connective tissue (dense regular, dense irregular and elastic). Except for
bone, cartilage and blood, all mature connective tissue belongs in this class.
Dense regular connective tissue contains closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running parallel to the
direction of pull. Among the collagen fibers are rows of fibroblasts that continuously manufacture fibers. The collagen
fibers are slightly wavy allowing the tissue to stretch slightly; once the fibers straighten out there is no further “give”.
This tissue has great tensile strength and forms tendons, aponeuroses and ligaments. Ligaments contain more elastic
fibers than tendons and therefore have the ability to stretch slightly.
Figure 2.3 Dense Connective Tissue
Dense irregular connective tissue has the same structural elements as dense regular connective tissue, but the
bundles of collagen fibers are much thicker and are arranged irregularly (in more than one plane). This type of tissue
forms sheets where tension is exerted from different directions. It is found in the skin and it forms fibrous joint
capsules and the fibrous coverings of some organs.

Cartilage has qualities of dense connective tissue and bone. It contains firmly bound collagen fibers and, in some
cases, elastic fibers. It is tough but flexible. A well-vascularized dense irregular connective tissue membrane
surrounds the surfaces of most cartilage structures. Cartilage itself is avascular and aging cartilage cells lose their
ability to divide and tend to calcify. Cartilage heals slowly when injured.
Figure 2.4 Sketch of Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage, containing a large number of collagen fibers, is the most abundant type of cartilage in the body.
It covers the ends of long bones, providing pads that absorb compression at joints. It forms supporting cartilage for
many body structures and connects the ribs to the sternum. Hyaline cartilage forms the “growth plate” (epiphysis) in
long bones.
Fibrocartilage consists of rows of chondrocytes (a feature of cartilage) alternating with rows of thick collagen
fibers. It is found in areas where strong support together with the ability to withstand heavy pressure is required.
The intervertebral discs and the spongy cartilages of the knee are fibrocartilage structures.
Figure 2.5 Sketch of fibrocartilage

(Marieb, E.N. (1998) Human Anatomy & Physiology Fourth Edition)

2.5 RANGE OF MOVEMENTS OF THE MAJOR SYNOVIAL JOINTS
2.5.1 Joints of the Shoulder Girdle and Upper Limb
The Shoulder Joint:

(Synovial – ball and socket joint)
The outer margin of the glenoid cavity is deepened by a ring of fibro-cartilage (the glenoid ligament). The
capsule is loose to allow free movement.
The tendons of the small rotator muscles overcome this instability. The latter supports the joint structure
thus compensating for the anatomical deficiency.
The tendon of the long head of the biceps passes through the synovial cavity and crosses the top of the
head of the humerus to maintain stability.
Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation.

The Acromio-clavicular joint:

(Synovial – gliding)
Surrounded by a capsule and allows limited movement in all directions.

The clavicle is also attached to the coracoid process of the scapula by a strong ligament.
The Sterno-clavicular joint:

(Synovial – gliding)
Allows a moderate degree of movement.

The ends of the bones are separated by fibro-cartilage.

The Elbow Joint:

(Synovial – Hinge joint)
The tendon of the biceps muscle at its lower end passes in front of the joint and that of the triceps behind.
Movements: Flexion and extension
The Radio-ulnar joint:

(Synovial – pivot joint)
The radius rotates around the ulna.

Movements: Supination and pronation

The Wrist joint:

(Synovial – condyloid joint)
The radio-carpal joint.

Movements: Flexion, (palmar flexion), extension (dorsiflexion), abduction and adduction.
Carpal joints:
(Synovial – condyloid joints)
The metacarpo-phalangeal joints are condyloid, have movements of flexion and extension, abduction and
adduction.

Interphalangeal joints:
(Synovial – hinge joints)
The interphalangeal joints are hinge joints, allowing flexion and extension.
Thumb and the carpels:

(Synovial – saddle joints)
The saddle joint between the thumb and the carpals allows a movement called opposition touch your thumb
to the tips of the other fingers on the same hand. This movement makes the human hand an excellent tool
for grasping and manipulating objects

2.5.2 Joints of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
Sacro-iliac joint:
(Synovial – gliding joint).
Little movement takes place at this joint, strong ligaments hold the bones in apposition.
Symphysis pubis:
(Cartilaginous joint).
Very little movement takes place at this joint.

The bones are held together by ligaments and are separated by a pad of fibrocartilage.

The Hip joint:

(Synovial – ball and socket)
The essential feature of the hip joint is stability combined with a reasonable degree of movement. The
femoral head is deeply buried in the socket of the acetabulum and bound by strong ligaments, the ilio-
femoral, the pubo-femoral and the ischio-femoral ligaments. The ligamentumteres, a fibrous band extending
from the head of the femur to the rim of the acetabulum is slack during most hip movements and is
therefore not important in stabilizing the joint.
Muscle tendons that cross the joint and the bulky hip and thigh muscles contribute to its stability and
strength.
Movements: Flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction, rotation
The Knee joint:

(Synovial – hinge joint)
This is the largest joint in the body.

The medial and lateral ligaments strengthen the capsule.
The cruciate ligaments cross each other as they join the femur to the tibia.
The menisci (medial and lateral semilunar cartilages) help deepen the articular surface.
Movements: Flexion and extension.

The Tibio-fibula joint:

(Synovial – gliding joint).
Little movement takes place between these bones.

Firm union of the inferior tibio-fibula joint is necessary to give stability to the ankle joint below.
The Ankle joint:
(Synovial – hinge joint)
The medial and lateral ligaments strengthen the capsule of the joint.
Movements: Flexion (dorsiflexion), extension (plantar flexion), inversion and eversion, supination and
pronation.

The Tarsal Joints:
The Tarsals and tarso-metatarsal joints are synovial – gliding joints.

Metatarso-phalangeal joints are synovial – condyloid joints.
The joints of the phalanges are synovial – gliding joint.
2.6 EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BONE AND SYNOVIAL JOINTS
2.6.1 Bone
Physical exercise places stress on bone and, in the short term, it is not uncommon for novices on a running or
aerobics programme to experience shin splints.
WHY Does this happen? The reason for this is that bone weakens at the commencement of training (exercise
stresses the body and “breaks down” body structures).
The “too much, too soon” syndrome can therefore result in injury in novices and de-conditioned people who embark
too enthusiastically on an endurance, high impact or strength training programme.
WHAT can you do? As long as training remains within acceptable levels and impact stress is controlled, bone will
respond to the stress of exercise by becoming stronger. This takes place over a period of approximately 6 months.
Regular exercise is recommended to maintain the health and normal density of the skeleton, particularly in
postmenopausal women when a reduction in oestrogen production can result in a loss in bone mass. Research has
shown that two to three hours of exercise a week may reduce the rate of bone mineral loss that occurs with age.

2.6.2 Joints
Exercise is also recommended to maintain the health and flexibility of the joints.
The following applies particularly to synovial joints:
The amount of synovial fluid produced depends on the physical activity of the joint.
Periods of inactivity result in less synovial fluid being produced causing stiffness and
grating of the joints.
During exercise a joint should be conducted through its full range of motion to increase
flexibility.
Particular care must be taken in certain exercises to avoid placing unnecessary strain on joints
and ligaments, e.g. knee extensions.
CONCLUSION
Most joints within the skeletal system are synovial joints which allow free movement. They are structurally more
complex than fibrous and cartilaginous joints. The major synovial joints were discussed in this chapter.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 7:
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM:
SPINE, SHOULDER &
SHOULDER GIRDLE
This chapter presents detailed descriptions and illustrations of the muscular system of
the human body. A sound knowledge of the muscular system is imperative for the
trainer to choose appropriate exercises to target specific muscle groups.
OBJECTIVES:
Identify the origin and insertion of the major muscles involved in movement
of the spine, shoulder and shoulder girdle.
Describe all muscle movements using the correct terminology e.g. abduction,
lateral flexion, etc.
Select exercises to target specific muscles and muscle groups of the spine,
shoulder and shoulder girdle
CHAPTER 7: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: SPINE, SHOULDER AND SHOULDER GIRDLE
1.1 CERVICAL SPINE
Bone Structures
Joint Type:
Atlanto-occipital: synovial joint (hinge joint)
Antlo-axial: synovial joint (pivot joint)
Cervical vertebrae: cartilaginous
Table 1.1 Cervical spine skeletal features

Atlanto-Occipital joint: Hinge joint
Actions: flexion and extension (no
rotation)
50% of flexion and extension occurs
between C0 (Occipital)-C1.
Posterior aspect of skull and Cervical spine

First two cervical vertebrae
Atlas (C1): Circular positioned on Axis
(C2).
C2 serves as axis of rotation during
lateral rotation of cervical spine. The
atlas rotates on the axis.
50% of rotation at neck occurs
between C1 and C2.
Typical cervical vertebrae

Actions of the cervical spine
Table 1.2 Range of motion of cervical spine

Images derived
from:http://nursing411.org/Courses/MD0556_Basic_Patient_Care_Procedures/MD0556/images/MD0556_img_27.
jpg
Joint movement Active ROM
(degrees)
Flexion 45
Extension, hyperextension 45
a) Flexion b) Return from flexion c)

Hyper extension
(extension)
Lateral flexion 45
Lateral rotation 60
The muscles responsible for the above mentioned cervical movements are described next.
NECK FLEXION (CERVICAL SPINE FLEXION)
MAJOR CERVICAL SPINE FLEXORS:

STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID,
SCALENES (anterior, middle, posterior)
Figure 1.1 Anterior aspect of Cerival vertebrae: Cervical spine flexors
ROLE OF MAJOR NECK FLEXORS:

When both sides contract the head is pulled towards the chest.
Functional Interpretation of Origin and Insertion

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens
towards the center of the muscle.
The head moves toward the chest during concentric
muscle contraction when the chest is stabilized
because muscle originates on sternum and clavicle
and inserts on head (insertion moves toward origin).
Refer to Annexure A for more details on Origin and

Insertion of the major neck flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE CERVICAL SPINE FLEXORS
Neck flexion with resistance band

NECK EXTENSION (CERVICAL SPINE EXTENSION)
MAJOR CERVICAL SPINE EXTENSORS:

SEMISPINALIS CAPITIS
SEMISPINALIS CERVICIS
Figure 1.2 Posterior aspect of cervical spine: cervical spine extensors
ROLE OF MAJOR NECK EXTENSORS:

When both sides contract the head is pulled backward. i.e. from neck
flexion back to fundamental position (upright) or from fundamental
position backward towards the upper back.
Functional interpretation of origin and insertion:

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens towards the
center of the muscle.
The head moves backwards toward the origin of the muscles
on the thoracic vertebrae (middle of back).
Refer to Annexure A for more details on Origin and Insertion

of the major neck extensors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE CERVICAL SPINE EXTENSORS
Neck extension with resistance band

NECK LATERAL FLEXION (CERVICAL SPINE LATERAL FLEXION)
MAJOR CERVICAL SPINE LATERAL FLEXORS:

ONE SIDED (LEFT OR RIGHT) CONTRACTION OF:
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
SCALENES
Figure 1.3 Anterior aspect of Cervical vertebrae: Cervical spine lateral flexors
ROLE OF MAJOR NECK LATERAL FLEXORS:

Contraction of the neck lateral flexors pull the head towards the shoulder
on the same side.
The head moves sideways toward the shoulder during muscle
contraction.
Refer to Annexure A for more details on Origin and Insertion of

the major neck lateral flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE CERVICAL SPINE

LATERAL FLEXORS
Neck lateral flexion with resistance band

NECK LATERAL ROTATION (CERVICAL SPINE LATERAL ROTATION)
MAJOR CERVICAL SPINE LATERAL ROTATION:

STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
SCALENES
Figure 1.4 Anterior aspect of cervical vertebrae: Cervical spine lateral rotators
ROLE OF MAJOR NECK LATERAL ROTATORS:

Contraction of the neck lateral rotators on one side rotate the head in the opposite direction.
Functional interpretation of origin and insertion

The skull rests on the first cervical vertebrae which twists/
rotates on the second cervical vertebrae. When the neck lateral
rotators contract the head laterally rotates to the opposite side.
Refer to annexure A for more details on Origin and Insertion of

the major neck lateral rotators.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE CERVICAL SPINE

LATERAL ROTATORS
Neck lateral rotation with resistance band

1.2 THORACIC AND LUMBAR SPINE

Bone Structures:
Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae: synovial
Ribs: First rib and ribs 10-12 have single articulation with the corresponding vertebrae - synovial joints. Ribs 2-9
have two articulations – one with the corresponding vertebra and one with the vertebra superior to that.
Table 1.3 Thoracic and lumbar spine skeletal features

https://farm4.staticflickr.com/3528/4073967745_84b47545b1_o_d.jpg;
http://www.americorpshealth.biz/physiology/regional-characteristics-of-vertebrae.html
Thoracic vertebrae 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12)

Superior view 12 pairs of ribs attach to 12 thoracic vertebrae
Lack the transverse foramina and bifid
processes of the cervical vertebrae
Distinctive features:
o Body: small, smooth, slightly concave spots
(costal facets – attachments for ribs), heart
shaped body,
o Size: greater than cervical vertebrae and
smaller than lumbar vertebrae
o T1-T10 shallow, cuplike transverse costal
facets found at end of transverse processes
(second articulating point for ribs 1-10).
o T11-T12 have no transverse costal facets
Variations in thoracic vertebrae are relative to
the articulation of ribs to vertebrae
Lateral view (right)
Lumbar vertebrae Five lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5)

Superior view Distinctive features:
o Body: thick, stout body
o Spinous process: blunt, squarish spinous
process
o Superior processes: L1: superior articular
surfaces face dorsally to meet the inferior
processes of T12, L2-L5: superior
processes face medially
o Inferior processes: L1-L5: face laterally
Lumbar vertebrae (lateral view)

Lumbar vertebrae (continue)
Lateral view (right)
Ribs
Figure 1.4 Thorax – ribs 1-12

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/a3/8a/2c/a38a2c5ea167025010a32e1cbb9157f1.jpg
Actions of the thoracic and lumbar spine
Table 1.4 Range of motion of thoracic and lumbar spine

Images derived from: http://healthhabits.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/spinal-movement.gif
Joint movement Active ROM (degrees)
Flexion 80
Extension (20-30) 20-30
Lumbar lateral flexion 35 (each side)
Lateral rotation (45) 45

THORACO-LUMBAR FLEXION
MAJOR THORACIC AND LUMBAR FLEXORS:

RECTUS ABDOMINIS
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL OBLIQUE ABDOMINALS
Figure 1.5 Anterior aspect of Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae: Flexors
ROLE OF MAJOR THORACO-LUMBAR FLEXORS:

Contraction of the thoraco-lumbar flexors pulls the chest towards the pelvis.

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens towards the center
of the muscle.
The chest moves toward the pelvis during concentric muscle
contraction when the pelvis is stabilized.
Refer to Annexure A for more details on Origin and Insertion of the

major thoraco-lumbar flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE THORACO-LUMBAR FLEXORS
Crunches
THORACO-LUMBAR EXTENSION
MAJOR THORACO-LUMBAR EXTENSORS:

ERECTOR SPINAE
Figure 1.6 Posterior aspect of Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae: Extensors

Derived from: http://www.musclesused.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Erector-Spinae-copy.jpg
ROLE OF MAJOR THORACO-LUMBAR EXTENSORS:

Contraction of the thoraco-lumbar extensors pulls the upper backwards, i.e. from thoraco-lumbar flexion back to
fundamental position (upright) or from fundamental position backward.

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens towards the center of the muscle.
The upper back moves backwards toward the origin of the muscles on the thoracic vertebrae (middle of
back).
Refer to Annexure A for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major thoraco-lumbar spine
extensors.
Functional interpretation of origin and insertion:

The various insertions move toward the related origins, this leads to thoracic and lumbar
spinal extension. The muscle attaches to both the trunk and pelvis. Movement is
dependent on which part (thorax or pelvis) is stabilized due to body positioning. If the
pelvis is stabilized the torso moves toward the pelvis (via eccentric contraction) and vice
versa. If both aspects are free to move (not stabilized at either end) more than one
action can take place (http://clinicalgate.com/axial-skeleton-muscle-and-joint-
interactions/).
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE THORACO-LUMBAR EXTENSORS
Back extensions
THORACO-LUMBAR LATERAL FLEXION
MAJOR THORACO-LUMBAR SPINE LATERAL FLEXORS:

ONE SIDED (LEFT OR RIGHT) CONTRACTION OF:
QUADRATUS LUMBORUM
RECTUS ABDOMINIS
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL OBLIQUE ABDOMINIS
Figure 1.7 Quadratus lumborum

Derived from: https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com
ROLE OF MAJOR THORACO-LUMBAR LATERAL FLEXORS:

Contraction of the thoraco-lumbar lateral flexors on one side of the spine pulls the torso laterally to the same side
of the contracting muscles.

