Muhammad

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Muhammad
This article is about the Islamic prophet. For other people named Muhammad, see
Muhammad (name). For other uses, see Muhammad (disambiguation).
Islamic prophet
Muhammad
Common calligraphic representation of

Muhammad's name
Born Muḥammad ibn Àbd Allāh
c. 570 CE
Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
(present-day Saudi Arabia)
Died 8 June 632 CE (aged 62 or 63)

Medina, Hejaz, Arabia
(present-day Saudi Arabia)
Resting place Tomb under the Green Dome of

Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at Medina,
Hejaz, present-day Saudi Arabia
Other names Abu al-Qasim (Kunya)
Rasul ("Messenger")
"The Prophet"
(see Names and titles of Muhammad)
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad 2015/2/9
Ethnicity Arab
Years active 583–609 CE as merchant

609–632 CE as religious leader
Notable work(s) Masjid Quba[1][2]
Successor Abu Bakr (as 1st Caliph)

Umar (followed Abu Bakr as Rashidun caliph)
Uthman (followed Umar as Rashidun caliph )
Ali (followed Uthman as Rashidun caliph )
Opponent(s) Abu Jahl

Abū Lahab
Umm Jamil
Religion Islam
Spouse(s) Wives Married

Khadija bint Khuwaylid 595–619
Sawda bint Zamʿa 619–632
Aisha bint Abi Bakr 619–632
Hafsa bint Umar 624–632
Zaynab bint Khuzayma 625–627
Hind bint Abi Umayya 625–632
Zaynab bint Jahsh 627–632
Juwayriyya bint al-Harith 628–632
Ramla bint Abi Sufyan 628–632
Rayhana bint Zayd 629–631
Safiyya bint Huyayy 629–632
Maymunah bint al-Harith 630–632
Maria al-Qibtiyya 630–632
Children Sons
Ibrahi
Qasim · Àbd-Allah · m
Daughters
Fatimah
Zainab · Ruqayyah · Umm Kulthoom · Zahra
Parents Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib (father)
Aminah (mother)
Relatives Ahl al-Bayt ("Family of the House")
Signature Seal of Muhammad
Muhammad (Arabic: ‫ ;ﻣﺣﻣﺩ‬c. 570 – 8 June 632[3]), full name Abū al-Qāsim
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim ( ‫ﺍﺑﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺳﻡ ﻣﺣﻣﺩ ﺍﺑﻥ ﻋﺑﺩ ﷲ‬
‫)ﺍﺑﻥ ﻋﺑﺩ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﺏ ﺍﺑﻥ ﻫﺎﺷﻡ‬, from Mecca, unified Arabia into a single religious polity under
Islam. Believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God,
Muhammad is almost universally[n 1] considered by Muslims as the last prophet sent by
God to mankind.[4][n 2] While non-Muslims generally regard Muhammad as the founder
of Islam,[5] Muslims consider him to have restored the unaltered original monotheistic
faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets in Islam.[6][7][8][9]
Born approximately in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca,[10][11] Muhammad was

orphaned at an early age; he was raised under the care of his paternal uncle Abu
Talib. After his childhood Muhammad primarily worked as a merchant.[12] Occasionally
he would retreat to a cave in the mountains for several nights of seclusion and prayer;
later, at age 40, he reported at this spot,[10][13] that he was visited by Gabriel and
received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started
preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete
"surrender" (lit. islām) to Him is the only way (dīn)[n 3] acceptable to God, and that he
was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to other Islamic prophets.[14][15][16]
Muhammad gained few followers early on, and met hostility from some Meccan tribes.
To escape persecution, Muhammad sent some of his followers to Abyssinia before he
and his followers in Mecca migrated to Medina (then known as Yathrib) in the year 622.
This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the
Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of
Medina. After eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an
army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The attack went
largely uncontested and Muhammad took over the city with little bloodshed. He
destroyed the pagan idols in the city[17] and sent his followers out to destroy all
remaining pagan temples in Eastern Arabia.[18][19] In 632, a few months after returning
to Medina from the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. Before his death,
most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam, and he had united Arabia into a
single Muslim religious polity.[20][21]
The revelations (each known as Ayah, lit. "Sign [of God]"), which Muhammad reported
receiving until his death, form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the
"Word of God" and around which the religion is based. Besides the Quran,
Muhammad's teachings and practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira literature,
are also upheld by Muslims and used as sources of Islamic law (see Sharia). While
conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and other premodern contexts

were largely negative, appraisals in modern history have been far more favorable.[16][22]
Contents
Names and appellations in the Quran
Sources for Muhammad's life

Quran
Early biographies
Hadith
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Life
In Mecca
Childhood and early life
Beginnings of the Quran
Opposition
Isra and Mi'raj
Last years in Mecca before Hijra
Hijra
Migration to Medina
Establishment of a new polity
Beginning of armed conflict
Conflict with Mecca
Siege of Medina
Truce of Hudaybiyyah
Final years
Conquest of Mecca
Conquest of Arabia
Farewell pilgrimage
Death and tomb
After Muhammad
Early social changes under Islam
Appearance
Household
Legacy
Muslim views
Islamic depictions
Non-Muslim views
Historical Christian views
Other religious views
Criticism
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Encyclopedias
Further reading
External links
Other biographies
Names and appellations in the Quran
The name Muhammad written in