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens towards the center of
the muscle.
The upper body moves sideways during muscle contraction.
Refer to Annexure A for more details on Origin and Insertion of the

major thoraco-lumbar spine lateral flexors.
EXAMPLE OFEXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE THORACO-LUMBAR

LATERAL FLEXORS
Dumbbell lateral flexions

ANNEXURE A
Combined thoracic and lumbar spine:
Table A.1 Range of motion of thoracic and lumbar spine
Images derived from: http://healthhabits.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/spinal-movement.gif

MUSCLE ORIGIN AND INSERTION MUSCULAR FUNCTION
Sternocleidomastoid Origin (O) • Neck flexion (combined function or L
• Anterior, superior surface of medial clavicle and R side)
• Manubrium of sternum • Lateral flexion
Insertion (I) • Rotation: to opposite side
• Mastoid process of temporal bone
Splenius muscle group: a) splenius cervicis Origin and Insertion Muscular function
and b) capitis Splenius cervicis Splenius cervicis and capitis
Origin (O) • Both L and R sides: extension of neck
• Spinous process of thoracic vertebrae three to six • Right side: rotation and lateral flexion
Insertion (I) to the right
• Transverse processes of the first three cervical • Left side: rotation and lateral flexion to
vertebrae the left
Splenius capitis Splenius capitis
Origin (O) • Both sides: extension of the head
• Lower half of the ligamentum numchae and spinous
processes of the 7th cervical and upper 3 or 4 thoracic
vertebrae
Insertion (I)
• Mastoid process and occipital bone
a. b.
Erector spinae muscle group: Iliocostalis Origin (O) Muscular function
• Medial iliac crest • Spinal extension
• Posterior ribs three to twelve • Ipsilateral rotation of spine and head
• Thoracolumbar aponeurosis from sacrum • Anterior pelvic rotation
Insertion (I) • Lateral pelvic rotation to contralateral
• Cervical four to seven transverse processes side
• Posterior surface of ribs one to twelve • Lateral spinal flexion
Erector spinae muscle group: Longissimus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Cervical articular processes five to seven • Spine and head extension
• Medial iliac crest • Ipsilateral rotation of head and spine
• Transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae one to five • Anterior pelvic rotation
• Thoracolumbar aponeurosis from sacrum • Lateral pelvic rotation to contralateral
• Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae 1-5 side
Insertion (I) • Lateral flexion of spine and head
• Mastoid process
• Spinous processes of cervical vertebrae two to six
• Lower nine ribs
• Transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae one to
twelve
Erector spinae muscle group: Spinalis Origin (O) Muscular function
• Spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae one to two • Spinal extension
• Spinous processes of thoracic vertebrae eleven to • Ipsilateral rotation of head and spine
twelve • Lateral flexion of head and spine
• Spinous process of cervical vertebrae seven • Anterior pelvic rotation
• Ligamentum nuchae • Lateral pelvic rotation to contralateral
Insertion (I) • side
• Occipital bone
• Spinous process of cervical vertebrae two
• Spinous process of thoracic vertebrae five to twelve
Rectus abdominis Origin (O) Muscular function

• Pubic crest • Both sides: lumbar flexion
Insertion (I) • Posterior pelvic rotation
• Cartilage of the 5th,6th and 7th ribs and the xiphoid • Right side: weak lateral flexion to the
process right
• Left side: weak lateral flexion to the left
External oblique abdominal Origin (O) Muscular function
• Borders of the lower eight ribs at the • Both sides: lumbar flexion
side of the chest dovetailing with the • Posterior pelvic rotation
serratus anterior muscle • Right side: lumbar lateral flexion to
Insertion (I) the right and rotation to the left,
• Anterior half of the crest of the ilium lateral pelvic rotation to the left
• Inguinal ligament • Left side: lumbar lateral flexion to the
• Crest of the pubis left and rotation to the right, lateral
• Fascia of the rectus abdominis muscle at pelvic rotation to the right
the lower front
Internal oblique abdominal Origin (O) Muscular function

• Upper half of the inguinal ligament • Both sides: lumbar flexion
• Anterior two-thirds of the crest of the • Posterior pelvic rotation
ilium • Right side: lumbar lateral flexion to
• Lumbar fascia the right and rotation to the right,
Insertion (I) lateral pelvic rotation to the left
• Costal cartilages of the eighth, ninth, • Left side: lumbar lateral flexion to the
tenth ribs and linea alba left and lateral pelvic rotation to the
right
Transverse abdominis Origin (O) Muscular function
• Lateral third of the inguinal ligament • Forced expiration by pulling the
• Inner rim of the iliac crest abdominal wall inward
• Inner surface of the costal cartilages of
the lower six ribs
• Lumbar fascia
Insertion (I)
• Crest of the pubis and the iliopectineal
line
• Abdominal aponeurosis to the linea alba
Quadratus lumborum Origin (O) Muscular function

• Posterior inner lip of the iliac crest • Lateral flexion to the ipsilateral side
Insertion (I) • Stabilizes the pelvis and lumbar spine
• Approximately one-half the length of the • Extension of the lumbar spine
lower border of the twelfth rib and the • Anterior pelvic rotation
transverse process of the upper four • Lateral pelvic rotation to contralateral
lumbar vertebrae side
1.3 MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE SHOULDER JOINT (GLENOHUMERAL JOINT)
Bone structure: Glenoid Cavity (Fossa) and Head of Humerus

Joint type: Ball and socket
Table 1.5 Shoulder joint (glenohumeral)
The shoulder joint is formed by the articulating surfaces

of:
→ Head of the humerus (upper arm)
→ Glenoid cavity (scapula)
The glenohumeral joint has the greatest range of

motion.
The structure of the shoulder joint lacks stability on the

anterior aspect of the joint. The ligamentous
reinforcement and muscles surrounding the joint
provides stability to the joint structure.
Table 1.6 Action of the shoulder joint

Derived from: http://www.nolanlee.com/uploads/3/0/9/6/30966409/5104752.jpg?412
Joint action Joint range of motion (ROM) in degrees
Flexion 170-180
Extension 40-60
Abduction 170-180
HFPACOL000009
Adduction/ hyper adduction 127 (from abducted position)

75 (hyperadduction)
Horizontal abduction 45
Horizontal adduction 135

Internal rotation 70-90
External rotation 70-90
Figure 1.9 Muscles of the shoulder joint (anterior view)

http://images.slideplayer.com/13/4156755/slides/slide_15.jpg
Figure 1.10 Shoulder joint musculature (posterior view)

Derived from http://images.slideplayer.com/14/4242065/slides/slide_5.jpg
SHOULDER FLEXION
MAJOR SHOULDER FLEXORS
DELTOID (ANTERIOR AND MIDDLE FIBERS)
PECTORALIS MAJOR (CLAVICLE FIBERS)
CORACOBRACHIALIS

ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER FLEXORS
Contraction of the shoulder flexors pulls the arm (humerus) forward and up towards the shoulder.
HFPACOL000009

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens towards
the center of the muscle.
The shoulder flexor muscles attach to the clavicle,
scapula and humerus. Movement is dependent on
which part (clavicle or scapula and humerus) is
stabilized due to body positioning. If the clavicle and
scapula are stabilized the action at the shoulder joint is
shoulder flexion (humerus moves up towards clavicle
and scapula) during muscle shortening/ concentric
contraction.
Refer to Annexure B & C for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major shoulder flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER FLEXORS
Seated Dumbbell front raises

SHOULDER EXTENSION
MAJOR SHOULDER EXTENSORS

LATISSIMUS DORSI
TERES MAJOR
TRICEPS BRACHII (LONG HEAD)
PECTORALIS MAJOR (STERNAL FIBERS)
DELTOID (POSTERIOR FIBERS)
ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER FLEXORS

Contraction of the shoulder extensors pulls the arm (humerus) backwards.

the muscle.
The shoulder extensor muscles attach to the clavicle, scapula, ribs and
humerus. Movement is dependent on which part (clavicle, scapula, ribs
and humerus) is stabilized due to body positioning. If the clavicle,
scapula and/ or ribs are stabilized the action at the shoulder joint is
shoulder extension (humerus moves backwards and up towards clavicle
and scapula) during muscle shortening/ concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure B & C for more details on Origin and Insertion of

the major shoulder extensors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER EXTENSORS
Shoulder hyper extension with resistance band

SHOULDER ABDUCTION
MAJOR SHOULDER ABDUCTORS
DELTOID (ANTERIOR, MEDIAL AND POSTERIOR FIBERS)
PECTORALIS MAJOR (CLAVICULARE FIBERS)
SUPRASPINATUS
Figure 1.13 Muscles of the shoulder joint (anterior view) Figure 1.14 Shoulder joint musculature (posterior view)
ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER ABDUCTORS

Contraction of the shoulder abductors pulls the arm (humerus) laterally away from the midline of the body.

HFPACOL000009
The shoulder abduction muscles attach to the

sternum, clavicle, scapula, and humerus.
Movement is dependent on which part (sternum,
clavicle, scapula, and humerus) is stabilized due
to body positioning. If the sternum, clavicle and
scapula are stabilized the action at the shoulder
joint is shoulder abduction (humerus moves
laterally and up towards clavicle and scapula)
during muscle shortening/ concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure B & C for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major shoulder abductors.
EXAMPLE OFEXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER ABDUCTORS
Dumbbell shoulder abductions

SHOULDER ADDUCTION
MAJOR SHOULDER ADDUCTORS

LATISSIMUS DORSI
CORACOBRACHIALIS
TERES MAJOR
SUBSCAPULARIS
Figure 1.15 Muscles of the shoulder joint (anterior view) Figure 1.16 Shoulder joint musculature (posterior
view)
ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER ADDUCTORS
Contraction of the shoulder adductors pulls the arm (humerus) medially toward the midline of the body.

The shoulder adductor muscles attach to the clavicle, scapula, ribs and humerus.
Movement is dependent on which part (clavicle, scapula, ribs and humerus) is
stabilized due to body positioning. If the clavicle, scapula and/ or ribs are
stabilized the action at the shoulder joint is shoulder extension (humerus moves
backwards and up towards clavicle and scapula) during muscle shortening/
concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure B & C for more details on Origin and Insertion of the
major shoulder adductors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER ADDUCTORS
Single Arm Cable Fly’s

SHOULDER HORIZONTAL ABDUCTION
MAJOR SHOULDER HORIZONTAL ABDUCTORS

LATISSIMUS DORSI
INFRASPINATUS
DELTOID (MIDDLE AND POSTERIOR)
TERES MINOR
HFPACOL000009
ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER HORIZONTAL ABDUCTORS

When the arm is raised in a flexed position contraction of the shoulder horizontal abductors pulls the arm
(humerus) laterally away from the midline of the body in a
horizontal plane.

The shoulder horizontal abduction muscles attach to
the clavicle, scapula and ribs and humerus.
Movement is dependent on which part (clavicle,
scapula and ribs and humerus) is stabilized due to
body positioning. If the clavicle and scapula are
stabilized the action at the shoulder joint is shoulder
horizontal abduction (humerus moves laterally in a
horizontal plane away from the center of the body)
during muscle shortening/ concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure B & C for more details on Origin and

Insertion of the major shoulder horizontal abductors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER HORIZONTAL ABDUCTORS
Bent over lateral raises

SHOULDER HORIZONTAL ADDUCTION
MAJOR SHOULDER HORIZONTAL ADDUCTORS

CORACOBRACHIALIS

ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER HORIZONTAL ADDUCTORS

When the arm is raised in a shoulder horizontal abducted position contraction of the shoulder horizontal
adductors pulls the arm (humerus) medially toward the midline of the body in a horizontal plane.

the muscle.
The shoulder horizontal adductors attach to the clavicle and scapula
and humerus. Movement is dependent on which part (clavicle and
scapula and humerus) is stabilized due to body positioning. If the
clavicle and scapula are stabilized the action at the shoulder joint is
shoulder horizontal abduction (humerus moves medially in a
horizontal plane towards the center of the body) during muscle
shortening/ concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure B & C for more details on Origin and Insertion

of the major shoulder horizontal adductors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER

HORIZONTAL ADDUCTORS
Shoulder horizontal adductions with resistance band

SHOULDER INTERNAL ROTATION
MAJOR SHOULDER INTERNAL ROTATORS

PECTORALIS MAJOR
LATISSIMUS DORSI
TERES MAJOR
SUBSCAPULARIS
Figure 1.19 Muscles of the shoulder joint (anterior view) Figure 1.20 Shoulder joint musculature (posterior
view)
ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER INTERNAL ROTATORS

Contraction of the shoulder internal rotators rotates the arm (humerus) medially toward the middle of the body.
HFPACOL000009

The shoulder internal rotation muscles attach to the sternum
clavicle, scapula and humerus. Movement is dependent on which
part (sternum clavicle, scapula and humerus) is stabilized due to
body positioning. If the sternum clavicle, and/ or scapula are
stabilized the action at the shoulder joint is shoulder internal
rotation (humerus rotates medially towards the body) during
muscle shortening/ concentric contraction.

the major shoulder internal rotators.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER INTERNAL ROTATORS
Shoulder internal rotations

SHOULDER EXTERNAL ROTATION
MAJOR SHOULDER EXTERNAL ROTATORS

INFRASPINATUS
TERES MINOR

ROLE OF MAJOR SHOULDER INTERNAL ROTATORS

Contraction of the shoulder external rotators rotates the arm (humerus) laterally away from the middle of the
body.

of the muscle.
The shoulder external rotation muscles attach to the scapula and
humerus. Movement is dependent on which part (scapula or
humerus) is stabilized due to body positioning. If the scapula is
stabilized the action at the shoulder joint is shoulder external
rotation (humerus rotates laterally away from the body) during
muscle shortening/ concentric contraction.

the major shoulder external rotators.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE SHOULDER EXTERNAL ROTATORS
Shoulder external rotation with resistance band

ANNEXURE B
Muscular actions and muscles responsible for movement of the shoulder joint
Joint movement (Joint range of Muscles responsible

motion (ROM) in degrees)
Flexion (170-180) Primary mover(s): Anterior deltoid

Synergist(s): Pectoralis major (clavicular head), biceps brachii,
coracobrachialis
Antagonist(s): Posterior deltoid, latissimus dorsi, teres major,
triceps brachii (long head)
Stabilizer(s): Teres minor, supraspinatus, infraspinatus,
subscapularis (rotator cuff)
Extension (40-60) Primary mover(s): Latissimus dorsi

Synergist(s): Teres major, Posterior deltoid, triceps brachii (long
head)
Antagonist(s): Pectoralis major (clavicular head), Anterior deltoid,
coracobrachialis, biceps brachia
Stabilizer(s): Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor,
subscapularis (Rotator cuff)
Abduction (170-180) Primary mover(s): Anterior deltoid, medial deltoid

Synergist(s): Supraspinatus
Antagonist(s): Latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major (sternal head),
teres major, coracobrachialis, infraspinatus,teres minor,
subscapularis, triceps brachii (long head)
Adduction Primary mover(s): Latissimus dorsi

Synergist(s): Pectoralis major (sternal head), infraspinatus, Teres
minor, subscapularis , coracobrachialis, triceps brachii (long head),
Antagonist(s): Anterior deltoid, medial deltoid, biceps brachii

Horizontal abduction (45) Primary mover(s): Posterior deltoid
Synergist(s): N/A
Antagonist(s): Anterior deltoid, pectoralis major
Horizontal adduction (135) Primary mover(s): Pectoralis major

Synergist(s): Anterior deltoid
Antagonist(s): Posterior deltoid
Stabilizer(s): Subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres
minor, (rotator cuff)
Internal rotation (70-90) Primary mover(s): Subscapularis

Synergist(s): Pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, teres major,
anterior deltoid
Antagonist(s): Infraspinatus, teres minor, posterior deltoid
Stabilizer(s): Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, subscapularis, teres
minor (rotator cuff)
External rotation (70-90) Primary Mover(s): Teres minor, infraspinatus

Synergist(s): Posterior deltoid
HFPACOL000009
Antagonist(s): Subscapularis, anterior deltoid, pectoralis major,

latissimus dorsi, teres major

Deltoid Origin (O) • Anterior fibers: abduction, flexion, horizontal

• Anterior fibers: anterior lateral third of the clavicle adduction, and internal rotation of the glenohumeral
• Middle fibers: lateral aspect of the acromion joint
• Posterior fibers: inferior edge of the spine of the • Middle fibers: abduction of the glenohumeral joint
scapula • Posterior fibers: abduction, extension, horizontal
Insertion (I) abduction, and external rotation of the glenohumeral
• Deltoid tuberosity (large rounded/roughened joint
projection) on the lateral humerus
Pectoralis major Origin (O) • Upper fibers (clavicular head):

• Upper fibers (clavicular head): medial half of the internal rotation, horizontal adduction, flexion up to
anterior surface of the clavicle about 60 degrees, abduction (once the arm is
• Lower fibers (sternal head): anterior surface of the abducted 90 degrees, the upper fibers assist in
costal cartilage of the first six ribs and adjacent further abduction) and adduction (with the arm below
portion of the sternum the 90 degrees of abduction) of the glenohumeral
Insertion (I) joint
• Flat tendon 2 or 3 inches (+5 to 7,5 cms) wide to • Lower fibers (sternal head):
the lateral lip of the intertubercular groove of the interior rotation, horizontal adduction, adduction and
humerus extension of the glenohumeral joint from a flexed
position to the anatomical position
Latissimus dorsi Origin (O) • Adduction of the glenohumeral joint
• Posterior crest (prominent, narrow, ridge like projection) of the • Extension of the glenohumeral joint
ilium, back of the sacrum and spinous processes of the lumbar • Internal rotation of the glenohumeral joint
and lower six thoracic vertebrae (t6-t12); slips from the lower • Horizontal abduction of the glenohumeral
three ribs joint
Insertion (I)
• Medial lip of the intertubercular groove of the humerus, just
anterior to the insertion of the teres major
Coracobrachialis Origin (O) • Flexion of the glenohumeral joint

• Coracoid process of the scapula • Adduction of the glenohumeral joint
Insertion (I) • Horizontal adduction of the glenohumeral
• Middle of the medial border of the humeral shaft joint
Subscapularis Origin (O) • Internal rotation of the glenohumeral joint

• Entire anterior surface of the subscapular fossa • Adduction of the glenohumeral joint
Insertion (I) • Extension of the glenohumeral joint
• Lesser tubercle of the humerus • Stabilization of the humeral head in the
glenoid fossa (hollow, depression or
flattened surface)
Supraspinatus Origin (O) • Abduction, stabilization of the humeral head

• Medial two-thirds of the supraspinatus fossa (hollow, in the glenoid fossa (hollow, depression)
depression)
Insertion (I)
• Superiorly on the greater tubercle of the humerus
Infraspinatus Origin (O) • External rotation of the glenohumeral joint,

• Medial aspect of the infraspinatus fossa just below the spine of • Horizontal abduction of the glenohumeral
the scapula joint
Insertion (I) • Extension of the glenohumeral joint
• Posteriorly on the greater tubercle of the humerus • Stabilization of the humeral head in the
glenoid fossa (depression)
Teres minor Origin (O) • External rotation of the glenohumeral joint,
• Posteriorly on the upper and middle aspect of the lateral • Horizontal abduction of the glenohumeral joint,
border of the scapula • Extension of the glenohumeral joint, Stabilization
Insertion (I) of the humeral head in the glenoid fossa
• Posteriorly on the greater tubercle of the humerus (depression)
Teres major Origin (O) • Extension of the glenohumeral joint, particularly

• Posteriorly on the inferior third of the lateral border of from the flexed position to the posteriorly
the scapula and just superior to the inferior angle extended position
Insertion (I) • Internal rotation of the glenohumeral joint
• Medial lip of the intertubercular groove of the humerus • Adduction of the glenohumeral joint, particularly
just posterior to the insertion of the latissimus dorsi from the abducted position down to the side and
toward the midline of the body
ANNEXURE C
Joint actions and muscles responsible for movement of the shoulder girdle
Joint movement (Joint range of motion Muscles responsible

(ROM) in degrees)
Scapular upward rotation Primary mover(s): Serratus anterior

Shoulder flexion and shoulder Synergist(s): Trapezius (upper and lower fibers)
abduction are accompanied by Antagonist(s): Levator scapulae, rhomboids, pectoralis minor
scapular upward rotation Stabilizer(s): Levator scapulae, rhomboids, serratus anterior
Scapular downward Primary mover(s): Pectoralis minor

rotation Synergist(s): Levator scapulae, rhomboids
Shoulder extension and Antagonist(s): Serratus anterior, trapezius (upper and lower
shoulder adduction are fibers)
accompanied by scapular Stabilizer(s): Levator scapulae, serratus anterior, rhomboids
downward rotation
Scapular retraction Primary mover(s): Trapezius (middle fibers)

Shoulder horizontal abduction is Synergist(s): Rhomboids
accompanied by scapular retraction Antagonist(s): Pectoralis minor, serratus anterior
Stabilizer(s): Levator scapulae, serratus anterior, rhomboids
Scapular protraction Primary mover(s): Serratus anterior

Shoulder horizontal adduction is Synergist(s): Pectoralis minor
accompanied by scapular Antagonist(s): Trapezius (medial), rhomboids
protraction Stabilizer(s): Levator scapulae, serratus anterior, rhomboids
Scapular elevation Primary Mover(s): Upper trapezius

Synergist(s): Levator scapulae, rhomboids
Antagonist(s): Pectoralis minor, lower trapezius(lower fibers)
Stabilizer(s): Levator scapulae, rhomboids, serratus anterior
Scapular depression Primary Mover(s): Lower trapezius

Synergist(s): Pectoralis minor
Antagonist(s): Levator scapulae, rhomboids, trapezius (upper
fibers)
Stabilizer(s): Levator scapulae, rhomboids, serratus anterior
Images derived from: http://www.asfyt.com/uploads/2/2/0/6/22060328/8449926_orig.jpg

LEARN THESE MUSCLES
Trapezius I & II Origin (O) • Upper fibers: elevation of the scapula,

• Upper fibers: base of the skull, occipital protuberance and extension and rotation of the head at the
posterior ligaments of the neck neck
• Middle fibers: spinous processes of seventh cervical and • Middle fibers: elevation, upward rotation
upper three thoracic vertebrae and adduction (retraction) of the scapula
• Lower fibers: spinous processes of fourth through to twelfth • Lower fibers: depression, adduction
thoracic vertebrae (retraction) and upward rotation of the
Insertion (I) scapula
• Upper fibers: posterior aspect of lateral third of the clavicle
• Middle fibers: medial border of the acromion process and
upper border of the scapular spine
• Lower fibers: triangular space at the base of the scapular
spine
Rhomboideus major Origin (O) • The rhomboid major and minor muscles
• Spinous processes of the last cervical and the first five work together
thoracic vertebrae • Adduction (retraction): from the upward
Insertion (I) rotated position; they draw the scapula
• Medial border of the scapula, below the spine of the scapula into a downward rotation
• Elevation: slight upward movement
accompanying adduction
• Innervation: dorsal scapula nerve (C5)
Pectoralis minor Origin (O) • Abduction (protraction): draws the
• Anterior surfaces of the third to fifth ribs scapula forward and tends to tilt the
Insertion (I) lower border away from the ribs
• Coracoid process of the scapula • Downward rotation: as it abducts, it
draws the scapula downward
• Depression: when the scapula is rotated
upward, it assists in depression
• Innervation: medial pectoral nerve (C8-
T1)
Serratus anterior Origin (O) • Abduction (protraction): draws the

a) Lateral view • Surface of the upper nine ribs at the side of the chest medial border of the scapula away from
b) Lateral view with scapula Insertion (I) the vertebrae
reflected posteriorly to reveal • Anterior aspect of the whole length of the medial border of • Upward rotation: longer, lower fibers
anterior surface the scapula tend to draw the inferior angle of the
scapula further away from the vertebrae,
thus rotating the scapula upward slightly
• Innervation: long thoracic nerve (C5-C7)
Levator scapulae Origin (O) • Elevates the medial margin of the
• Transverse processes of the upper four cervical vertebrae scapula
Insertion (I)
• Medial border of the scapula above the base of the scapular
spine
Subclavius Origin (O) • Stabilization and projection of the

• Superior aspect of the first rib at its junction with its costal sternoclavicular joint
cartilage
Insertion (I)
• Inferior groove in the mid portion of the clavicle
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 8:
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
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The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the structure

and function of the respiratory system and an insight into the
adaptations that occur in this system in response to exercise.
OBJECTIVES:
Describe the location and function of the lungs.

Understand the effects of exercise on the respiratory
system.
Explain the limiting factors of the respiratory system during
exercise.
INTRODUCTION
All body cells depend on the respiratory system to provide oxygen. However, cells pick up oxygen from the blood, not
directly from the lungs, thus blood acts as the intermediary to carry oxygen and nutrients to all the cells of the body.
The respiratory system is responsible for the interchange of gases. The oxygen-carrying capacity of the cardio-
respiratory system is determined by both the hemoglobin (oxygen carrier) content of the blood and by the ventilatory
ability of the lungs. Since the body is only capable of storing a small amount of oxygen a continual supply of oxygen is
essential for the optimal function of muscle cells. The supply of oxygen to the working cells involves the following:
The flow of air into the lungs during inspiration (breathing in).
Diffusion (movement) of oxygen from a high concentration (in the lungs) to a low concentration (in
the blood).
The oxygenated blood is transported to the left atrium (chamber) of the heart through the left
ventricle to the aorta from whence it is pumped around the body. The oxygen diffuses from
the blood into the tissues where it is used for oxidation of nutrients for energy supply.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) is removed from the cells and transported in the blood to the heart and
from there to the lungs.
Figure 2.1 Cardiorespiratory system

Derived from: http://schoolbag.info/biology/humans/humans.files/image264.jpg

2.1 THE LUNGS
The chest cavity is an airtight chamber in which the lungs are suspended like balloons. It is formed by the structures
primarily involved in breathing, namely the ribs, sternum and diaphragm.
Ribs
Figure 2.2 Chest cavity

Derived from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/2313_The_Lung_Pleurea.jpg
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Respiratory ventilation refers to the depth of each breath (tidal volume) and the breathing rate (respiratory
frequency). The lungs regulate the exchange of air between the blood and the external environment.
Air is breathed in, passes into the throat and down into the trachea which then divides into 2 branches called the
bronchi - one leading to each lung. The primary bronchi divide into secondary and tertiary bronchi and finally into
bronchioles ending in tiny air sacs called alveoli which are surrounded by blood capillaries. The oxygen and carbon
dioxide exchange takes place between the alveoli and these capillaries.
Figure 2.3 Structure of lungs

Derived from: http://image.slidesharecdn.com

Movement of air into and out of the lungs is known as lung or pulmonary ventilation and is controlled by the
respiratory muscles which work to enlarge the chest cavity enabling air to flow into the lungs (inhalation or
inspiration). Oxygen molecules pass through the walls of the alveoli into the capillaries where they combine with
molecules of hemoglobin (a protein molecule) in the red blood cells and are transported in this way around the
body. When the respiratory muscles relax during exhalation (expiration) the chest cavity returns to normal,
increasing the pressure in the lungs and forcing the air out.
Figure 2.4 Muscular involvement in inspiration and expiration

Derived from: https://blog.lecturio.com
The volume of air moving into and out of the lungs depends on:
The amount of air inhaled with each breath (tidal volume)

The number of breaths per minute (respiratory frequency)
The average number of breaths during inactivity is 10-12 per minute but during exercise this may increase to
approximately 45 breaths per minute.
At rest the minute ventilation (volume of air breathed per minute) is approximately 6-8 liters. During high intensity
exercise this amount can increase to well over 100 liters a minute in men and 80 liters a minute in women. This increase
is affected by increases in the tidal volume and in the respiratory rate.
As fitness improves the respiratory system functions more efficiently, i.e. less oxygen is required for the same exercise
intensity so the tidal volume and breathing rate decrease proportionately. Improved fitness also results in a decrease
in the amount of energy required by the respiratory muscles thus enabling one to exercise at a higher intensity.
The control of carbon dioxide (CO 2) levels is particularly important because too much CO 2 results in acid build-up, while
too little causes alkalinity and affects brain function.
To illustrate this point, if you hyperventilate (breathe deep and fast) for a few minutes (when not exercising) you
will reduce the level of CO 2 in the blood and you will get dizzy, i.e. your brain starts malfunctioning. However, when
you are exercising, and you breathe deeply and frequently this does not happen.
This is because special cells in the arteries of the neck and in the medulla of the brain continuously monitor the amount
of carbon dioxide and acid in the blood in order to keep it at an optimum level. When these levels are too low or too
high messages sent to the brain result in changes in breathing pattern – increasing or decreasing the amount of CO 2,
which is blown off.
Oxygen intake is always adequate. The oxygen content of the air we breathe is approximately 21% and we exhale
about 17% - this means we use only about 4% of available oxygen, i.e. the air we breathe contains more oxygen than
we can use.

It is possible for hyperventilation to occur at high levels of exercise, i.e. more air is breathed in than is required by the
body and carbon dioxide is exhaled faster than it is produced resulting in hypocapnia, i.e. lowering of the normal blood
levels of carbon dioxide.
Hypocapnia may be triggered by emotional excitement or fear and is sometimes seen in the inexperienced exerciser.
Symptoms include dizziness, light-headedness, blue lips and tingling fingers.
People suffering from asthma and emphysema find expiration difficult.

Asthmatics as a result of spasms of the smooth muscle lining the airways and emphysematics because of a loss of
elasticity of lung tissue.
In both cases there is a tendency for the alveoli to overfill. This is particularly so in people suffering from emphysema
resulting in the development of large barrel-like chests and a blueness caused by inadequate gaseous exchange,
primarily oxygen. This phenomenon led to the use of the term “blue bloaters” in reference to emphysematics.
The definition of hypoventilation is a “slow rate of ventilation” (Tortora and Anagnostakos, 1990). It is debatable
whether either of these two obstructive airway diseases cause hypoventilation – if anything, they may lead to
hyperventilation in an attempt to rid the lungs and the blood of carbon dioxide that accumulates in the alveoli and in
the blood thus altering blood pH and increasing acidity.
The reduced gaseous exchange in both conditions is not due to the amount of air inspired but rather, in the case of
asthmatics, their inability to exhale and therefore supply “fresh” air to the alveoli. In the case of emphysematics this
problem is due to: (1) reduced alveolar volume due to “merging” of alveoli, (2) damaged alveolar-capillary membrane
and (3) development of scar tissue (thick, fibrous connective tissue).
2.1.1 Blood
The function of blood

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Blood assists in transporting oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. It also assists in delivering nutrients and
hormones to the cells and transporting waste products to the kidneys and liver.
Blood also has a protective function as it assists in repairing damaged blood vessels. The white blood cells play an
important role in the immune system.
Blood also assists in thermoregulation, regulating body temperature, as well as the regulation of blood pH-levels.
Blood consists of:

Plasma
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Plasma: makes up 55% of blood. Plasma is a liquid consisting of protein, salts, water, sugar and fat. Its function is
to transport nutrients, gases, salts, proteins and hormones to and from the cells to maintain cell structure, function
and homeostasis.
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes): make up 40-45 percent of blood. The primary function of red blood cells is to
transport oxygen. Red blood cells are biconcave discs (concave on both sides of the cell) which contain hemoglobin,
the oxygen transporting component of erythrocytes.
White blood cells (Leukocytes): make up 1 percent of blood and assist in fighting infection. There are different
types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils: fight against bacterial or fungal infections.

Eosinophils: fight against parasitic infections and allergic reactions.
Monocytes: fight against phagocytose pathogens and remove dead cell debris.
Lymphocytes: fight infection within the lymphatic system.

Blood platelets: blood clotting property which assist with forming scabs. [(Boundless Anatomy and Physiology.
Boundless, 13 Apr. 2016. Retrieved 01 May. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-
anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/cardiovascular-system-blood-17); (http://hubpages.com/education/Cardiovascular-
Anatomy); (http://www.hematology.org/Patients/Basics/);
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072576/)].
Figure 2.5 Blood structure Figure 2.6 Blood structure percentage

Derived from: http://www.artsmartiauxcombat.com Derived from: http://www.bbc.co.uk
A low hemoglobin level (anemia) means that less oxygen can be transported throughout the body than when the
hemoglobin level is high. Ordinarily however, the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is not a limiting factor in the
performance of aerobic exercise.
2.2 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
2.2.1 Respiratory System Response:
During exercise the respiratory system responds as follows:
Increased depth (tidal volume) and rate (frequency) of breathing. At the onset of
exercise ventilation increases reaching a plateau or “steady state” within a few minutes
(provided the intensity of the exercise remains constant). This plateau (level) is sufficient to
ensure a satisfactory exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Ventilation increases further if the intensity of the exercise increases. If the intensity exceeds
the aerobic capacity, energy will be obtained anaerobically resulting in a build-up of lactic acid
and an increase in blood acidity.
Exchange of gases in the lungs increases as the exercise intensity increases. The increase
in circulating blood flow results in a greater intake of air while the uptake of oxygen in the
working muscles is also greater; the oxygen content of the blood returning to the lungs is much
lower than at rest and the carbon dioxide content is much higher. Because cells can only tolerate
a slight increase or decrease in normal acidity levels the removal of carbon dioxide is essential.
Blood distribution within the muscle increases during exercise so that more oxygen is
available to the active muscles and more carbon dioxide is removed.

2.2.2 Causes of Poor Performance
Other factors can result in poor performance during exercise, these include:
Lack of iron in the diet: Iron is a component of hemoglobin ( the oxygen-carrying component of
blood) therefore a shortage of iron will reduce the amount of oxygen carried by the blood.
Smoking: Hemoglobin has a greater affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen leaving fewer
sites for oxygen attachment. It has been estimated that smokers function at 60% of their aerobic
capacity.
Elasticity of the lungs decreases with age so the respiratory muscles must use more energy
to force air in and out.
A “stitch” may be caused by an insufficient blood supply to the respiratory muscles. This can usually be avoided by
warming up gradually. If it persists the client should be advised to reduce the intensity of the exercise and to use the
abdominal muscles to assist with breathing.
2.3 CONCLUSION
The lungs are responsible for supplying oxygen to the body and expelling by- products such as CO 2 from the body. All
living cells in the body require oxygen to survive. Oxygen is used to produce energy by breaking down glycogen, protein
and fats.
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Figure 2.7 Respiratory process

Derived from: http://www.isabelsbeautyblog.com/wp-content/uploads/Respiratory-system-gas-exgange.jpg

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 9:
CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM
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This chapter provides an overview of the structure and function of the

cardiovascular system and the adaptations that occur in this system in response
to exercise.
OBJECTIVES:
Describe the location, structure and function of the heart.