Thuluth, a script variety of Islamic
calligraphy.
The name Muhammad (/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/)[23] means "praiseworthy" and appears

four times in the Quran.[24] The Quran addresses Muhammad in the second person by
his various appellations; prophet, messenger, servant of God ('abd), announcer
(bashir)[Quran 2:119 ], witness (shahid),[Quran 33:45 ]
bearer of good tidings (mubashshir),
warner (nathir),[Quran 11:2 ]
reminder (mudhakkir),[Quran 88:21 ]
one who calls [unto God]
(dā‘ī),[Quran 12:108 ]
light personified (noor)[Quran 05:15 ], and the light-giving lamp (siraj
munir)[Quran 73:1 ]. Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from
his state at the time of the address: thus he is referred to as the enwrapped (al-
muzzammil) in Quran 73:1 and the shrouded (al-muddaththir) in Quran 74:1 .[25] In
Sura Al-Ahzab 33:40 God singles out Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets", or
the last of the prophets.[26] The Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad "more
praiseworthy" (Arabic: ‫ﺃﺣﻣﺩ‬, Sura As-Saff 61:6 ).
Sources for Muhammad's life
Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad
Quran
A folio from an early Quran, written in

Kufic script (Abbasid period, 8th–9th
century)
The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe that it represents the
words of God revealed to Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel.[27][28][29]
Although it mentions Muhammad directly only four times,[30][Quran 3:144 ][Quran 33:40 ]
[Quran 47:2 ][Quran 48:29 ]

there are verses which can be interpreted as allusions to
[16][n 4]
Muhammad's life. The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for
Muhammad's chronological biography; many of the utterances recorded in the Quran
lack historical context.[31][32]
Early biographies
Main article: Sirah Rasul Allah
Next in importance are the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the
Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).[33] These include the traditional Muslim
biographies of Muhammad (the sira literature), which provide additional information
about Muhammad's life.[34]
The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to
him) is Ibn Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the
work was lost, this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari.
[35][36]
Another early history source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-
Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and the work of his secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi
(death 230 of Muslim era).[33]
Many scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though their accuracy is
unascertainable.[35] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the
traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former sphere,
traditions could have been subject to invention while in the latter sphere, aside from
exceptional cases, the material may have been only subject to "tendential shaping".[37]
Hadith
Main article: Hadith
In addition, the hadith collections are accounts of the verbal and physical teachings
and traditions of Muhammad that date from several generations after his death.[38]
Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as accurate historical
sources.[38] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been
compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of
their compatibility with the events and figures.[39]
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Main tribes and settlements of Arabia

in Muhammad's lifetime
Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia, Jahiliyyah and Arabian mythology
The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, agriculture was difficult except
near oases or springs. The landscape was dotted with towns and cities; two of the
most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural
settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.
[40]
Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting
indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal grouping was
encouraged by the need to act as a unit, this unity being based on the bond of kinship
by blood.[41] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly
travelling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while
the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival was also
dependent on raiding caravans or oases, the nomads not viewing this as a crime.[42][43]
Politically Arabia at the time was divided between two tribal confederations, the Banu
Qais, loosely allied with Byzantium and who were originally powerful in Northern and
Western Arabia, and the Banu Kalb, who had originally come from Yemen, and were
loosely allied with Sassanid Persia.
In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual

tribes, their spirits being associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As
well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360
idol statues of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his
daughters: Allāt, Manāt and al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia,
including Christians and Jews.[44] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a
rigid monotheism"[45] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-
Islamic Arabia, although their historicity is disputed among scholars.[46][47] According to
Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of
Ishmael, son of Abraham.[48]
Life
In Mecca
Timeline of Muhammad in Mecca
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad
c. 569 Death of his father, Abdullah
c. 570 Possible date of birth: April 19 570 dC, 12 Rabi al Awal: in Mecca Arabia
576 Death of his mother, Aminah
c. 583 his grand father transfers him to Syria
c. 595 Meets and marries Khadijah
597 Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: Ruqayyah, Umm Khultoom, and Fatima Zahra
610 Qur'anic revelation begins in the Cave of Hira on the Jabaal an Nur the " Mountain of Light" near
Mecca
610 Prophethood begins at 40 years old: Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) said to appear to him on the
mountain and call him: The Prophet of Allah
610 Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca
c. 613 Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans
c. 614 Heavy persecution of Muslims begins
c. 615 Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia
616 Banu Hashim clan boycott begins
619 The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die
619 Banu Hashim clan boycott ends
c. 620 Isra and Mi'raj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God)
622 Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib)
624 Battle of Badr
625 Battle of Uhud
627 Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina)
628 The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina signed a 10 year truce called
the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
629 Conquest of Mecca
632 Farewell pilgrimage and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia
This box: view · talk · edit
Main article: Muhammad in Mecca
Muhammad was born in Mecca and lived there for roughly the first 52 years of his life
(c. 570–622). This period is generally divided into two phases, before and after
declaring his prophetic visions.
Childhood and early life

See also: Mawlid and Family tree of Muhammad
Muhammad was born about the year 570[10] and his birthday is believed to be in the
month of Rabi' al-awwal.[49] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, one of Mecca's
prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad's early
lifetime.[16][50] The Banu Hashim clan was part of the Quraysh tribe. Tradition places the
year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is
named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Aksumite king Abraha who
supplemented his army with elephants. An outbreak of smallpox among the Aksumites
may explain the failure of the invading army.[51] 20th century scholarship has suggested
alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569.[52]
Miniature from Rashid-al-Din