Describe the function of the cardiovascular system in relation to exercise.
Describe the structure and function of the arteries, veins and capillaries.
Describe the structure and function of the blood.
Explain the effect of exercise on the heart and blood pressure.
Illustrate the limiting factors of the cardiovascular system during
exercise.
Provide an overview of the physiological effects of exercise.
INTRODUCTION
The function of the cardiovascular system is to supply blood to body tissues so that the needs of the tissues can be
provided for, i.e. to ensure the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the active cells. The cardiovascular system consists
of a network of approximately 100 km of vessels for transporting the blood and the pump that keeps this system going,
i.e. the heart.
Blood vessels called arteries carry blood from the heart to the tissues while veins return the blood to the heart.
Arteries divide into arterioles which, in turn, divide into capillaries. It is at this level that the exchange of oxygen
and nutrients occurs. Deoxygenated blood enters venules that converge into veins.
3.1 THE HEART
The heart is a powerful muscular pump which, at rest, beats at approximately 72 beats per minutes (in an adult),
pumping approximately 70 to 100 ml blood with each stroke (stroke volume). This implies a cardiac output (amount
of blood pumped per minute) of approximately 6 liters (7000 liters per day).
Cardiac output = stroke volume multiplied by heart rate.
The stroke volume is affected by the amount of blood filling the heart during its resting (diastolic) period and the
force of contraction of the heart once it is full.
The two upper chambers of the heart, the left and right atria, and the two lower chambers, the left and right
ventricles, are separated from each other by a muscular wall that enables the heart to work as two separate pumps
– the right side pumps venous blood (low oxygen, high carbon dioxide) to the lungs, while the left side pumps
oxygenated blood (high oxygen, low carbon dioxide) through the aorta to all the tissues of the body.
Figure 3.1 Structure of the heart

3.2 PATHWAY OF BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART
The right atrium (RA) receives deoxygenated blood through the vena cava (the largest veins, i.e.
superior vena cava (SVC) and inferior vena cava (IVC)).
The blood then enters the right ventricle (RV) from whence it is pumped through the pulmonary artery
(PA) to the lungs.
The pulmonary vein (PV) from the lungs returns the oxygenated blood to the heart entering the left
atrium (LA) from whence it is pumped into the left ventricle (LV) and out through the aorta (A).
The aorta branches into smaller arteries which, in turn, divide into arterioles that spread throughout the
body to supply oxygen to all parts.
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Figure 3.2 Pathway through heart

Derived from: http://ptexphys.utorontoeit.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/heartoverview_fig1-01-1024x635.jpg
3.3 NOURISHMENT REQUIRED BY THE HEART
Because the heart has to work continuously and sometimes extremely hard in relation to its size it also requires nutrients
and oxygen. The blood passing through the chambers of the heart does not nourish the heart itself; instead branches
from the aorta and the coronary arteries (Figure 3.3) provide the heart muscle with the necessary oxygen and
nutrients.
These arteries divide into smaller arteries and capillaries within the heart muscle providing nourishment for each cardiac
muscle fiber. This blood is then returned to the right atrium via the coronary sinus for oxygenation.

Figure 3.3 Coronary arteries

Derived from: http://www.stanfordchildrens.org/content-public/topic/images/70/314970.jpeg
3.4 AEROBIC EXERCISE
The maximal capacity to transport and utilize oxygen during exercise is termed maximal oxygen uptake or VO 2max.
Many scientists consider this to be the most valid measurement of cardiovascular fitness.
Aerobic exercise improves VO 2max. Aerobic exercise involves rhythmic exercises that recruit large muscle groups.
Aerobic activities increase the capacity of the cardiorespiratory system to supply oxygen and nutrients to the rest of
the body as well as improving the body’s ability to use oxygen more efficiently for energy production.
The main purpose of aerobic training is to achieve the following physiological adaptations:
Increase the stroke volume of the heart
Increase capillarization in order to improve blood and oxygen supply to the working muscle
tissue
Increase blood volume and red blood cells which will improve the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood
3.5 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO AEROBIC EXERCISE
3.5.1 The Cardiac Response during Aerobic Exercise
The term ‘training effect on the heart’ describes the physiological changes that take place during physical activity.
Heart rate varies with activity, when working muscles call for more oxygen heart rate and stroke volume increase.
The magnitude of the stroke volume depends on the functional strength of the heart; a heart that is regularly exercised
will improve in performance.

As the exercise level increases blood flow to the muscles (for ATP production) and the skin (heat dissipation) increases
while blood to the less active organs (such as the kidneys and digestive system) decreases. The decreased volume
of blood filtered through the kidneys during exercise results in reduced urine production; explaining why there is usually
little urine to void at the end of exercise.
At rest the heart pumps approximately 5-6 liters of blood per minute; during exercise the cardiac output can increase
to about 15 liters per minute in females and 22 liters per minute in males and is distributed around the body according
to metabolic needs.
3.5.2 When you Exercise you know from your own experience that?
You breathe faster and deeper (proportional to exercise intensity)

Your heart races and seems to thump harder and louder – proportionately
Your skin gets warm and red and once you start sweating it gets cooler
You get tired, your muscles ache and hurt
Afterwards you feel warm, breathe deeply and your heart thumps for a while
You get thirsty and later hungry
You don’t urinate for some time afterwards
You breathe faster and deeper: Gas is moved in and out of the chest at a faster rate:
Supplying the blood with more oxygen to transport to the working cells thereby encouraging
efficient (aerobic) production of energy.
Increasing the removal of CO 2 from the cells.
Increased heart rate and force: Blood can carry only a certain maximum amount of oxygen, CO 2 and nutrients, so
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to increase the supply and removal of these to and from the working muscle cells the total volume of blood reaching
the cells within a specific time must be increased. This is achieved by:
Increasing the heart rate: With a resting heart rate of around 70 bpm and an average of 70 ml
blood being pumped per beat, 4900 ml (almost 5 liters) of blood is pumped per minute. Heart
rate can increase to around 180 beats per minute; this would account for 70 x 180 ml blood per
minute = 12 ½ liters per minute – a little over twice the resting supply.
Increasing the amount of blood pumped per beat: By making the heart pump harder, say 100ml
per beat instead of 70, the amount of blood pumped per minute would rise to about 18 liters.
Combination of the two: As fitness increases, so heart rate can increase to 200 beats per minute
and the amount it pumps per beat can go up to around 100 ml. This means that the heart of a
fit young person can pump about 25 liters per minute during exercise.
Skin gets warm and red and cools with sweating: The large quantities of heat produced by the muscles and
other cells must be dissipated. There are 3 ways of cooling:
Place a hot object in contact with a colder object – heat flows by conduction from the hotter to
the cooler object (not much help to us except in water).
Heat is lost to a cooler environment by radiation. However, if you are cooler than the
environment, you will gain heat by the same method.
The best and quickest way we have of losing heat is by evaporation. Heat causes liquids to
evaporate the vapor wafts away taking the heat with it.
As one exercises, blood flow to the surface of the skin increases carrying heat from the muscles to the skin (the skin
gets redder). Heat is lost by radiation, but this is a limited system and depends largely on the temperature of the
surrounding environment.

As the exercise intensity increases heat accumulates and the body temperature rises. Temperature-sensitive cells in
the brain sense the rise in temperature and switch on the evaporative cooling system. Nerve impulses start the sweat
glands operating and as a result the warmed skin with the increased blood supply begins to get wet with sweat.
The sweat evaporates taking heat from the skin. The cool skin cools the blood that travels to the muscles, picks up
more heat and delivers it to the skin for dissipation (removal).
This is a very effective cooling system and in a dry atmosphere, either hotter or cooler than the body temperature, an
enormous amount of heat can be dissipated.
After exercise the body remains hot (over 20C above normal) and the increased circulation will continue to lose this
heat, i.e. the heart will take a while to return to normal resting rate.
Furthermore, the kidneys must catch up with the backlog of blood processing waste disposal, and the gut must absorb
and digest, so more blood is needed in these areas as well.
You get tired, your muscles ache and hurt: During intense exercise the supply of oxygen to the working muscles
may be inadequate so energy is produced anaerobically causing a build-up of acids and by-products. The muscles
accumulate water and swell slightly. This combination of factors fatigues the muscles making them tired and painful –
this prevents one from overdoing the exercise before it does permanent damage to the cells. Part of the tiredness is
imposed directly by the brain from messages received from the joints, etc.
After exercise: One doesn’t recover immediately – physiological processes and adjustments are not switched on and
off suddenly, the adjustments take time. It therefore takes time for your heart and breathing to recover and even
longer for your blood chemistry to return to resting levels. The acid produced by the working muscles has to be
processed requiring extra oxygen over and above the normal resting levels.
Gradually the body returns to resting levels, the fitter the person, the faster the recovery.
You get thirsty and, later, hungry: After exercising you are thirsty because you may have lost several liters of water
as evaporated sweat. Later you will start to feel hungry because you have to replace the nutrients that were used to
feed the working muscles. A center in the brain responds to blood glucose levels to ensure replacement of reduced
muscle and liver glycogen.
You don’t urinate for some time after exercise: During exercise the diversion of blood away from the kidneys
prevents them from filtering the normally large amount of blood to make the normal amount of urine, therefore little
is produced during exercise and thus there is little to void at the end of exercise.
3.5.3 Acute Adaptations to Aerobic Exercise
During exercise the cardiovascular system undergoes the following adaptations:
At the onset of exercise cardiac output increases, i.e. both heart rate and stroke volume adapt to
the increased demands of exercise. The increase in heart rate is directly proportional to the
work load, i.e. heart rate increases as workload increases but is less in a trained person
performing the same work than in an unfit person. If the exercise remains mild and consistent
both heart rate and stroke volume reach a plateau indicating that the system has adapted to
the demands of the exercising body.
As the exercise intensity increases so the cardiac output increases at an equal ratio, again
illustrating the direct relationship between the intensity of the exercise and the cardiac output.
During exercise of a high intensity the heart rate (and therefore the cardiac output) will reach
a maximum level after which there will be no further increase. As a result exercise at this intensity
can only be continued for a short period of time
The increased blood flow must be carried to the muscles directly involved in the exercise. This
increase is made possible by dilation of the arteries and an enlargement of the capillary bed
(blood supply within the muscle). During exercise blood is diverted from the areas where it is
not required in quantity, e.g. digestive system, to the muscles that need an increased energy
supply and efficient waste removal.

The greater supply of blood to the arterial system results in an increase in blood pressure.
The greatest increase occurs directly after the heart contracts, pumping blood into the aorta
(systolic blood pressure) until the cardiac system reaches its maximum capacity. During
normal adaptation to exercise the diastolic blood pressure undergoes only minimal changes.
Once exercise stops the cardiovascular system rapidly returns to normal, i.e. heart rate and
systolic blood pressure decrease markedly directly after exercise. The fitter the individual, the
more rapid the recovery.
The response of the heart and blood pressure to exercise depends on the type of exercise:
Rhythmic, isotonic exercise (aerobic-type exercise) increases the heart rate and has the effect
of raising systolic pressure. Diastolic pressure remains virtually unaffected and may even
decrease. Heart rate increase during this type of exercise is caused by increased oxygen
demands by the body
Isometric exercise and heavy weightlifting cause a reflex acceleration of the heart. At the
start of the exercise the pressure in the chest cavity increases as a result of holding the breath.
This pressure is transmitted through the walls of the veins forcing blood into the heart, the blood
is then immediately spurted out of the heart causing an increase in systolic and diastolic pressure
and in pulse rate. As the effort continues the pressure in the chest cavity prevents more blood
returning to the heart and since there is then very little blood to pump, blood pressure and flow
suddenly decrease. Static or isometric exercise or holding the breath while contracting the chest
muscles (the Valsalva maneuver) increases the pressure within the chest and reduces the
amount of blood returning to the heart, while rhythmic exercise improves venous return and
increases the stroke volume. The higher the stroke volume, the more efficient is the delivery of
blood so the heart rate is slower.
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The Valsalva effect results in decreased blood flow to the brain causing dizziness and/or fainting. Controlled breathing
during this type of exercise will help relieve pressure build-up in the chest cavity but elderly or unfit people, people
with hypertension or people susceptible to coronary heart disease should not do this type of exercise.
3.5.4 Chronic Adaptation to Aerobic Training
With training the cardiac output can be increased by a further 6-8 liters. Furthermore the heart rate of a trained person
is far lower during rest than that of an untrained person; meaning that the fitter person taxes his/her body less and
requires less energy than an unfit person exercising at the same intensity. This lower heart rate allows the fitter person
to continue exercising for longer and at a higher intensity.
General adaptations
Resting pulse rate is reduced

Smaller increase in pulse rate for the same intensity of exercise
Mechanical efficiency improves resulting in a lower (more economic) oxygen consumption for
the same exercise intensity
Pulmonary ventilation decreases
VO 2max may increase depending on age and the degree of fitness
Muscular adaptations
Improved vascularity of the skeletal muscles

Increased power of exercised muscle and increased neuromuscular co-ordination
Increased stamina/endurance
Lower lactic acid build-up for a given amount of work – therefore improved ability to exercise at
higher intensities
Increased resistance to lactic acid build-up and increased ability to tolerate higher lactic acid
levels before fatigue sets in

Metabolic adaptations
Increase in resting glycogen, ATP and PC levels in the exercised muscles

Increased number and size of mitochondria in exercised muscles
Increase in oxidation enzymes involved in energy production in muscles
Decreased fat content, increased protein content of the body
Cardiac adaptations
Heart rate and blood pressure show a faster return to normal values
Increased stroke volume and heart function
Cardiomegaly (slight heart enlargement) with improved blood supply to the heart
Increased vascularity (blood vessels) of the heart
3.6 HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE
Heart rate and blood pressure are used to predict VO 2 max and monitor the intensity at which cardiorespiratory exercise
is performed.
3.6.1 Heart Rate
Because of the correlation between heart rate and VO 2 max, heart rate may be used as a guide in the measurement
of VO 2 max. Exercising at 60-90% of max HR is equivalent to exercising at 50-85% of VO 2 max or 50-85% of HR
reserve.
Table 3.1 Resting heart rate classification
CLASSIFICATION HEART RATE (bpm)

Very fit <40
Fit 40-59
Average 60-79
Unfit 80-100
Very Unfit >100
NB. While a slow resting heart rate is usually an indication of fitness it must not be presumed that this is so. Occasionally
a low heart rate is associated with physiological abnormality but can also be caused by certain medications. When in
doubt seek medical advice. Be aware that other factors also affect heart rate including temperature, humidity,
emotional stress and smoking. All these factors should be taken into account when using heart rate as an indication
of fitness. A fitness instructor is often asked questions about heart rate and heartbeat:
Palpitations or “racing of the heart” is alarming and is common in anorexics and in people who
are nervy/highly strung. If a client experiences palpitations sit him/her down quietly in a cool
place with as much fresh air as possible and encourage relaxation and deep breathing. The
palpitations should soon die down. Recommend a medical check.
Skipped Beats (ectopic heart beats) also cause alarm; these skipped beats are apparent to the
individual and can also be detected through the pulse. An occasional skipped beat is not cause
for alarm but if this is experienced regularly a medical check should be recommended.
3.6.2 Blood Pressure
Blood pressure refers to the force with which the blood is pumped through the arteries and is therefore very important
in blood flow distribution. Blood pressure refers to the force generated by the heart during its contraction phase
(systole) and the resistance of the blood vessels to the blood flowing through them. Just as the strength of heart
contraction can vary, so the blood vessels can contract (vasoconstrict) or relax (vasodilate), thereby altering their

resistance to blood flow. For example blood vessels in the inactive organs constrict during exercise while those in the
exercising muscles dilate.
Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg):
Systolic pressure (the upper reading) refers to the pressure in the arteries as the heart
contacts.
Diastolic pressure (the lower reading) refers to the pressure in the arteries between
contractions, i.e. during the filling phase of the cardiac cycle.
The pressure difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures is called the arterial pulse pressure. Blood
pressure of 120/80 mmHg is considered normal. Systolic hypertension is diagnosed when the systolic measurement is
140 mmHg or greater on two or more separate occasions. Similarly, diastolic hypertension is diagnosed when the
diastolic blood measurement is 90 mmHg+ on two or more separate occasions.
Table 3.2 Blood pressure classification scale
CLASSIFICATION SYSTOLIC BP (mmHg) DIASTOLIC BP (mmHg)

Hypotension ≤90
Optimal <120
Normal 120-129
High Normal 130-139
Hypertension
Phase 1 140-159 90-99
Phase 2 160-179 100-109
Phase 3 >180 >110
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3.7 INTERESTING ASPECTS OF THE HEART
Other interesting aspects of the heart include the following:
Although the myocardial fibers do not increase in number with training they grow longer and
thicker. The marked hypertrophy (enlargement) found for example in cyclists, long-distance
runners and rowers decreases rapidly when training is stopped.
The heart is able to use lactate as a source of energy during high intensity exercise thus ensuring
that it will not run out of fuel even during the most exhaustive work.
Glycogen stores in the heart are sufficient to keep it beating for 6-10 minutes after the coronary
arteries have been closed - even longer at subnormal temperatures (this is why hypothermic
conditions are used for complicated heart operations).
The heart rate is slowest when one is asleep, rises slightly when one gets up and then increases
gradually until it reaches the normal rate (which can differ from individual to individual).
A change in position from lying down to sitting or standing increases both the heart rate and the
blood pressure. As the body position changes the heart has to work harder to pump blood
against gravity, which is why people who suffer from a degree of low blood pressure
(hypotension) sometimes become dizzy if they get up suddenly.
Tobacco, alcohol, coffee, fatigue and increased environmental temperatures can increase the
heart rate by as much as 10 bpm.

CONCLUSION
The cardiac system is responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body together with nutrients, etc. and
transferring waste products away from the working muscles. These waste products can be converted to energy in the
liver, filtered through the lymphatic system, secreted by the kidneys or expired by the lungs.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 10:
THE MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
1.1 MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE ELBOW
Elbow joint articular surfaces: Humerus and trochlear notch of ulna

Radioulnar joints articular surfaces: Proximal – head of radius and lateral margin of corocoid of ulna
Distal - head of ulna and distal end of radius
Bone Structures: Humerus, ulna and radius
Joint type: Hinge joint (elbow), pivot joint (proximal radioulnar)
Table 1.1 Elbow joint
The elbow joint is formed by the articulating surfaces

of:
Humerus
Ulna
Radius
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Table 1.2 Joint actions and muscles responsible for movement of the elbow joint
Images derived from: http://tt.tennis-warehouse.com/showthread.php?t=475036&page=2
Joint movement Joint range of motion (ROM) in degrees
Flexion 135 - 150
Extension 60
ELBOW FLEXION
MAJOR ELBOW FLEXORS

BICEPS BRACHII
BRACHIALIS
BRACHIORADIALIS
Figure 1.1 Anterior view arm musculature
ROLE OF MAJOR ELBOW FLEXORS

Contraction of the elbow flexors pulls the lower arm (radius and ulna) upward toward the upper arm.

the muscle.
The elbow flexor muscles attach to the scapula, humerus and radius.
Movement is dependent on which part (scapula, humerus and radius) is
stabilized due to body positioning. If the scapula and humerus are
stabilized the action at the elbow joint is elbow flexion (lower arm
moves up towards the humerus and shoulder) during muscle
Refer to Annexure C for more details on Origin and Insertion of the

major elbow flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE ELBOW FLEXORS
Dumbbell bicep curls

ELBOW EXTENSORS
MAJOR ELBOW EXTENSORS

TRICEPS BRACHII
ANCONEUS
HFPACOL000009
Figure 1.2 Posterior view arm musculature
ROLE OF MAJOR ELBOW EXTENSORS

Concentric contraction of the elbow extensors pulls the lower arm (radius and ulna) away from the upper arm.

The elbow extension muscles attach to the
scapula, humerus and ulna. Movement is
dependent on which part (scapula, humerus and
ulna) is stabilized due to body positioning. If the
scapula and humerus are stabilized the action at
the elbow joint is elbow extension (lower arm
moves down and the arm extends) during muscle
Refer to Annexure C for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major elbow extensors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE ELBOW EXTENSORS
Dumbbell tricep kickbacks

LEARN THESE MUSCLES
Biceps brachii Origin (O) • Elbow flexion

• Long head: Supraglenoid tubercle above the superior lip of • Supination
the glenoid fossa • Weak shoulder flexion
• Short head: Coracoid process of the scapula and upper lip of • Weak shoulder abduction when the
the glenoid fossa in conjunction with the proximal shoulder joint is in external rotation
attachment of the coracobrachialis
Insertion (I)
• Tuberosity of the radius and bicipital aponeurosis (lacertus
fibrosis)
Brachialis Origin (O) Muscular function

• Distal half of the anterior shaft of the humerus • True flexion of the elbow
Insertion (I)
• Ulna coranoid process
Brachioradialis Origin (O) Muscular function
• Distal two-thirds of the lateral condyloid (supracondylar) • Elbow flexion
ridge of the humerus • Pronation from supination
Insertion (I) • Supination from pronation
• Lateral surface of the distal end of the radius at the styloid
process
Triceps brachii Origin (O) Muscular function

• Long head: infraglenoid tubercle below inferior lip of glenoid • All heads: extension of the elbow
fossa of the scapula • Long head: extension, adduction
• Lateral head: upper half of the posterior surface of the and horizontal abduction of the
humerus shoulder joint
• Medial head: distal two-thirds of the posterior surface of the
humerus
Insertion (I)
• Ulnar olecranon process
Anconeus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Posterior surface of the lateral condyle of the humerus • Elbow extension
Insertion (I)
• Posterior surface of the lateral olecranon process and
proximal one-fourth of the ulna
Pronator teres Origin (O) Muscular function
• Distal part of the medial condyloid ridge of the humerus and • Pronation of the forearm
medial side of the proximal ulna • Weak elbow flexion
Insertion (I)
• Middle third of the lateral surface of the radius
Pronator quadratus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Distal fourth of the anterior side of the ulna • Pronation
Insertion (I)
• Distal fourth of the anterior side of the radius
Supinator Origin (O) Muscular function

• Lateral epicondyle of the humerus and neighboring • Supination
posterior part of the ulna
Insertion (I)
• Lateral surface of the proximal radius just below the head
ANNEXURE C
TABLE C.1 Joint actions and muscles responsible for movement of the elbow joint
Joint movement (Joint range of motion Muscles responsible
(ROM) in degrees)
Flexion Primary mover(s): Brachialis
Synergist(s): Biceps brachii, brachioradialis
Antagonist(s): Triceps, anconeus
Stabilizer(s):
Medial - pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi
ulnaris, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis-
humeral head (via common flexor tendon)
Lateral - extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor
digitorum, extensor digiti minimi, extensor carpi ulnaris
(via common extensor tendon)
Extension Primary mover(s): Triceps brachii
Synergist(s): Anconeus
Antagonist(s): Biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis
Stabilizer(s):
Medial – flexor carpi radialis, pronator teres, palmaris
longus, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum superficialis-
humeral head (via common flexor tendon)
Lateral – extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor digiti
minimi, extensor digitorum, extensor carpi ulnaris (via
common extensor tendon)
Images derived from: http://tt.tennis-warehouse.com/showthread.php?t=475036&page=2

1.2 MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE HIP AND PELVIC GIRDLE
Bone structure: Head of femur and acetabulum

Joint type: Ball and socket
Table 1.3 Hip joint

Hip Joint Acetabulum and head of femur
https://www.nydnrehab.com/wp- http://imgc.allpostersimages.com/images/P-473-488-
content/uploads/2012/04/normal_hip_joint_anatomy 90/64/6476/36F6100Z/posters/nucleus-medical-art-
.jpg illustration-of-the-normal-left-hip-joint-and-bones-of-
the-pelvis-including-the-acetabulum.jpg
Actions of the hip joint
Table 1.4 Range of motion of hip joint

Images derived from: https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTklQ5HkC1YdbnyzDj2jX1a0zqwB7A_frwqfx3Iu1b1JhFjVhd0
Joint movement Active ROM (degrees)
Flexion 0-130
Extension 0-130
Abduction 0-35
Adduction 0-30
HFPACOL000009
Internal rotation 0-45
External rotation 0-50

HIP FLEXION
MAJOR HIP FLEXORS:

ILIOPSOAS
RECTUS FEMORIS
PECTINEUS
TENSOR FASCIAE LATAE
Figure 1.5 Hip flexors
ROLE OF MAJOR THORACO-LUMBAR FLEXORS:

Contraction of the hip flexors pulls the upper leg (thigh) towards the upper body.

of the muscle.
The upper leg (thigh) moves upward toward the upper body during
concentric muscle contraction when the pelvis and spine are
stabilized.
Refer to Annexure D for more details on Origin and Insertion of the

major hip flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE HIP FLEXORS
Hip flexion with resistance band

HIP EXTENSION
MAJOR HIP FLEXORS:

GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
HAMSTRINGS: Biceps femoris (long head), Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus
HFPACOL000009
Figure 1.6 Hip extensors
ROLE OF MAJOR HIP EXTENSORS:

Contraction of the hip extensors pulls the thigh (femur) backwards, i.e. from hip flexion back to fundamental
position (upright) or from fundamental position backward.

the muscle.
The insertion of hip extensors moves backward towards the origin
during hip extension; thus the pelvis is stabilized during hip extension
which allows the thigh to move backward.

major hip extensors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE THORACO-LUMBAR

EXTENSORS
Low pulley Hip extensions

HIP ABDUCTION
MAJOR HIP ABDUCTORS:

GLUTEUS MEDIUS
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
TENSOR FASCIAE LATAE
Figure 1.7 Hip joint musculature anterior and posterior

https://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Course%20Materials/Elementary%20Anatomy%20and%20Physiology%2050/Lec
ture%20outlines/06_19Figurec-L.jpg
ROLE OF MAJOR HIP ABDUCTORS:

Contraction of the hip abductors pulls the thigh (femur) laterally away from the center of the body.

the muscle.
When the pelvis is stabilized during muscle contraction the thigh
(femur) moves laterally away from the center of the body.

major hip abductors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE HIP ABDUCTORS
Hip abductions with resistance band

HIP ADDUCTION
MAJOR HIP ADDUCTORS:

ADDUCTOR MAGNUS
ADDUCTOR LONGUS
ADDUCTOR BREVIS
GRACILIS
HFPACOL000009
Figure 1.8 Hip musculature Anterior view

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/31/cf/a7/31cfa7dfb332f263da87c97ea39c112c.jpg
ROLE OF MAJOR HIP ADDUCTORS:

Contraction of the hip adductors pulls the thigh (femur) medially toward the middle
of the body.

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens towards the center of the
muscle.
When the pelvis is stabilized during muscle contraction the thigh (femur)
moves medially toward the center of the body.
Refer to annexure D for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major
hip adductors.
EXAMPLE EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE HIP ADDUCTORS
Hip adductions with resistance band

HIP EXTERNAL ROTATION
MAJOR HIP EXTERNAL ROTATOTS

GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
PIRIFORMIS
GAMELLUS SUPERIOR
GAMELLUS INFERIOR
OBTURATOR EXTERNUS
OBTURATOR INTERNUS
QUADRATUS FEMORIS
Figure 1.9 Hip joint musculature posterior

https://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Course%20Materials/Elementary%20Anatomy%20and%20Physiology%2050/Lec
ture%20outlines/06_19Figurec-L.jpg
ROLE OF MAJOR HIP EXTERNAL ROTATORS:

Contraction of the hip external rotators rotates the thigh (femur) laterally away from the middle of the body.

When the pelvis is stabilized during muscle contraction the thigh (femur) moves
laterally away from the middle of the body.
Refer to Annexure D for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major hip
external rotators.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE HIP EXTERNAL ROTATORS
Hip internal and external rotation

Spinal and hip movement related to pelvic motion:

During hip movement there is reciprocal pelvic action as summarized below.
Pelvic movement Hip movement Hip movement

Right hip Left hip
Left transverse rotation External rotation Internal rotation Right lateral rotation
Right transverse rotation Internal rotation External rotation Left lateral rotation
Anterior rotation Flexion Flexion Extension
Posterior rotation Extension Extension Flexion
Left lateral rotation Adduction Abduction Right lateral flexion
Right lateral rotation Abduction Adduction Left lateral flexion
1.3 MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE KNEE
Bone structures: Distal end of femur, proximal end of tibia, head of fibula, patella, cartilage discs (semi-lunar)
Joint type: Hinge joint
Table 1.5 Knee structure
http://www.ck12.org/flx/show/THUMB_POSTCARD/image/user%3AZXBpc2RhJnBAZXBpc2Qub3Jn/Blausen_0608
_LegBones.png ; http://www.pilatesbodytree.com/pilates/wp-content/uploads/pilates-helps-with-knee-pain-
knee-joint.png
HFPACOL000009
Table 1.6 Actions of the knee joint
Joint movement (Joint range of motion (ROM) in degrees)
Extension 180
Flexion 140
KNEE FLEXION
MAJOR KNEE FLEXORS

HAMSTRINGS
o SEMITENDINOSUS
o SEMIMEMBRANOSUS
o BICEPS FEMORIS
GASTROCNEMIUS
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Figure 1.10 Posterior thigh musculature
ROLE OF MAJOR KNEE FLEXORS
Contraction of the knee flexors pulls the lower leg (tibia and fibula) toward the thigh (femur).

During muscle contraction the muscle shortens towards
the center of the muscle.
The knee flexor muscles attach to the pelvis and tibia and
fibula. Movement is dependent on which part (pelvis or
tibia and fibula) is stabilized due to body positioning. If the
pelvis and femur are stabilized the action at the knee joint
is knee flexion during muscle shortening/ concentric
contraction.
Refer to Annexure D for more details on Origin and

Insertion of the major knee flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE KNEE FLEXORS
Standing hamstring curl with resistance band

KNEE EXTENSION
MAJOR KNEE EXTENSORS

QUADRICEPS
o VASTUS LATERALIS
o VASTUS MEDIALIS
o VASTUS INTEMEDIUS
o RECTUS FEMORIS
Figure 1.11 Quadriceps

http://www.lockeroomsports.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/quadricep-strain.jpg
ROLE OF MAJOR KNEE EXTENSORS

Contraction of the knee extensors pulls the lower leg (tibia and fibula) away from the thigh (femur).

The knee extensor muscles attach to both the pelvis and patella and tibia. Movement
is dependent on which part (pelvis and patella and tibia) is stabilized due to body
positioning. If the pelvis is stabilized the action at the knee joint is knee extension
when during muscle shortening/ concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure D for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major knee
extensors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE KNEE EXTENSORS
Knee extension with resistance band

1.4 MUSCLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MOVEMENT OF THE ANKLE
Bone structures: Distal end of tibia, distal end of fibula, talus Joint type: Hinge joint
Table 1.7 Ankle joint
Derived from: http://tornierankle.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/ankle-diagram-lg.jpg
There are:
Tarsal bones (in the ankle)
5 Metatarsal (between the ankle and the toes)
14 Phalanges (the bones of the toes - 3 in each
toe except the big toe which has 2)
The ankle joint is formed by the articulation of the

tibia (of the lower leg) and talus (of the foot).
Table 1.8 Actions of the ankle joint

Joint movement (Joint range of motion (ROM) in degrees)
HFPACOL000009
Plantar flexion 50
Dorsi flexion 15-20

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 10: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: ARMS, LEGS 16
ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXION
MAJOR ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXORS

GASTROCNEMIUS
SOLEUS
Figure 1.12 Ankle muscular anatomy lateral view
ROLE OF MAJOR ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXORS

Contraction of the ankle plantar flexors pulls the foot down, away from the lower leg (tibia and fibula).

The ankle plantar flexor muscles attach to both the femur and the calcaneus of the
foot. Movement is dependent on which part (femur or foot) is stabilized due to body
positioning. If the femur is stabilized the action at the ankle joint is ankle plantar
flexion where the ankle moves up towards the femur during muscle shortening/
concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure D for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major ankle
plantar flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXORS
Standing calf raises

ANKLE DORSI FLEXION
MAJOR ANKLE DORSI FLEXORS

Tibialis anterior
HFPACOL000009
Figure 1.13 Ankle muscular anatomy lateral view
ROLE OF MAJOR ANKLE DORSI FLEXORS

Contraction of the ankle dorsi flexors pulls the foot up toward the lower leg (tibia and fibula).

The ankle dorsiflexor muscles attach to both the tibia and cuneiform and first
metatarsal of foot. Movement is dependent on which part (tibia or foot) is
stabilized due to body positioning. If the tibia is stabilized the action at the ankle
joint is ankle dorsi flexion during muscle shortening/ concentric contraction.
Refer to Annexure D for more details on Origin and Insertion of the major ankle
dorsi flexors.
EXAMPLE OF EXERCISE THAT TARGETS THE ANKLE DORSI FLEXION
Seated ankle dorsi flexion

ANNEXURE D
REFERENCES
Floyd, R.T. ( 2007). Manual of structural kinesiology. NY: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Whiting, W.C., Rugg, S.
Dynatomy: Dynamic human anatomy. US: Human Kinetics
Hip joint:
Joint movement Muscles responsible

(Joint range of motion (ROM) in
degrees)
Flexion (0-130) Primary Mover(s): Psoas

Synergist(s): Iliacus, tensor fascia latae, rectus femoris,
anterior adductors especially pectineus, Sartorius
Antagonist(s): Gluteus maximus, biceps femoris (long
head), semitendinosus, semimembranosus, Posterior head of
adductor Magnus
Stabilizer(s): Deep rotators of hip
Extension (0-130) Primary Mover(s): Gluteus maximus

Synergist(s): Biceps femoris (long head), semitendinosus,
semimembranosus, posterior head of adductor Magnus
Antagonist(s): Psoas, iliacus, tensor fascia latae, rectus
femoris, anterior adductors especially pectineus, Sartorius
HFPACOL000009
Abduction (0-35) Primary Mover(s): Gluteus medius

Synergist(s): Gluteus maximus (superior fibers), gluteus
minimus, tensor fascia latae, Sartorius, vastus lateralis via
fascial slips
Antagonist(s): Adductor Magnus, pectineus, adductor brevis,
adductor longus, gracilis, gluteus maximus (inferior fibers),
quadratus femoris
Adduction (0-30) Primary Mover(s): Adductors

Synergist(s): gluteus maximus (inferior fibers), quadratus
femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus
Antagonist(s): Gluteus maximus (superior fibers), gluteus
medius, gluteus minimus, tensor fascia latae, Sartorius, vastus
lateralis via fascial slips

Internal rotation(0-45) Primary Mover(s): Gluteus minimus
Synergist(s): Anterior fiber of gluteus medius, tensor fascia
latae, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, anterior adductors
Antagonist(s): Gluteus maximus, posterior fibers of gluteus
medius, biceps femoris (long head), posterior head of
adductor magnus, deep rotators of hip, Sartorius
External rotation(0-50) Primary Mover(s): Piriformis

Synergist(s): Deep rotators of hip, gluteus maximus,
posterior fibers of gluteus medius, biceps femoris (long head),
posterior head of adductor magnus, sartorius
Antagonist(s): Anterior fiber of gluteus medius, gluteus
minimus, tensor fascia latae, semitendinosus,
semimembranosus, anterior adductors
Stabilizer(s): Deep rotators of hip, gluteus medius, gluteus
minimus
Images derived from:

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTklQ5HkC1YdbnyzDj2jX1a0zqwB7A_frwqfx3Iu1b1JhFjVhd0
Spinal and hip movement related to pelvic motion:
Pelvic movement Hip movement Hip movement