Hamadani's Jami al-Tawarikh, c. 1315,
illustrating the story of Muhammad's
role in re-setting the Black Stone in
605. (Ilkhanate period)[53]
His father, Abdullah, died almost six months before Muhammad was born.[54] According
to Islamic tradition, soon after Muhammad's birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin
family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants.[55] Muhammad
stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was
two years old.[12] Some western scholars of Islam have rejected the historicity of this
tradition.[55] At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness
and he became orphaned.[12][56] For the next two years, he was under the guardianship
of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan, but when
Muhammad was eight, his grandfather also died. He then came under the care of his
uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim.[12][52] According to Islamic historian
William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of
weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad's
guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for
him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at
that time."[57]
While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria
gaining experience in commercial trade, the only career open to Muhammad as an
orphan.[12][57] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve
while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit
named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God.
[58]
Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the fragmentary
information that is available, it is difficult to separate history from legend.[12][57] It is
known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian
ocean and the Mediterranean Sea."[59] Due to his upright character he acquired the
nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: ‫)ﺍﻻﻣﻳﻥ‬, meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and "al-Sadiq"
meaning "truthful"[60] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[11][16][61] His
reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a 40-year-old widow. Muhammad
consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.[12][59]
Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq,

Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in
place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, had been
removed to facilitate renovations to the Kaaba. The leaders of Mecca could not agree
on which clan should have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place.
They agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to choose.
That man was the 35-year-old Muhammad, five years before his first revelation. He
asked for a cloth and put the Black Stone in its centre. The clan leaders held the
corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then
Muhammad set the stone in place, satisfying the honour of all.[62]
Beginnings of the Quran

See also: Muhammad's first revelation, History of the Quran and Wahy
The cave Hira in the mountain

Jabal al-Nour where,
according to Muslim belief,
Muhammad received his first
revelation.
Muhammad adopted the practice of praying alone for several weeks every year in a
cave on Mount Hira near Mecca.[63][64] Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits
to Mount Hira, the angel Gabriel appeared to him in the year 610 and commanded
Muhammad to recite verses which would later be included in the Quran.[65] There is a
consensus that the first words of the Quran to be revealed were the beginning of Surah
96:1 .[66] Upon receiving his first revelations, he was deeply distressed. After returning
home, Muhammad was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin,
Waraqah ibn Nawfal.[67] He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being
possessed.[43] Shi'a tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor
frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather Muhammad welcomed him as if he
was expecting.[68] The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years (a
period known as fatra) during which Muhammad felt depressed and further gave
himself to prayers and spiritual practices.[66] When the revelations resumed he was
reassured and commanded to begin preaching: "Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken
thee, nor is He displeased."[69][70][71]
A depiction of Muhammad receiving

his first revelation from the angel
Gabriel. From the manuscript Jami' al-
tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani,
1307, Ilkhanate period.
Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as "sometimes it is

(revealed) like the ringing of a bell". Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired
Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the
Inspiration was over)".[72] According to Welch these descriptions may be considered
genuine, since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.[16] Muhammad
was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.[73]
According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers
of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70 , Quran 6:19 ). Occasionally the
Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history
of extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities
(Quran 41:13–16 ).[25] Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected God's
revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to
the divine words and serving God.[74] Muhammad's mission also involves preaching
monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of
his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.[25][75]
The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards
his creator; the resurrection of the dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid
descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in
all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief
in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others
particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be
significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill newborn girls.
[16]
Opposition
See also: Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and Migration to Abyssinia
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he
was a prophet.[76] She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi
Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.[13][76] Around 613, Muhammad
began to preach to the public (Quran 26:214 ).[77] Most Meccans ignored him and
mocked him,[75] though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of
early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who
had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly
unprotected foreigners.[78]
The last ayah from the sura An-Najm

in the Quran: "So prostrate to Allah
and worship [Him]." Muhammad's
message of monotheism (one God)
challenged the traditional order.
According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered
verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in
polytheism.[75][79] However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad
started public preaching.[80] As the number of followers increased, he became a threat
to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Ka'aba, the focal
point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad's
denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own
tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.[78] The powerful
merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering
him admission into the inner circle of merchants, and establishing his position therein
by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused both.[78]
Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Muhammad
and his followers.[16][75] Sumayyah bint Khabbab, a slave of a prominent Meccan leader
Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam; killed with a spear by her master when
she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayyah
ibn Khalaf who used to place a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.[81][82]
Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm as he belonged to
the Banu Hashim clan.[75][83][84]
In 615, some of Muhammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire

and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor
Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[16][75] Ibn Sa'ad mentions two separate migrations. According to him,
most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra, while there was a second group
that rejoined them in Medina. Ibn Hisham and Tabari, however, only talk about one
migration to Ethiopia. These accounts agree that persecution in Mecca played a major
role in Muḥammad's decision to suggest that a number of his followers seek refuge
among the Christians in Abyssinia. According to the famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved
in al-Tabari, the majority of Muslims returned to their native town after Islam had
become strengthened when high rank people in Mecca, such as Umar and Hamzah
converted. However, there is a complete different story on the reason why the Muslims
returned from Ethiopia to Mecca. According to this account -that has been mentioned
by Tabari, Ibn Sa'ad and Al-Waqidi, but not by Ibn Hisham and perhaps not by Ibn
Ishaq-[85] Muhammad, desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe,
pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses
considered to be the daughters of Allah. Muhammad retracted the verses the next day
at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself.
Instead, a ridicule of these gods was offered.[86][n 5][n 6] This episode known as "The
Story of the Cranes" (translation: ‫ﻗﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺭﺍﻧﻳﻖ‬, transliteration: Qissat al Gharaneeq) is
also known as "Satanic Verses". According to the story this led to a general
reconciliation between Muḥammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims who had
migrated to Abyssinia began to return home. By the time they arrived, however, the
archangel Gabriel had informed Muḥammad that the two g̲h̲arānīḳ verses were not part
of the revelation, but had been inserted by Satan. Some scholars argued against the
historic authenticity of these verses on various grounds.[87][88][n 7] Later the incident
received widespread acceptance, however strong objections to it were raised starting
from the 10th century, on theological grounds. The objections continued on this point
until rejection of these verses eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim
position.[89]
In 617, the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans,
declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it
into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but
eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.[90][91] During this, Muhammad was only
able to preach during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs
was suspended.[92]
Isra and Mi'raj