Right hip Left hip
Left transverse rotation External rotation Internal rotation Right lateral rotation
Right transverse rotation Internal rotation External rotation Left lateral rotation
Anterior rotation Flexion Flexion Extension
Posterior rotation Extension Extension Flexion
Left lateral rotation Adduction Abduction Right lateral flexion
Right lateral rotation Abduction Adduction Left lateral flexion

Iliopsoas Origin (O) Muscular function

Iliacus • Flexion of the hip
• Inner surface of the ilium • External rotation of the hip
Psoas major and minor • Transverse pelvis rotation
• Lower borders of the transverse processes (L1-L5), contra laterally when
• Sides of the of the last thoracic vertebrae (T12) ipsilateral femur is
• Lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5) stabilized
• Intervertebral fibrocartilages
• Base of the sacrum
Insertion (I)
Iliacus and psoas major and minor
• Lesser trochanter of the femur and the shaft just below
Psoas major and minor
• Pectineal line and iliopectineal eminence
Sartorius Origin (O) Muscular function

• Anterior superior iliac spine and notch just below the spine • Flexion of the hip
Insertion (I) • Flexion of the knee
• Anterior medial surface of the tibia just below the condyle • External rotation of the
thigh as it flexes the hip
and knee
• Abduction of the hip
• Anterior pelvic rotation
Rectus femoris Origin (O) Muscular function
• Anterior inferior iliac spine of the ilium and • Flexion of the hip
groove (posterior) above the acetabulum • Extension of the knee
Insertion (I) • Anterior pelvic rotation
• Superior aspect of the patella and patellar
tendon to the tibial tuberosity
Tensor fasciae latae Origin (O) Muscular function

• Anterior iliac crest and surface of the ilium • Abduction of the hip
just below the crest • Flexion of the hip
Insertion (I) • Tendency to rotate the hip
• One-fourth of the way down the thigh into internally as it flexes anterior
the iliotibial tract, which in turn inserts onto pelvic rotation
Gerdy’s tubercle of the anterolateral tibial
condyle
Gluteus maximum Origin (O) Muscular function
• Posterior one-fourth of the crest of the ilium • Extension of the hip
• Posterior surface of the sacrum and coccyx • External rotation of the hip
near the ilium • Upper fibers: assist in hip
• Fascia of the lumbar area abduction
Insertion (I) • Lower fibers: assist in hip
• Oblique ridge on the lateral surface of the adduction
greater trochanter and the iliotibial band of • Posterior pelvic rotation
the fasciae latae
Gluteus medius Origin (O) Muscular function

• Lateral surface of the ilium just below the • Abduction of the hip
crest • Anterior fibers: internal
Insertion (I) rotation and flexion of the hip
• Posterior and middle surface of the greater • Posterior fibers: external
trochanter of the femur rotation and extension of the
hip
Six deep lateral rotators Origin (O) Muscular function
• Anterior sacrum, posterior portion of the ischium, and • External rotation of the hip
obturator foramen
Insertion (I)
• Superior and posterior aspect of the greater trochanter
Semitendinosus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Ischial tuberosity • Flexion of the knee
Insertion (I) • Extension of the hip
Anterior medial surface of the tibia just below the condyle • Internal rotation of the hip
• Internal rotation of the flexed
knee
Posterior pelvic rotation
Semimembranosus Origin (O) Muscular function
• Ischial tuberosity • Flexion of the knee
Insertion (I) • Extension of the hip
• Posteromedial surface of the medial tibial condyle • Internal rotation of the hip
• Internal rotation of the
flexed knee
• Posterior pelvic rotation
Biceps femoris Origin (O) Muscular function

• Long head: ischial tuberosity • Flexion of the knee
• Short head: lower half of the linea aspera, and lateral condyloid ridge • Extension of the hip
Insertion (I) • External rotation of the hip
• Lateral condyle of the tibia and head of the fibula • External rotation of the
flexed knee
• Posterior pelvic rotation
Adductor brevis Origin (O) Muscular function
• Front of the inferior pubic ramus just below the origin of the longus • Adduction of the hip
Insertion (I) • External rotation as it
• Lower two-thirds of the pectineal line of the femur and the upper half of adducts the hip
the medial lip of the linea aspera • Assists in flexion of the
hip
Adductor longus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Anterior pubis just below its crest • Adduction of the hip
Insertion (I) • Assists in flexion of the
• Middle third of the linea aspera hip
Adductor magnus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Edge if the entire ramus of the pubis and the ischium and ischial • Adduction of the hip
tuberosity • External rotation of as
Insertion (I) the hip adducts
• Whole length of the linea aspera, inner condyloid ridge, and • Extension of the hip
adductor tubercle
Pectineus Origin (O) Muscular function
• Space 1-inch (2.54 cm) wide on the front of the pubis just above the crest • Flexion of the hip
Insertion (I) • Adduction of the hip
Rough line leading from the lesser trochanter down to the linea aspera External rotation of the hip
Gracilis Origin (O) Muscular function

• Anterior medial edge of the descending • Adduction of the hip
ramus of the pubis • Weak flexion of the knee
Insertion (I) • Internal rotation of the hip
• Anterior medial surface of the tibia just • Assist with flexion of the hip
below the condyle
Muscular actions of the knee
joint:

degrees)
Extension (180) Prime Mover(s): Quadriceps – vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus
intermedius, rectus femoris
Synergist(s): There are no true synergists of knee extension. However, the
gluteus maximus and soleus could be viewed as synergists to knee extension
during closed chain mechanics.
Antagonist(s): Biceps Femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus,
popliteus, gastrocnemius, gracilis, sartorius
Stabilizer(s): Medial stabilizers – Pes Anserinus group, semimembranosus,
medial gastrocnemius, and vastus medialis obliquus, popliteus
Flexion (140) Primary Mover(s): Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus

Synergist(s): popliteus, gastrocnemius, gracilis, Sartorius
Antagonist(s): Quadriceps – vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus
intermedius, rectus femoris
Stabilizer(s): Medial stabilizers – Pes Anserinus group, medial gastrocnemius,
and vastus medialis obliquus
Lateral stabilizers – Gluteus maximus, TFL, and vastus lateralis via the iliotibial
band, lateral gastrocnemius, plantaris, Popliteus, articular muscle of the knee

Vastus lateralis Origin (O) Muscular function

• Intertrochanteric line • Knee extension
• Anterior and inferior borders of the greater trochanter
• Upper half of the linea aspera
• Entire lateral intermuscular septum
Insertion (I)
• Lateral border of patella
• Patellar tendon to tibial tuberosity
Vastus intermedius Origin (O) Muscular function

• Upper two-thirds of anterior surface of femur • Knee extension
Insertion (I)
• Upper border of patella and the patellar tendon to tibial tuberosity
Vastus medialis Origin (O) Muscular function
• Whole length of linea aspera and medial condyloid ridge • Knee extension
Insertion (I)
• Medial half of the upper border of the patella and patellar tendon
to the tibial tuberosity
Hamstring muscle group See biceps femoris, semitendinosus and semimembranosus under
hip joint
Popliteus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Posterior surface of lateral condyle of femur • Knee flexion
Insertion (I) • Internal rotation
• Upper posterior medial surface of tibia
(Joint range of motion (ROM)
in degrees)
Plantar flexion (50) Prime Mover(s): Soleus, gastrocnemius
Synergist(s): Fibularis longus, fibularis brevis, posterior tibialis, flexor
hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, plantaris
Antagonist(s): Tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis
longus, peroneus tertius
Stabilizer(s): Fibularis longus, fibularis brevis, fibularis tertius, posterior
tibialis, anterior, flexor halluces longus, flexor digitorum longus, extensor
hallucis longus, extensor digitorum longus
Dorsi flexion (15-20) Prime Mover(s): Tibialis anterior

Synergist(s): Extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, peroneus
tertius
Antagonist(s): Soleus, gastrocnemius, fibularis longus, fibularis brevis,
posterior tibialis, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, plantaris
Stabilizer(s): Fibularis longus, fibularis brevis, fibularis tertius, posterior
tibialis, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis
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longus, extensor digitorum longus

Muscular actions of the ankle
Ankle joint (talocrural joint) movements:
Subtalar and transverse tarsal joint movements:

degrees)
Inversion (20-30) Prime Mover(s): Tibialis anterior, tibialis posterior
Synergist(s): Medial gastrocnemius, flexor hallucis longus, flexor
digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus
Antagonist(s): Soleus, lateral gastrocnemius, fibularis longus,
fibularis brevis, fibularis tertius, extensor digitorum longus, plantaris
Stabilizer(s): Fibularis longus, fibularis brevis, fibularis tertius, flexor
hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus,
extensor digitorum longus
Eversion (5-15) Prime Mover(s): Fibularis longus, fibularis brevis

Synergist(s): Fibularis tertius, soleus, lateral gastrocnemius,
extensor digitorum longus, plantaris
Antagonist(s): Tibialis anterior, tibialis posterior, medial
gastrocnemius, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus,
extensor hallucis longus
Stabilizer(s): fibularis tertius, tibialis anterior, tibialis posterior, flexor
hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus,
extensor digitorum longus
Images derived from:

http://content.answcdn.com/main/content/img/oxford/Oxford_Food_Fitness/0198631472.body-movements.1.jpg

Gastrocnemius Origin (O) Muscular function

• Medial head: posterior surface of the medial femoral condyle • Ankle Plantar
• Lateral head: posterior surface of the lateral femoral condyle flexion
Insertion (I) • Knee flexion
• Posterior surface of the calcaneus (Achilles tendon)
Soleus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Posterior surface of the proximal fibula and proximal two-thirds • Ankle plantar
of the posterior tibial surface flexion
Insertion (I)
• Posterior surface of the calcaneus (Achilles tendon)
Tibialis posterior Origin (O) Muscular function
• Posterior surface of the upper half of the ineterosseus • Ankle plantar
membrane and the adjacent surfaces of the tibia and fibula flexion
Insertion (I) • Inversion
• Lower inner surface of the navicular and cuneiform bones and
bases of the 2 nd to 5 th metatarsal bones
Flexor digitorum longus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Middle third of the posterior surface of the tibia • Ankle plantar
Insertion (I) flexion
• Base of the distal phalanx of each of the four lesser toes • Inversion
Flexor hallucis longus Origin (O) Muscular function
• Middle two thirds of the posterior surface of the fibula • Ankle plantar
• Base of the distal phalanx of • Inversion
• the big toe, plantar surface • Flexion of great
toe
Peroneus longus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Head and upper two thirds of the lateral surface of the fibula • Ankle plantar
• Under surfaces of the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal • Eversion
bones
Peroneus brevis Origin (O) Muscular function

• Lower two thirds of the lateral surface of the fibula • Ankle plantar
• Tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone • Eversion
Peroneus tertius Origin (O) Muscular function
• Distal third of the anterior fibula • Ankle dorsiflexion
Insertion (I) • Eversion
• Base of the fifth metatarsal
Extensor digitorum longus Origin (O) Muscular function

• Upper two thirds of the anterior surface of the tibia • Ankle dorsiflexion
• Lateral condyle of the tibia • Eversion
• Head of the fibula • Extension of the
Insertion (I) four lesser toes
• Superior aspect of the middle and distal phalanges of the four
lesser toes
Extensor hallucis longus Origin (O) Muscular function
• Middle two thirds of the medial surface of the anterior fibula • Ankle dorsi
Insertion (I) plantar flexion
• Base of the distal phalanx of the great toe • Weak inversion
• Extension of the
great toe
Tibialis anterior Origin (O) Muscular function

• Upper two thirds of the lateral surface of the tibia • Ankle dorsi
Insertion (I) plantar flexion
• Inner surface of the medial cuneiform and the base of the first • Inversion
metatarsal bone
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 11:
ENERGY SYSTEMS
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This chapter provides an overview of the energy systems of the

human body which convert foodstuff into energy; with particular
focus on energy used for movement.
OBJECTIVES:
Explain the three energy systems, identify the use of

these systems in daily activity and apply them to the
design of exercise programmes.
Differentiate between metabolism, catabolism and
anabolism by giving examples of each as they occur in
the human body.
Explain the characteristics and functions of enzymes.
Describe the three energy systems: ATP-PC, glycolysis
and oxidative phosphorylation.
Apply the understanding of energy systems in the design
of health and sports specific programmes.
INTRODUCTION
The structure of the skeletal musculature was described in chapter 3. Two types of muscle fibers are mentioned, Fast
twitch and Slow twitch. Each skeletal muscle consists of both fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers. The percentage
slow to fast twitch muscle fibers depend on genetics and training. Those with higher percentage slow twitch muscle
fibers might find long distance low intensity aerobic exercise easier than others. While individuals who have higher
percentage of fast twitch muscle fibers might find high intensity anaerobic exercise easier.
During high intensity short duration anaerobic exercise the muscles use energy at a high rate which is referred to as
anaerobic energy systems. During low intensity long distance aerobic exercise the muscles use energy at a slower rate
which is referred to as aerobic energy systems.
Detailed description of energy systems is provided in this chapter.
2.1 METABOLISM
All cells within the body require energy to for survival and basic functionality. Metabolism is the sum total of all chemical
reactions involved to maintain the living state of the cells in the body. Metabolism involves both anabolism and
catabolism (http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/5900verviewmet.html):
ANABOLISM: CATABOLISM:
Building-up processes Breaking down processes
Figure 2.1 Anabolism and Catabolism
2.2 PHOTOSYNTHESIS VS RESPIRATION
All living organisms require energy to perform their life functions. The primary source of energy for all living organisms
is the radiation energy of the sun.
During photosynthesis this radiation energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules in the form of binding energy that
binds atoms in certain molecules. These carbohydrates as well as substances such as proteins and fats formed during
anabolic (building up) processes serve as a source of organic food (and thus energy) for animals.
Respiration can be seen as the opposite of this building metabolic process and is briefly defined as the release of
energy from organic bonds (e.g. glucose) in living protoplasm. It normally (not necessarily) goes hand-in-hand with
the uptake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide.
During respiration the chemical energy stored in certain organic molecules of living organisms is converted into smaller
packages of chemical energy that are then released all over the cell for metabolic processes.
This energy conversion is under the control of enzymes supplied by the cell mitochondria. In both plants and animals
it is mainly carbohydrates (particularly glucose) that provide fuel.
Fats are a very important reserve fuel in animals while starch is the most important reserve carbohydrate in plants. All
digestible carbohydrates are broken down to glucose in the digestive canal and the glucose is then stored in the liver
and muscle in the form of glycogen.

Respiration can be regarded as the reverse of photosynthesis, as shown in the following table:
RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Carbohydrates are oxidized Carbohydrates are built up

Oxygen is taken up Oxygen is given off
Carbon dioxide is given off Carbon dioxide is taken up
Energy is released Energy is conserved
Takes place in all living cells Only takes place in chlorophyll containing cells (chloroplasts)
Takes place continually Only takes place in sunlight
2.3 ENERGY FROM DIGESTION
The human body is capable of movements requiring large bursts of energy over short periods as well as movements
requiring less energy but for longer periods of time. Energy, defined as the ability to perform work, is needed even for
such apparently simple acts as breathing. Energy needed to maintain body functions both at rest and during exercise
is provided by the food we eat.
Body cells cannot use the energy released from food directly, they are only able to use the chemical compound
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Digestion breaks down the food we eat (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) into their
simplest components that can be absorbed into the blood and transported around the body where they are either used
immediately for energy or stored for later use. The body’s capacity for ATP storage is relatively limited so most of the
food digested is stored either as glycogen (the storage form of carbohydrate) or as fat (fats and excess carbohydrates).
The mechanical and chemical processes involved in digestion to break down food involves catabolic and exergonic
reactions:
Catabolic reactions: reactions which involve breaking down (splitting) larger complex molecules into smaller simple
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molecules.
Exergonic reactions: Reactions which release energy
The energy (ATP) which we derive from food is further broken down (catabolic reaction) to provide energy for anabolic
(building up processes) such as energy used to build up muscle:
Anabolic reactions: reactions which build-up/ form complex molecules from two or more simple molecules
Endergonic reactions: Reactions which use energy
Figure 2.2 Metabolism: Endergonic and Exergonic reactions

Derived from: http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/59/166059-004-40ACDC27.jpg

2.3.1 Examples of anabolism
The formation of new protoplasm to repair damaged tissue.
The build-up and storage of substances. For example an excess of glucose is converted into more
complex compositions such as glycogen and stored in the body in this form. When necessary
(during exercise) the glycogen is converted back to glucose and used as an energy source
thereby ensuring that the tissues have a constant and ample supply of fuel. Other examples
include the build-up of proteins from amino acids and the formation of fats from the simple
precursors such as acetate.
The formation of useful substances such as enzymes, hormones, etc.
2.3.2 Examples of catabolism
Oxidation of substances: During respiration glucose is oxidized to form carbon dioxide and water,
i.e. glucose, in the presence of oxygen, is broken down into simpler substances. Another
example is the breakdown of fats, during starvation, to simpler molecules.
Breakdown of non-essential substances, e.g. non-essential amino acids are broken down to
glucose and urea, the urea is then expelled in the urine, while the glucose is further broken
down to carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H 2O) with the release of energy.
2.3.3 The relationship between anabolism and catabolism
During the growth period catabolism is dominated by anabolism. Equilibrium is reached at maturity. To preserve this
equilibrium the body must provide all the necessary food components in the right ratio, indicating the necessity of a
balanced diet. The balanced diet will provide the body with enough building material and fuel. It has been hypothesized
that with advancing age catabolism eventually dominates anabolism but to date this remains an unproven theory.
The type of training (aerobic or resistance) involves either catabolic or anabolic reactions relative to skeletal muscle
development. The dominant reactions result in the degree of muscle development.
An increase in active muscle cells increase metabolism which assist maintenance and improvement of body composition.
2.4 ENZYMES
In 1897 the Dutch Buchner brothers succeeded in isolating a catalyzing substance from living cells (yeast cells). When
they added the catalyzing substance to a sugar solution it brought about alcoholic fermentation. This substance was
given the name “enzyme” which literally means “in a yeast plant”. Later other substances with catalyzing characteristics
were discovered in living cells and the word “enzyme” was, and is still, used to describe all living catalysts.
Enzymes are catalysts which speed up the rate of chemical reactions and are not consumed or altered by the reaction.
They assist in converting reactants (called substrates) into specific products.
The enzyme binds with the substrate. Depending on the type of reaction (anabolic or catabolic) the substrate is either
broken down into smaller products (catabolic) or two substrates bind to form a larger product.
(http://www.medicinenet.com).

a) Catabolic reaction
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Substrates entering enzyme Enzyme/substrate Enzyme/product Complex product leaving

active site complex complex enzyme active site
b) Anabolic reaction
Figure 2.3 Enzyme substrate complex
Derived from: http://cnx.org/content/m44429/latest/Figure_06_05_03.jpg
2.4.1 Characteristics of enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts and play a very important role in the essential metabolic
processes that take place in the living cell.
The substance upon which the enzyme acts is called the substrate. A small amount of enzyme
can catalyze a large amount of substrate.
Enzyme molecules can be used repeatedly in reactions but because they are proteins there
is the possibility of denaturation under certain conditions.
Enzymes are proteins and normally have a high molecular mass, e.g. urease (an enzyme that
breaks down urea to CO 2 and ammonia) has a molecular mass of 480 000 while the substance
upon which it works has a molecular mass of 60.
Sometimes the enzyme is made up of a protein portion, the apo-enzyme, as well as a non-
protein (organic) portion called a co-enzyme. As soon as the enzyme is broken into its apo and
co-enzyme components it loses its catalyzing characteristics.
In opposition to non-biological catalysts enzymes are highly specific in their role, i.e. a specific
enzyme catalyzes a specific reaction in the living cell.
Each enzyme has a certain temperature at which it functions best. In humans this temperature
is approximately 36.9°C. An increase of only a few degrees can lead to a

retardation of enzyme activity with a resultant decrease in the effectiveness of important life-
giving biochemical processes. A temperature of 41°C in man can be fatal.
Heat influences the catalyzing action of enzymes. High temperatures will permanently denature
enzymes while low temperatures temporarily deactivate them.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH, i.e. enzymes work most effectively at a particular pH (acid or
alkaline). In all cases the enzyme activities take place within a small pH variation.
2.4.2 The function of enzymes
A chemical reaction takes place when the molecules of particular substances collide with each other.
These colliding molecules must contain a minimum amount of activation energy. Enzymes accelerate the speed of a
reaction by decreasing the activation energy; this explains why enzymes work as catalysts. The enzyme molecule binds
to the substrate molecule forming an activated enzyme-substrate complex. As a result of inter-molecular rearrangement
the enzyme is rereleased along with the end product of the reaction. This can be shown as follows:
In relation to the large enzyme molecule the substrate molecule is very small. How then does the enzyme operate?
The substrate molecule requires only a portion of the amino acid chain of the enzyme molecule, but this portion must
have a particular configuration to enable the substrate molecule to fit very neatly. (The enzymes and substrate
molecules fit together like puzzle pieces – only the correct pieces can be put together).
The place where the substrate molecule makes contact with the enzyme molecule is called the active center of the
molecule. An analogy often used here is that of a lock and key, where the lock is the substrate, and the key is the
enzyme. Only a small section of the key is responsible for opening the lock – this section can be compared to the active
center of the molecule.
As soon as the substrate has changed to the end product it will no longer fit in the active center of the enzyme, thus
leaving the center available for another substrate molecule.
A certain amount of enzyme can only catalyze a certain amount of substrate within a given time period. If the amount
of enzyme remains constant and the amount of substrate gradually increases the enzyme will soon become saturated
with substrate and the reaction velocity cannot increase further, i.e. the rate at which the substrate can be converted
to the end product slows down.
From the above discussion it would seem that the enzyme configuration at the active center must be such that the
substrate molecule fits precisely. If any other molecule positions itself in this center it will interfere with the formation
of the normal substrate enzyme complex. This results in inhibition.
2.5 ENERGY MOLECULES
Humans consume food for energy, growth and development (www.gcps.desire2learn.com). Primary categories of food
include macronutrients such as carbohydrates, protein and fat (primary constituents of diet) and micronutrients
such as vitamins and minerals which make up a smaller part of the diet. These food sources are broken down
mechanically and chemically via the digestive system (refer to module 8 for more on the digestive system and nutrition).
This process of breaking down food (carbohydrate, protein, and fat molecules) into usable forms of energy for human
movement is referred to as Bioenergetics (Coburn, J.W and Malek, M.H., 2012).
The energy molecule which is released during the process of breaking down food sources is ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate). This is an energy rich molecule which is used for mechanical work (muscle contraction) and muscle
growth.

2.5.1 The ATP Molecule
The molecule is basically made up of the following:

An adenosine portion that is made up of adenosine and ribose; the adenosine portion is expressed by the
letter ‘A’ in ATP.
A triphosphate portion that is made up of 3 phosphoryl atoms each surrounded by oxygen and hydrogen
atoms in a particular manner. The letters TP in ATP indicate triphosphate. The adenosine and phosphate
groups are bonded together.
Figure 2.4 Adenosine Triphosphate

Derived from: https://d2jmvrsizmvf4x.cloudfront.net/koRpKeW9QpiNDs3MCblv_ATP.jpg
ATP is the primary high-energy compound: To produce energy the terminal phosphate is released from a mole of ATP
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by the enzymatic addition of water (hydrolysis). It is sometimes said that energy is released when the bond is broken.
However, it is more correct to say that ATP releases energy when its terminal phosphate is hydrolyzed. When this
happens approximately 7kCals are made available to do mechanical work.
Figure 2.5 Release of one phosphate Derived Figure 2.6 Hydrolysis

from: https://d2jmvrsizmvf4x.cloudfront.net Derived from: http://images.slideplayer.com
The ADP molecule: With the release of one phosphate group ATP converts to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) plus a
free phosphate and energy (ADP + Pi + energy). In the same way a further phosphate group can be removed, also
with the release of energy, forming AMP (adenosine monophosphate). Energy is required to reform the ATP
molecule - 7kCal per mole is required to make ATP from ADP and Pi.

Figure 2.7 Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP to AMP

The body is in constant motion throughout the day which requires a continuous supply of ATP but only a limited supply
of ATP is stored in muscle cells. Thus ATP-producing processes are required to replenish these stores and provide
energy when needed.
Phosphocreatine is another molecule stored in the muscle which assist in replenishing ATP. This process is described
below.
2.5.2 Phosphocreatine
Phosphocreatine (PC) is a high-energy chemical compound that consists of a creatine base and one phosphate which
is attached by means of a “high energy” bond. When the phosphate (P) is released from creatine (C) energy is released
to attach the phosphate (P) onto a low energy ADP molecule to form a high energy ATP molecule
(http://www.zentofitness.com/energy-production-during-exercise). The reformation of ATP from occurs within a
fraction of a second.
When there is an increase in ADP concentration within the muscle Phosphocreatine is called upon to replenish ATP.
When the ATP concentration increases the Phosphocreatine activity decreases.
Figure 2.8 ATP formation from Phosphocreatine

Derived from: http:// www.zentofitness.com/energy-production-during-exercise
The interaction between ATP and CP to produce energy for movement is referred to as the phosphagen energy system.

2.6 ENERGY SYSTEMS
2.6.1 Phosphagen Energy System (ATP-PC system)
ATP and PC are both stored in the muscle cells (2 to 3 times as much PC as ATP). As the amount of ATP present in the
muscles can only sustain maximal muscle power for approximately 5 or 6 seconds, it is essential that ATP be formed
continuously even during athletic performance. ATP and PC together can provide maximal muscle power for
approximately 10 to 15 seconds.
The process of phosphocreatine replenishing ATP is regulated by an enzyme Creatine Kinase (CK) also known as
Creatine Phosphokinase (CPK). The enzyme which regulates the hydrolysis of ATP is ATPase.
Enzymes are protein molecules that accelerate the chemical reaction by lowering the initial activation energy of the
chemical reaction. Therefore the ATPase and Creatine Kinase enzymes are respectively responsible for:
ATPase: the increase or decrease of hydrolyzing ATP for energy production

Creatine Kinase: the increase or decrease of ATP replenishment by means of CP is regulated by Creatine
Kinase (http://www.zentofitness.com/energy-production-during-exercise/)
Phosphocreatine is created in the mitochondria which is situated within the sarcoplasm of the muscle fiber by
means of mitochondrial isoform of creatine kinase (MiCK) (creatine kinase found in mitochondria
intermembrane). Phosphocreatine is replenished via ATP which was generated within the mitochondria and
creatine which is imported from the cytosol. The main myofibrillar isoform creatine kinase (MMCK) found in
the cytosol of the muscle fiber regulates the reaction of phosphocreatine replenishing ATP.
ATP concentration drops when phosphocreatine is depleted. The result is an increase in ADP molecules. At this
point Adenylate kinase is activated to lower ADP concentration and in turn increase ATP concentration of the
following reaction it catalyzes:
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Figure 2.9 Adenylate kinase reaction

Derived from: https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com
An increase in AMP concentration serves as a stimulant of glycolysis. Glycolysis is the energy system which
produces energy by breaking down carbohydrates.
Mitochondrial inner membrane

space
Mitochondrial outer membrane
Cytosol
Figure 2.10 Creatine kinase activity within mitochondria and cytosol of muscle fiber
Derived from: https://models.cellml.org/exposure/60448df568d7480f8246c99db3839976/kongas_2001b.png

2.6.2 Glycolysis
Glycolysis means “splitting sugars”. Carbohydrates are sources of sugar and found in the body as glucose (a six
carbon sugar) circulating in the blood or as glycogen stored in the liver or skeletal muscle. Glycolysis splits
glucose into two molecules of three-carbon sugars called pyruvate to resynthesize ATP.
[(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21190/);(biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses);
(http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-energy-and-cell-functions-14024533)].
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm which involves ten chemical reactions which require two ATP molecules
to yield four new ATP molecules. Thus, a net ATP gain of two ATP molecules. In addition, two NADH molecules
are produced which serve as electron carriers in oxidative process in the mitochondria.
(http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-energy-and-cell-functions-14024533).
Pyruvate is the end result of glycolysis. Depending on the energy requirements of the exercise/ physical activity
and the availability of oxygen pyruvate will follow either one of the following:
Fast glycolysis: convert pyruvate to lactate
Slow glycolysis: pyruvate oxidized in mitochondria
Fast glycolysis
Pyruvate cannot be oxidized to carbon dioxide in the absence of oxygen which results in the formation of
intermediate products such as lactate (salt form of lactic acid). In other words pyruvate is concerted to lactate during
fast glycolysis (see figure 1.29).
The net reaction for fast glycolysis: Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP → 2lactate + 2ATP + H2O
Slow glycolysis
Pyruvate formed as end product of glycolysis is transported from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria where slow
energy is produced by the oxidative energy system (refer to the aerobic energy system section below). Pyruvate is
the substrate for oxidative phosphorylation (see figure 1.29).
Net reaction for slow glycolysis: Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2NAD + → 2pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H2O
Anaerobic glycolysis (cytosol)

Oxygen poor environment
Glucose
Pyruvate
Lactate + 2ATP
Aerobic glycolysis (mitochondria)

Oxygen rich environment
Glucose
Pyruvate
Mitochondria (oxygen available)
CO2 + 36 ATP
Figure 2.11 Fast (anaerobic) and slow (aerobic) glycolysis


Lactate accumulation during fast glycolysis
As described earlier, lactate is formed as a by-product of fast glycolysis. The clearance and buffering of lactate
from the blood reflect the return to homeostatic conditions.
Lactate is cleared by:

→ Slow twitch muscle fibers which clear lactate by means of oxidative processes
→ Cori cycle: lactate is transported in the blood to the liver to be converted to glucose (see figure 2.12)
Blood lactate concentrations return to pre-exercise levels within approximately an hour after exercise. Active
recovery such as low intensity aerobic exercise speeds up the rate of lactate clearance.
The accumulation of blood lactate has falsely been associated with fatigue during participation in physical activity.
Reason being that high concentrations of lactate is found at the onset of fatigue. However, it is the accumulation of
proton (H+) which reduces the blood PH, referred to as metabolic acidosis.
The reduced PH results in:

inhibition of glycolytic reactions
inhibition of calcium binding to troponin which in turn prevents muscular contraction
slow of turnover rate of energy system enzyme activity which slows energy production
Hydrolysis of ATP (refer to figure 1.25) seems to be the greatest cause of H+ accumulation. Lactate assist to
reduce metabolic acidosis (refer to figure 1.30).
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Figure 2.12 Phosphoglycerate kinase: proton consumption

Derived from: Haff, G.G and Triplett, N.T, 2016 Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, 2016.
Figure 2.13 Cori Cycle

Derived from: https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/423/flashcards/1412423/png/cori1355997130413.png

Figure 2.14 Typical lactate curve
7.6.3 Aerobic energy system
The aerobic energy system metabolizes carbohydrates (sugar) and fats. Protein is not normally used in any significant
amount except during long-term starvation and long intense bouts of exercise (>90 minutes). When at rest the body
normally derives one-third of the required ATP from carbohydrates and two thirds from fats. During physical work there
is a gradual change to metabolizing more and more carbohydrates and less fat as the intensity of the work increases.
Glucose oxidation
When there is not required at a fast rate and oxygen is available, the end-product of glycolysis pyruvate is shuttled to
the mitochondria to partake in oxidative reactions:
Krebs cycle
Electron transport chain
Krebs cycle: Pyruvate is converted to Acetyle CoenzymeA (Actyle CoA) which enters the Krebs cycle for further
ATP production. Actyle CoA is a two-carbon molecule and a third carbon binds with oxygen and is forms carbon dioxide .
Two molecules of flavin adenine dinucleotide (NADH) formed during glycolysis also enters the Krebs cycle.
The eight-step Krebs cycle generates:

Two ATP molecules indirectly for each glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules = 1 glucose molecule).
Compounds capable of storing "high energy" electrons including:
o six NADH,
o two FADH 2 and
o guanine triphosphate (GTP)
NADH and FADH 2 transport hydrogen atoms to the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) which is found in the in the
mitochondrial inner membrane to rephosphorylate ADP to form ATP.
Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation: the ETC consists a series of electron carriers (cytochromes).
ATP is formed by the process of passing hydrogen atoms down the electron transport chain to form a proton
concentration gradient, which provides the energy for ATP production. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor which
leads to the formation of water. This process is called oxidative phophorylation (refer to figure 2.16)
ADH and FADH 2 do not produce equal amounts of ATP due to NADH which enters the ETC before FADH 2.
[(http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-energy-and-cell-functions-14024533); (Haff, G.G and Triplett, N.T,
2016); (http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/a/cellrespiration.htm)]

Figure 2.15 Glycolysis, Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and Oxidative phosphorylation
Derived from: http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-energy-and-cell-functions-14024533
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Figure 2.16 Electron transport chain

Derived from: https://biochemistry3rst.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/2508_the_electron_transport_chain.jpg

Fat oxidation
Fats can be used for energy production by the aerobic energy system. The enzyme hormone-sensitive lipase
hydrolyses fats which release triglycerides: free fatty acids and glycerol (http://medical-dictionary
thefreedictionary.com/hormone-sensitive+lipase). The free fatty acids circulate in the blood stream and enter the
muscle.
In the mitochondria the free fatty acids are broken down through a series of reactions which lead to the formation of
acetylCoA and hydrogen atoms which is referred to as beta oxidation. Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle. Similar to the
glucose oxidation, NADH and FADH2 transport hydrogen atoms to the ETC to rephosphorylate ADP to form ATP.
Protein oxidation
Protein can be broken down to produce ATP for mechanical work such as physical activity. It is not a significant source
of energy. Protein is broken down into its constituent amino acids. The amino acids are further broken down into
glucose, pyruvate or any Krebs cycle intermediates which follow a similar path as glycogen to produce ATP (Haff, G.G
and Triplett, N.T, 2016).
Amino acids Fatty acids
Glucose
NH3
Figure 2.17 Cellular respiration

The aerobic energy source is less powerful than the others because it cannot produce enough ATP per unit of time to
allow the performance of maximal intensity work such as a one-RM lift or a 100 meter sprint. On the other hand, due
to the abundance of glycogen and fats and the lack of limiting by-products this system can supply a virtually unlimited
amount of ATP over a long period of time.
2.7 METABOLISM IN SKELETAL MUSCLE
When the muscle cell is working harder it obviously needs a faster supply of energy to contract harder or faster. The
working cell uses a greater amount of fuel and produces more waste products; consequently the blood supply must be
increased to cope with the increased demands.
Muscle cells produce ATP in the same way as all other cells, i.e. by breaking down energy-rich molecules like glycogen
to glucose and producing ATP in the mitochondria in the presence of oxygen.
The levels of ATP in muscles is relatively low – enough to support only about 10 twitches in most muscles so because
ATP must be re-synthesised energy is required from other sources.
Muscles in the human body are made up of red (tonic) and white or pale (phasic) fibers. The pale fast twitch fibers
are designed for anaerobic metabolism since they have a comparatively poor oxygen delivery system but a high capacity
for ATP and PC storage; this means that they are mainly used for rapid, powerful movements, e.g. jumping, throwing
and sprinting.
On the other hand, the larger amount of myoglobin and aerobic (or oxidative) enzymes found in the red, slow twitch
fibers means they have a more effective oxygen delivery system. They are therefore more suited to fat and
carbohydrate oxidation and are consequently used for lower intensity, longer duration activities, e.g. walking, jogging
and swimming (non-competitive).
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There are greater concentrations of phosphocreatine in Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers than Type I (slow-twitch)
muscle fibers. Those with a greater percentage of Type II muscle fibers may replenish ATP faster via the phosphagen
system when participating in high intensity anaerobic exercise (Haff, G.G and Triplett, N.T, 2016).
Each muscle contains a combination of tonic and phasic fibers, with some muscles having a predominance of red and
others a predominance of pale fibers. Red fibers are smaller in diameter than pale fibers and contain more sarcoplasm
per unit of area.
Red fibers contain more protein, present a high level of electrical activity and are also innervated by lower thresholds
than pale fibers. They are therefore used more frequently than the pale fibers.
Pale fibers have a greater potential for hypertrophy than red fibers - this fact may be illustrated by comparing the
musculature of a sprinter with an ultra-distance marathon runner.
Although most people have a roughly equal percentage of both fiber types athletes who excel in activities characterized
by sudden bursts of energy but who tire relatively rapidly probably have a proportionately higher percentage of fast
twitch fibers, while those who are best at lower intensity, endurance activities probably have a proportionately higher
percentage of slow twitch fibers.
In a short burst of exertion, e.g. the 100 meter sprint, energy is supplied by the anaerobic pathway, causing a build-
up of lactate that must be broken down into carbon dioxide and water (the aerobic pathway) after the race. On the
other hand, endurance athletes who use energy supplied by the aerobic pathway can cover long distances without
going into “oxygen debt”.
Although the cardiorespiratory centers are stimulated by the presence of lactate in the bloodstream there is a maximal
oxygen uptake level that varies from person to person depending on size, age, gender and level of fitness. The average
maximum uptake for a young man is approximately 3.5 liters, for a young woman 2 – 3 liters and for a trained athlete
it may be as high as 6 liters per minute.