Main article: Isra and Mi'raj
The Al-Aqsa Mosque, part of the al-

Haram ash-Sharif complex in
Jerusalem, is believed to be the
"farthest mosque" to which
Muhammad travelled in his night
journey. The al-Haram ash-Sharif is
the third holiest place on earth for
Muslims.[93]
Islamic tradition states that in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi'raj, a
miraculous journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel in one night. In the
beginning of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca on a winged
steed (Buraq) to "the farthest mosque" (in Arabic: masjid al-aqsa), which Muslims
usually identify with the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Later, during the Mi'raj,
Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoke with earlier prophets,
such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[92][94] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of
Muhammad, presents the event as a spiritual experience; later historians, like Al-Tabari
and Ibn Kathir, present it as a physical journey.[94]
Quranic inscriptions on the Dome of

the Rock, adjacent to the Al-Aqsa
Mosque in the al-Haram ash-Sharif.
The Dome of the Rock marks the spot
Muhammad is believed to have
ascended to heaven.[95]
Some western scholars[who?] hold that the Isra and Mi'raj identified the journey as
traveling through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-
Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); later traditions indicate
Muhammad's journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.[96][page needed]
Last years in Mecca before Hijra
Muhammad's wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being
known as the "year of sorrow". With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu
Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammad. Soon
afterwards, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection over Muhammad. This placed
Muhammad in danger; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for
his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited Ta'if, another important city in
Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into
physical danger.[16][91][92] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man
named Mut'im ibn Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible
for him to safely re-enter his native city.[16][91][92]
Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad
took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several
unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called
Medina).[16] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were
prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.
[16][97]
They also hoped, by the means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain
supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of
pilgrimage.[97] Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina; by June of
the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet
Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the
"Second Pledge of al-Àqaba",[97] or, in Orientalists' view, the "Pledge of War".[98]
Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to
Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the
emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.[99]
Hijra
Timeline of Muhammad in Medina
c. 622 Emigrates to Medina (Hijra)
623 Caravan Raids begin
623 Al Kudr Invasion
624 Battle of Badr: Muslims defeat Meccans
624 Battle of Sawiq, Abu Sufyan escapes capture
624 Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa
624 Invasion of Thi Amr, Muhammad raids Ghatafan tribes
624 Assassination of Khaled b. Sufyan & Abu Rafi
625 Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims
625 Tragedy of Bir Maona and Al Raji
625 Invasion of Hamra al-Asad, successfully terrifies enemy to cause retreat
625 Banu Nadir expelled after Invasion
625 Invasion of Nejd, Badr and Dumatul Jandal
627 Battle of the Trench
627 Invasion of Banu Qurayza, successful siege
628 Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, gains access to Kaaba
628 Conquest of the Khaybar oasis
629 First hajj pilgrimage
629 Attack on Byzantine Empire fails: Battle of Mu'tah
630 Bloodless conquest of Mecca
630 Battle of Hunayn
630 Siege of Ta'if
631 Rules most of the Arabian peninsula
632 Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk
632 Farewell hajj pilgrimage
632 Death, on June 8 in Medina
This box: view · talk · edit
Main article: Hijra (Islam)
The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in
622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped
out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina,[97] 320 kilometres (200 miles) north of
Mecca.
Migration to Medina
Main article: Muhammad in Medina
A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina,

invited Muhammad to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his
status as a neutral outsider.[100][101] There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute
involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around
a hundred years before 620.[100] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the
resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved,
made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye
were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in
disputed cases.[100] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-
citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one
of themselves.[16]
Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina, until nearly all his followers
left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted
to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans
watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.[97][102] By 622,
Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from
Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants).[16]
Establishment of a new polity

Main article: Constitution of Medina
Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the
tribes of Medina was to draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina,
"establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and
Muslim emigrants from Mecca; this specified rights and duties of all citizens, and the
relationship of the different communities in Medina (including the Muslim community to
other communities, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book").[100][101] The
community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook, also
shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the
old Arab tribes.[16]
Several ordinances were proclaimed to win over the numerous and wealthy Jewish
population. These were soon rescinded as the Jews insisted on preserving the entire
Mosaic law, and did not recognize him as a prophet because he was not of the race of
David.[97]
The first group of converts to Islam in Medina were the clans without great leaders;
these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.[103] This was followed
by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, with some
exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn
Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.[104] Medinans who converted to Islam
and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar
(supporters).[16] Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and
the supporters and he chose Ali as his own brother.[105]
God! Beginning of armed

conflict
There is no god but He,
the Living, the Everlasting. Main articles: List of
Slumber seizes Him not, neither sleep; expeditions of Muhammad and
to Him belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth. Battle of Badr
Who is there that shall intercede with Him save by His leave?
He knows what lies before them and what is after them, Following the emigration, the
and they comprehend not anything of His knowledge people of Mecca seized
save such as He wills. property of Muslim emigrants
His Throne comprises the heavens and earth; to Mecca.[107] Economically

the preserving of them oppresses Him not; uprooted with no available
He is the All-high, the All-glorious.
profession, the Muslim
the "Throne Verse" (2:255 ), revealed in Medina.[106] migrants turned to raiding
Meccan caravans, initiating
armed conflict with Mecca.[108][109][110] Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting
Muslims to fight the Meccans (see sura Al-Hajj, Quran 22:39–40 ).[111] These attacks
allowed the migrants to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working towards the
ultimate goal of conquering Mecca.[112][113]
According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid
al-Qiblatain in Medina, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be
facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new
direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the
tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.[114] According to Watt, the change may have
been less sudden and definite than the story suggests – the related Quranic verses
(2:136 –2:147 ) appear to have been revealed at different times – and correlates
with changes in Muhammad's political support base, symbolizing his turning away from
Jews and adopting a more Arabian outlook.[114]
In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan
merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.[115] Aware of
the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims.[110] A force from Mecca was sent to
protect the caravan, and continued en route to confront the Muslims upon receiving
word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.[116] Though
outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-
five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many
Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.[117] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of
whom were ransomed in return for wealth or freed.[108][110][118][119] Muhammad and his
followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith[16] and Muhammad ascribed the
victory as assisted from an invisible host of angels.[120] The Quranic verses of this
period,[which?] unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government
and issues like the distribution of spoils.[121][122]
The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts
among his followers.[123] As a result the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans
who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans,
Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu 'Afak of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had
composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.[124] They were killed by people
belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove the killings.
[124]
Most members of those tribes converted to Islam and there was hardly any
opposition from the pagans left.[125]
Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,
[16]
but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad's death.
[126]
According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad
refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina.[127]
Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a
number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part
of Hejaz.[16]
Conflict with Mecca
The Masjid al-Qiblatain, where

Muhammad established the new Qibla,
or direction of prayer
The Kaaba in Mecca long held a major

economic and religious role for the
area. Seventeen months after
Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it
became the Muslim Qibla, or direction
for prayer (salat). The Kaaba has been
rebuilt several times; the present
structure, built in 1629, is a

reconstruction of an earlier building
dating to 683.[128]
Main article: Battle of Uhud
The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the
Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr.[129] In the
ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad led
expeditions against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan.
[130]
Abu Sufyan gathered an army of three thousand men and set out for an attack on
Medina.[122][131]
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later.
The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, dispute arose over how best to
repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to
fight within Medina and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger
Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the
strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the
younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle.[122] Muhammad led his force
outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccans camp) and fought the
Battle of Uhud on 23 March.[132][133] Although the Muslim army had the advantage in
early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a
Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed including Hamza, Muhammad's uncle who
became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not
pursue the Muslims, instead they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The
announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought dead.
When they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false
information about new forces coming to his aid.[122] The attack had failed to achieve
their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.[134][135] The Muslims buried the dead,
and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the
loss; Muhammad delivered Quranic verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was
twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness.[136]
Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support
from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about
Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and
through bribery.[137] Muhammad's new policy was to prevent alliances against him.
Whenever alliances against Medina were formed, he sent out expeditions to break
them up.[137] Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina,
and reacted in a severe manner.[138] One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-
Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. al-Ashraf went to Mecca and
wrote poems that roused the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the
Battle of Badr.[139][140] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from
Medina[141] forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some
possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest
of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained
with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with
overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him.[142] Muhammad's
attempts to prevent a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was
able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential tribes from joining his
enemies.[143]
Siege of Medina
Main article: Battle of the Trench
With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan
mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and
adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench[142]
wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert
to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627[142] and
lasted two weeks.[144] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and
after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home.[142][145] The Quran
discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27 .[80] During the battle, the
Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located the south of Medina, entered into negotiations
with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were
swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired
reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was
reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's
scouts.[146] After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of
treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually
surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam
were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.[142][147][148] Walid N.
Arafat and Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative.[149]
Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the
event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he
notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik
ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later Ibn Hajar.[150] Ahmad argues that
only some of the tribe was killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved.[151]
[152]
Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J. Kister has
contradicted[clarification needed] the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.[153]
In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the
Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with
Syria vanished.[154] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two
expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.[16][142] While returning from
one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an
accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was
exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a
revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be
supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).[155]
Truce of Hudaybiyyah
Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
"In your name, O God!