Limiting factors in the availability of oxygen for muscle contraction include:
Oxygen content of the atmosphere (decreases as altitude increases)
Inflating capacity of the lungs
Efficiency of the cardiovascular system
Hemoglobin content of the blood, e.g. in anemia and when the atmospheric oxygen is inadequate,
muscle efficiency will be impaired until there is an adaptive increase in the number of red blood
corpuscles.
Figure 2.18 Muscle fiber recruitment during sport events

Derived from: https://publi.cz/books/50/images/pics/Obr_13.jpg
2.8 INTERACTION OF THE ENERGY SYSTEMS
There is a great deal of interaction between the energy systems during exercise. The sequence of moving from one
system to another is the same for everyone but the timing varies with different fitness levels. When we start exercising
the body calls for instant energy, i.e. ATP-PC system; after approximately 30 seconds “back-up” is provided by
glycolysis. As exercise continues the aerobic system gradually takes over as the major energy producer.
You will see from the above that the energy for the first 3 minutes of exercise is produced anaerobically.
An analogy to compare aerobic and anaerobic metabolism: Think of 2 tanks containing fuel:
One tank contains high octane, high performance fuel which burns quickly. This tank will produce power but will be
used up very quickly. This tank represents anaerobic energy production.
The second tank contains lower octane fuel that will not produce the performance of the high octane fuel but will last
much longer. This tank represents aerobic energy production.

Phosphagen system: and provides energy for muscular contraction at the onset of exercise and during
short-term, high-intensity exercise (lasting less than 30 seconds). As muscle cells store only small amounts
of PC this energy supply is limited. The re-formation of PC by ATP can only occur during recovery from exercise.
Glycolysis: This method of ATP production is used when energy is needed to perform activities requiring large bursts
of energy over slightly longer periods than can be supplied by the ATP-PC system.
Aerobic energy system: The aerobic energy source is less powerful than the others because it cannot produce
enough ATP per unit of time to allow the performance of maximal intensity work such as a one-RM lift or a 100 meter
sprint. On the other hand, due to the abundance of glycogen and fats and the lack of limiting by-products this
system can supply a virtually unlimited amount of ATP over a long period of time. It is therefore the energy
source for long-duration, low intensity activities.
Energy systems utilized based on exercise intensity and duration

EXERCISE DURATION EXERCISE INTENSITY ENERGY SYSTEMS INVOLVED
Start – 6 seconds Extremely high Phosphagen System (ATP-PC)

6 – 30 seconds Very high Phosphagen and fast glycolysis
30 secs – 2 minutes High Fast glycolysis
2 – 3 mins Moderate Fast glycolysis and aerobic systems
> 3 minutes Low Aerobic System
Derived from: Derived from: Haff, G.G and Triplett, N.T., (2016). Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Example activities which involve anaerobic and aerobic energy systems
ENERGY SYSTEMS INVOLVED EXAMPLE ACTIVITY

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Phosphagen System (ATP-PC) Explosive jump

Start of any activity
Phosphagen and fast glycolysis Fast sprint (6-30 seconds)
e.g. 200m running event
Fast glycolysis Fast sprint (30 seconds – 2 minutes)
e.g. 400m running event
Fast glycolysis and aerobic systems Moderate- high intensity (2-3
minutes)
e.g. 800m - 1km running event
Aerobic System Low intensity, long duration activities
e.g. Walking or marathon event
2.9 CONCLUSION
There are three energy systems that supply energy for movement and metabolic function. The utilization of the different
energy systems varies according to the duration and intensity of exercise executed. Short duration, fast and explosive
type exercises use predominantly anaerobic energy systems. Longer duration, low intensity work utilizes predominantly
aerobic energy systems.

Derived from:
https://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjt9ozN
wLHMAhVRFMAKHYODBGcQjRwIBw&url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubli.cz%2Fbooks%2F50%2F04.html&psig=AFQjCNGez
_cA9fX5zt0kr-Gbsa_g8n-_LQ&ust=1461922899300265

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 12:
BIOMECHANICAL
FACTORS IN HUMAN
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MOVEMENT
This aim of this chapter is to explain the three different classifications of the
biomechanical lever system and how these affect the ability to exert force and speed
of movement.
OBJECTIVES
Explain the principles of movement and exercise in relation to the lever

system.
Describe the integral parts of the lever system.
Classify movements based on the relative arrangement of the physiological
structures required for movement.

INTRODUCTION
It is important for the fitness instructor to know how to analyze movement to ensure it is both safe and effective. The
following orientation concepts and points of reference are used for such analysis:
Centre of gravity
Line of gravity
Equilibrium
Stability.
3.1 ORIENTATION CONCEPTS
CENTRE OF GRAVITY - “An imaginary point representing the weight center of an object”
LINE OF GRAVITY - An imaginary vertical line that passes through the center of gravity. Its position depends on the
position of the center of gravity as the body changes position.
The precise location of the center of gravity in the human body depends on:
The individual’s build

Whether external weights are being supported
In a person of average build standing erect with his/her arms hanging at the sides, the center of gravity is in front of
the second sacral vertebra typically 55-57% of a person’s height above the ground (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Location of center of gravity

Derived from: https://acefitnessmediastorage.blob.core.windows.net/webcontent/blogs/blog-examprep-032813-1.jpg
The center of gravity is usually lower in women than in men due to a woman’s heavier pelvis, heavier thighs and
shorter legs.
Each plane dissects the body passing through the center of gravity (seen Figure 3.2).

The center of gravity is the point at which the 3 planes of the body intersect one another.
Figure 3.2 Planes of movement passing through the center of gravity

Derived from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Human_anatomy_planes.svg/1176px-
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Human_anatomy_planes.svg.png
The line of gravity is the vertical line at which the 2 vertical planes intersect each other.
Figure 3.3 Line of gravity

Derived from: http://clinicalgate.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/B9780702051319000067_f006-004-
9780702051319.jpg

Stability refers to balance, i.e. a more stable body will be more difficult to tip than a less stable body.
Stability can be increased by:
widening the base of support

lowering the center of gravity
keeping the center of gravity in the center of the base of support
A body is balanced if its center of gravity is above its base of support (see figure 3.4 A); if the center of gravity is
outside the base of support, the body will tip or fall (see figure 3.4 B).
Generally, less muscle tension is produced in a position of balance and stability; a balanced posture requires less energy
than when one has to “fight gravity” to maintain stability.
Figure 3.4 Centre of gravity is inside and outside base of support
The term equilibrium is applied when a body is in a state of balance and movement is constant, i.e. there is no
change in motion, no acceleration (moving faster) or deceleration (moving slower). This can be static or dynamic.
A balanced body is in static equilibrium (not moving)

While one that is moving at a constant velocity is said to be in dynamic equilibrium
Figure 3.5 Static and dynamic equilibrium

3.2 HOW MOVEMENT OCCURS
The long bones of the body form a system of levers, their articulations serving as a fulcrum or axis around which
movement takes place. The force for movement is provided by skeletal muscle which pulls on the bone causing
movement to take place at the joint.
A resistive force is created by the weight being lifted - this could be the mass of the body or any of its individual
segments as well as any apparatus being used, as for instance in resistance training.
To understand the concept of this mechanical lever system, let us examine the 4 integral parts of any lever system.
There will always be a rigid bar of fixed length that serves as the lever.
There will always be a center of rotation around which the lever rotates, i.e. the fulcrum.
There will always be a load on the lever, i.e. the resistive force.
There will always be a force applied somewhere upon the lever to lift or counter the effect of
the load, i.e. the motive force.
In concentric contraction the muscle that causes the movement to take place is the motive force and the lever that
is lifted is the resistive force.
In eccentric contraction when gravity is the force and the muscle resists the force, gravity becomes the motive force
and the muscle the resistive force.
The 4 parts of the lever system can be arranged in 3 different ways in relation to one another. This placement serves
as the basis for the classification into different orders. The placement implies that there will always be a distance
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between the fulcrum and the 2 opposing forces.

Table 3.1 Classification of levers
LEVER DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
FIRST Extension of the elbow when the arm is held

CLASS overhead:
A = elbow joint
R = the mass of the forearm
E = the contracting triceps muscle (which as it

shortens applies equal force on its origin and
insertion).
The fulcrum lies between the motive force (effort)
and the resistive force Plantar flexion of the ankle against
resistance:
e.g. a seesaw, balance scales, crowbar, scissors,
automobile jack
A = ankle joint
E = the combined force of the gastrocnemius and

soleus muscles
R = the mass of the foot
Tilting the head back:
A = the atlas and axis vertebrae
E = the splenius muscle
R = the mass of the skull
FIRST CLASS LEVERS ARE RARE IN THE

HUMAN BODY.

SECOND A push up:

CLASS
A = at the toes
(Lever = the body)
R = the weight of the body at the center of gravity
E = the reactive force of the ground pushing up at

the hands
The resistive force lies between the fulcrum and
the motive force (effort), e.g. a wheelbarrow, door A heel raise:
(effort applied at the knob), nutcracker.
A = metatarsal joints
R = body mass
E = gastrocnemius and soleus
IT MUST BE STATED THAT MANY

KINESIOLOGISTS INSIST THAT NO
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SECOND-CLASS LEVERS EXIST IN THE

HUMAN BODY. THIS IS A DEBATABLE
POINT. THE 2 EXAMPLES GIVEN APPEAR IN
SEVERAL REFERENCE BOOKS.

THIRD CLASS Flexion of the forearm:
A = elbow joint
R = the mass of the forearm
E = the contracting biceps muscle
(Force is generated at its insertion)
Flexion of the lower leg:
A = knee joint
R = mass of the lower leg and foot

The effort lies between the fulcrum and the
resistance. e.g. a screen door with spring closing
E= hamstring muscles (force generated at
insertion)
3.3 THE PRINCIPLE OF LEVERS
According to the Principle of Levers a lever of any class will balance when the product of the effort and the effort arm
equals the product of the resistance and the resistance arm.
This principle enables us to calculate the amount of effort needed to balance a known resistance by means of
a known lever or to calculate the point at which to place the fulcrum in order to balance a known resistance with a
given effort.
If any 3 of the 4 values are known the remaining one can be calculated using the following equation:
E x EMA = R x RMA
RMA is the perpendicular distance from the line of resistance to the fulcrum.
EMA is the perpendicular distance from the effort line to the fulcrum.
3.4 FORCE AND SPEED
The different arrangement of the 3 elements of the lever system allows for advantages in force or in speed of
movement. Levers can therefore be seen as structures that make it possible to increase either
The resistance that can be handled – at the expense of speed and range of motion
The speed and range of motion – at the expense of force
Where the resistance arm is longer than the effort arm the lever is said to favor speed and distance. More
effort is required to move the object. A light object can be moved a greater distance and more rapidly by this kind
of lever than it can without the aid of the lever. (Third class lever)

Since most levers in the human body are third class levers, they have a disadvantage in force but an advantage
in range of motion and speed.
The effectiveness of a muscle to move a bone changes as the bone/muscle angle changes. The bone/muscle angle
also has a bearing on the muscle’s ability to stabilize the joint.
As a GENERAL RULE: The smaller the angle of attachment between muscle and bone the greater the stabilizing
effect of the muscle. The most effective position in moving resistance is when the bone/muscle angle is
90 0. As most muscles cannot achieve this angle the bone/muscle angle closest to 90 0 is the angle at which it is most
effective.
E.g. the hamstrings are most effective in moving resistance (lower limb) when the angle at the knee joint is 90 0.
However, the contracting hamstrings contribute most to knee joint stability when the angle of the joint is 180 0 , i.e.
when the muscle/bone angle is smallest.
3.5 RELATION OF SPEED TO RANGE OF MOVEMENT
In angular movements speed and range are interdependent.
For instance if two third class levers of different lengths move through a 40 0 angle (A in Figure 3.6) at the same
angular velocity, the tip of the longer lever (C in Figure 3.6) will travel a greater distance or range than the tip of the
shorter lever (B in Figure 3.6).
Since the longer lever covers the distance at the same time as the shorter one takes to travel the shorter distance,
the longer lever must be moving faster than the shorter one.
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This adequately illustrates what happens in a group fitness class when people with different length “levers” execute
the same movement at the same tempo, e.g. side leg raising. Fitness instructors (particularly if they are short) should
take cognizance of this. i.e. Be aware that participants with longer “levers” are working faster and tempo should be
adjusted accordingly.
Figure 3.6 Third class lever of different lengths

3.7 CONCLUSION
All movements of the body segments and the body as a whole are based on the foregoing principles. An understanding
of these principles increases one’s perspective of exercise in general. This understanding together with a thorough
knowledge of anatomy is important for the professional instructor to formulate safe and effective exercise programmes.

HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
A World Leader & Innovator in Fitness Education Since 1979

0861 777 010 | enquiries@hfpa.co.za | www.hfpa.co.za

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HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE

CHAPTER 2: THE ROLE OF THE NEURAL SYSTEM IN MOVEMENT

CHAPTER 3: THE ROLE OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN MOVEMENT

CHAPTER 4: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM

CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 7: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: SPINE, SHOULDER AND SHOULDER

CHAPTER 8: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

CHAPTER 10: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: ARMS, LEGS

CHAPTER 11: ENERGY SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 12: BIOMECHANICAL FACTORS IN HUMAN MOVEMENT

The learner will be able to:

Define standard starting positions (anatomical and

PHYSIOLOGY: The study of the way in which a living organism functions.

KINESIOLOGY: The analysis and investigation of movement.

1.1 STANDARD STARTING POSITIONS

Figure 1.1 Fundamental Figure 1.2 Anatomical standing position

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1.2 PLANES AND AXES OF MOTION

1.2.1 Planes of Motion

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1.3 AXES OF MOTION OF THE BODY

1.3.1 Axes of Motion

Sagittal-Horizontal Axis (anteroposterior axis) - passes horizontally from front to back.

Vertical Axis (longitudinal axis) - perpendicular to the ground.

Diagonal (oblique axis) - passes diagonally through the body.

1.3.2 Combining Planes and Axes of Motion

Movements in the sagittal plane, about a frontal-horizontal axis

Reduction of Hyperextension: return movement from hyperextension (may also be called

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Figure 1.4 Movement in sagittal plane

Movements in the frontal plane about a sagittal-horizontal axis

Lateral Flexion: refers to the lateral bending of the head or trunk

Reduction of lateral flexion: return movement from lateral flexion

Reduction of Hyperadduction/Hyperabduction: the return movement of

Figure 1.5 Movement in the frontal plane

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Movements in the horizontal plane about a vertical axis

Left and right rotation of the head or neck

Outward (lateral) or inward (medial) rotation applies to rotation of the forearm,

Movements in an oblique plane about an oblique axis:

1.4 HOW DOES MOVEMENT TAKE PLACE?

A Lever and a Joint

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The learner will be able to:

Describe the components of the neural system.

2.1 COMPONENTS OF THE NEURAL SYSTEM

8 pairs of cervical nerves

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2.2 SENSORY AND MOTOR DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Sympathetic nervous system System/organ Parasympathetic nervous system

Catabolism of triglycerides for ADIPOSE TISSUE None

Secretion of adrenaline and ADRENAL GLANDS None

Blood vessels to constrict BLOOD VESSELS Some effect or none

Sweating SWEAT GLANDS None

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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Motor Division Sensory Division

Example of interaction between sensory and motor divisions:

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