This is the treaty of peace between Muhammad Ibn Abdullah and Suhayl Ibn Amr. They have
agreed to allow their arms to rest for ten years. During this time each party shall be secure, and
neither shall injure the other; no secret damage shall be inflicted, but honesty and honour shall
prevail between them. Whoever in Arabia wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with
Muhammad can do so, and whoever wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with the Quraysh
can do so. And if a Qurayshite comes without the permission of his guardian to Muhammad, he
shall be delivered up to the Quraysh; but if, on the other hand, one of Muhammad's people
comes to the Quraysh, he shall not be delivered up to Muhammad. This year, Muhammad, with
his companions, must withdraw from Mecca, but next year, he may come to Mecca and remain
for three days, yet without their weapons except those of a traveller; the swords remaining in
their sheaths."
—The statement of the treaty of Hudaybiyyah[156]
Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,[157] the
Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628,[142]
Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a
pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this
goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj.[158] Upon
hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt
them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers
to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside of Mecca.[159] According to Watt, although
Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also
demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not threaten the sanctuaries
prestige, that Islam was an Arabian religion.[159]
Negotiations commenced with emissaries travelling to and from Mecca. While these
continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had
been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not
to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation
descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of
Acceptance" (Arabic: ‫ ﺑﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺿﻭﺍﻥ‬, bay'at al-ridhwān) or the "Pledge under the Tree".
News of Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled
to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.[159][160] The
main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's
pilgrimage to the following year,[161] and agreement to send back any Meccan who
emigrated to Medina without permission from their protector.[159]
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-
Fath" (The Victory) (Quran 48:1–29 ) assured them that the expedition must be
considered a victorious one.[162] It was later that Muhammad's followers realized the
benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to
identify Muhammad as an equal,[161] cessation of military activity allowing Medina to
gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage
rituals.[16]
After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis
of Khaybar,[161] known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the
Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from
what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.[131][163] According
to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert
to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).[16][164][165][166] He sent
messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman
Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.[164][165][166] In the
years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed his forces against the
Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah, in which the Muslims
were defeated.[166][167]
Final years
Conquest of Mecca
Main articles: Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca
A depiction of Muhammad
(with veiled face) advancing
on Mecca from Siyer-i Nebi, a
16th-century Ottoman
manuscript. The angels
Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and
Azrail, are also shown.
The truce of Hudaybiyyah had been enforced for two years.[168][169] The tribe of Banu
Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr,
had allied with the Meccans.[168][169] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the
Khuza'a, killing a few of them.[168][169] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons
and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.[166][168]
After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking
them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay blood money
for the slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or
they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.[170]
The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition.[170] Soon they realized their
mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was
declined by Muhammad.[166]
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.[171] In 630, Muhammad marched on

Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized
control of Mecca.[172][173] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men
and women who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war
and disrupted the peace".[174] Some of these were later pardoned.[173][175] Most Meccans
converted to Islam and Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues of Arabian
gods in and around the Kaaba.[173][176][177] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq
and al-Azraqi, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus,
but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased.[178] The Quran discusses the
conquest of Mecca.[80][179]
Conquest of Arabia
Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Battle of Tabouk
Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from
the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army twice Muhammad's size.
The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu
Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the
decline of the prestige of Meccans.[180] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif
tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.[16][181]
In the same year, Muhammad organized an attack against northern Arabia because of
their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah and reports of hostility adopted against
Muslims. With great difficulty he assembled thirty thousand men; half of whom on the
second day returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses
which Muhammad hurled at them.[182] Although Muhammad did not engage with hostile
forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.[16][183]
He also ordered destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last
city to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad refused to
accept the city's surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to
destroy the statue of their goddess Allat.[184][185][186]
A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to
Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to safeguard
against his attacks and to benefit from the spoils of war.[16][182] However, the bedouins
were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their
code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad required a military and political
agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain
from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious
levy."[182][187]
Farewell pilgrimage
Anonymous illustration of al-Bīrūnī's

The Remaining Signs of Past
Centuries, depicting Muhammad
prohibiting Nasi' during the Farewell
Pilgrimage, 17th century Ottoman copy
of a 14th-century (Ilkhanate)
manuscript (Edinburgh codex).
Main article: Farewell Pilgrimage
In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Medina, Muhammad completed
his first truly Islamic pilgrimage, thereby teaching his followers the rites of the annual
Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.[16] After completing the pilgrimage, Muhammad
delivered a famous speech, known as the Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of
Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-
Islamic customs. Also a white has no superiority over black, nor a black has any
superiority over white except by piety and good action.[188] He abolished old blood
feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for old pledges to be
returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on
the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male followers to "be
good to women, for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took
them in God's trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so
come to your senses people, and hear my words ..." He told them that they were
entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the
issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to
the deceased, and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir.
He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.[189][190][191] According
to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I
have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a
religion for you" (Quran 5:3 ).[16][192] According to Shia tafsir, it refers to the
appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad's successor, this
occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina.[193]
Death and tomb
Mausoleum of Muhammad
A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several
days with fever, head pain, and weakness.[192] He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in
Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.[194] With his head resting
on Aisha's lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then
murmured his final words:
“ Rather, God on High and paradise.[194]
—Muhammad
”
He was buried where he died in Aisha's house.[16][195][196][197] During the reign of the
Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was
expanded to include the site of Muhammad's tomb.[198] The Green Dome above the
tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although
the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan
Suleiman the Magnificent.[199] Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those
of his companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an
empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.[196][200][201] When bin Saud took Medina in
1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornaments.[202] Adherents
to Wahhabism, bin Sauds' followers destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in
order to prevent their veneration,[202] and the one of Muhammad is said to have
narrowly escaped.[203] Similar events took place in 1925 when the Saudi militias
retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.[204][205][206] In the Wahhabi
interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.[203] Although frowned
upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual visit—to the
tomb.[207][208] Although banned by the Saudis, the first photos from inside of the tomb of
Muhammad and his daughter's (Fatemeh) house were published in October 2012
demonstrating a very simple construction, decorated in green.[209]
Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, with the Green Dome built over
Muhammad's tomb in the center.
After Muhammad
Conquests of Muhammad and the

Rashidun.
Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Rashidun and Muslim conquests
Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the
last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his
successor would be.[21] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad,
nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. With additional support
Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph.[197] This choice was disputed by some of
Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law,
had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr's
immediately moved to strike against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces
because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab
tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of
Apostasy".[210]
The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.
The Roman-Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the
empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be
conquered by Muslims many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and

Copts) were disaffected from the Christian Orthodoxy which deemed them heretics.
Within a decade Muslims conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt,
[211]
large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate.
Early social changes under Islam
Main article: Early social changes under Islam
According to William Montgomery Watt religion, for Muhammad, was not a private and
individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which
he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual
aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to
which contemporary Mecca was subject."[212] Bernard Lewis says there are two
important political traditions in Islam – Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and
Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. His view believed Islam as a great change, akin to a
revolution, when introduced to new societies.[213]
Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security,
family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status
quo of Arab society.[213][214] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first
denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the
career open to the talents".[which?][213] Muhammad's message transformed society and
moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to
perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.[215][page needed] Economic
reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic
Mecca.[216] The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the
poor; as Muhammad's power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with
him implement the zakat in particular.[217][218]
Appearance
A hilya containing a description of

Muhammad, by Hâfiz Osman (1642
–1698)
Ali Sultaan Asani gave the following description of Muhammad's physical appearance:
[219]
“ Muhammad was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was not fat,
had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long eye-lashes. When he
walked, he walked as though he went down a declivity. He had the "seal of
prophecy" between his shoulder blades ... He was bulky. His face shone like
the moon. He was taller than middling stature but shorter than
conspicuous tallness. He had thick, curly hair. The plaits of his hair were
parted. His hair reached beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was
azhar [bright, luminous]. Muhammad had a wide forehead, and fine, long,
arched eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a
vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose was
hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong mouth, and his
teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest. His neck was like the
neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of silver. Muhammad was
proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of belly and chest, broad-chested
”
and broad-shouldered.
The "seal of prophecy" between Muhammad's shoulders is generally described as

having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon's egg.[220] Another description of
Muhammad was provided by Umm Ma'bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina:
[221]
“ I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine figure. He
was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small in the head and
neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely black eyes and thick
eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice, and his neck was long. His
beard was thick, and his eyebrows were finely arched and joined together.
When silent, he was grave and dignified, and when he spoke, glory rose up
and overcame him. He was from afar the most beautiful of men and the
most glorious, and close up he was the sweetest and the loveliest. He was
sweet of speech and articulate, but not petty or trifling. His speech was a
string of cascading pearls, measured so that none despaired of its length,
”
and no eye challenged him because of brevity.
Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (hilya or, in
Turkish, hilye), which in the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the
Ottoman Empire.[221]
Household
Main articles: Muhammad's wives and Ahl al-Bayt
The tomb of Muhammad is located in

the quarters of his third wife, Aisha.
(Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina)
Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in

Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is
said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts,
Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine.[222][223]) Eleven of the
thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Medina.
At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40
years old.[224] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.[225] Muhammad
relied upon Khadija and did not enter into marriage with another woman during this
marriage.[226][227] After Khadija's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad
that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um
Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to
marry both.[155]
Traditional sources dictate Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to
Muhammad,[155][228][229] with the marriage not being consummated until she had reached
puberty at the age of nine or ten years old.[155][228][230][231][232][233][234] She was therefore a
virgin at marriage.[228] A small number of modern Muslim writers have estimated her
age between 12 and 24.[235][236][237]
After migration to Medina, Muhammad (now in his fifties) married several women.
These marriages were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The
women were either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a
protector, or belonged to important families or clans whom it was necessary to honor
and strengthen alliances with.[238]
Muhammad did household chores and helped with housework such as preparing food,
sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives
to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with
him.[239][240][241]
Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint
Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra)
and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in
childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.[242] Some Shi'a
scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.[243] Maria al-Qibtiyya
bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two
years old.[242]
Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.[223] Aisha, who became known as

Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was
instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the
Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.[155]
Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids.

These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning
'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and
Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.[244]
Zayd ibn Harith was a slave that Muhammad bought, freed, and then adopted as his
son. He also had a wetnurse.[245] Muhammad owned other slaves as well, whom he
bought usually to free.[246]
Legacy
Muslim views
Main article: Muhammad in Islam
The Muslim profession of faith, the

Shahadah, illustrates the Muslim
conception of the role of Muhammad:
"There is no god except the God and
Muhammad is the Messenger of
God." (Topkapı Palace)
Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's

prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in
Shahadah that "I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a
Messenger of God". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Islamic belief
believes ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught
it immediately and it will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the
call to prayer (adhan) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam
are required to recite the creed.[247]
In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God[6][248][249][250][251]

for the benefit of mankind. Quran 10:37 states that "...it (the Quran) is a confirmation
of (revelations) that went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book – wherein there
is no doubt – from The Lord of the Worlds.". Similarly Quran 46:12 states "...And
before this was the book of Moses, as a guide and a mercy. And this Book confirms
(it)...", while 2:136 commands the believers of Islam to "Say: we believe in God and
that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Abraham and
Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus
received, and which the prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction
between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered."
Historian Denis Gril believes the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad
performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is identified with the
Quran itself.[252] Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several miracles or
supernatural events.[253] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western
scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad splitting the
Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.[252][254]
The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports

known as Hadith), and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from
religious rituals, personal hygiene, burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving
the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation
for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The
greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon
you" (Arabic: as-salamu àlaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many
details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual
pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.[255]
The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the
end of the first Islamic century.[256] Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking
for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the
prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect saint. Sufi orders trace their
chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.[257]
Calligraphic rendering
of "peace be upon
him", customarily
added after
Muhammad's name in
writing. The phrase is
encoded as a ligature
at Unicode codepoint
U+FDFA.[258] ‫ﷺ‬.
Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of
Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles (particularly "Splitting of the
moon") have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to
Muhammad, Qasidat al-Burda ("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri
(1211–1294) is particularly well known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual
power.[259] The Quran refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds" (Quran
21:107 ).[16] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to
imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands,
reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth (see, for
example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).[16] Muhammad's birthday is
celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding
Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.[260]
When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with Peace
be upon him (Arabic: sallAllahu àlayhi wa sallam).[261] In casual writing, this is
sometimes abbreviated as PBUH or SAW; in printed matter, a small calligraphic
rendition is commonly used instead of printing the entire phrase.
Islamic depictions
Main article: Depictions of Muhammad
Muhammad's entry into Mecca and the

destruction of idols. Muhammad is
shown as a flame in this manuscript.
Found in Bazil's Hamla-i Haydari,
Kashmir, 1808.
In line with the hadith prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings,
which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad, Islamic
religious art is focused on the word.[262][263] Muslims generally avoid depictions of
Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or
geometrical designs, not images or sculptures.[262][264] Today, the interdiction against
images of Muhammad – designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God –
is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya
Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).[265] While both Sunnis and Shias have
created images of Muhammad in the past,[266] Islamic depictions of Muhammad are
rare.[262] They have, until recently[when?], mostly been limited to the private and elite
medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with
his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.[264][267]
The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid
Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of
Muhammad.[267][268] During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted
to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of
Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events.[269]
Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the
Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and
accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward
representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and
metalwork" besides books.[270] In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions
lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th
century.[269] The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a
departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering
Muhammad's face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent
his luminous essence.[271] Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier
periods were defaced.[269][272][273] Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and
elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad.[266]
Illustrated accounts of the night journey (mi'raj) were particularly popular from the
Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.[274] During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom
of printed and illustrated mi'raj books, with Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in
particular at illiterates and children in the manner of graphic novels. Reproduced
through lithography, these were essentially "printed manuscripts".[274] Today, millions of
historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim countries,
especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but
are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by
Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense.
[266][267]
Non-Muslim views
Non-Muslim views regarding Muhammad have ranged across a large spectrum of

responses and beliefs, many of which have changed over time.[275][276]
Historical Christian views

See also: Medieval Christian views on Muhammad
The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine

sources. They indicate that both Jews and Christians saw Muhammad as a "false
prophet".[277] Another Greek source for Muhammad is Theophanes, a 9th-century
writer. The earliest Syriac source is the 7th-century writer John bar Penkaye.[278]
According to Hossein Nasr, the earliest European literature often refers to Muhammad
unfavorably. A few learned circles of Middle Ages Europe – primarily Latin-literate
scholars – had access to fairly extensive biographical material about Muhammad. They
interpreted the biography through a Christian religious filter; one that viewed
Muhammad as a person who seduced the Saracens into his submission under
religious guise.[16] Popular European literature of the time portrayed Muhammad as
though he were worshipped by Muslims, similar to an idol or a heathen god.[16]
In later ages, Muhammad came to be seen as a schismatic: Brunetto Latini's 13th

century Li livres dou tresor represents him as a former monk and cardinal,[16] and
Dante's Divine Comedy (Inferno, Canto 28), written in the early 1300s, puts
Muhammad and his son-in-law Ali, in Hell "among the sowers of discord and the
schismatics, being lacerated by devils again and again."[16] Cultural critic and author
Edward Said wrote in Orientalism regarding Dante's depiction of Muhammad:
“ Empirical data about the Orient...count for very little; ... What ... Dante
tried to do in the Inferno, is ... to characterize the Orient as alien and to
incorporate it schematically on a theatrical stage whose audience,
manager, and actors are ... only for Europe. Hence the vacillation
between the familiar and the alien; Mohammed is always the imposter
(familiar, because he pretends to be like the Jesus we know) and always
the Oriental (alien, because although he is in some ways "like" Jesus, he
is after all not like him).[279]
”
However, Ibn Warraq has challenged Said's assessment of Dante's work as seriously
flawed, writing: "Said does not come across as a careful reader of Dante and his
masterpiece, The Divine Comedy". Warraq argues first that Said is oblivious to the
allegorical content of The Divine Comedy; second, that Said ignores the historical
context of Dante's work (i.e., Dante and some of his contemporaries believed that
Muhammad was a schismatic Christian who intended to usurp the Pope, thus a
heretic); and third that Said misinterprets Dante's placing of three notable Muslims
(Avicenna and Averroes and Saladin) in the outer circle of hell: "these illustrious
Muslims were included precisely because of Dante's reverence for all that was best in
the non-Christian world, and their exclusion from salvation, inevitable under Christian
doctrine, saddened him and put a great strain on his mind".[280]
After the Reformation, Muhammad was often portrayed in a similar way.[16][281]

Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad.[16]
Boulainvilliers described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.[16]
Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural
religion".[16] Thomas Carlyle in his book Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in
History (1840) describes Muhammad as "[a] silent great soul; [...] one of those who
cannot but be in earnest".[282] Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim
scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's status as
a great man in history.[283]
According to William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell, recent writers generally
dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that
Muhammad "was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith"[284] and
Muhammad's readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no
rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity.[285] Watt says that sincerity does not directly
imply correctness: In contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his
subconscious for divine revelation.[286] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing
Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's
development.[287][288] Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so
influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.[16]
Other religious views

See also: Judaism's views on Muhammad
Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of

God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh, the
founder of the Bahai faith.[289]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints neither regards Muhammad as a
prophet nor accepts the Quran as a book of scripture. However, it does respect
Muhammad as one who taught moral truths which can enlighten nations and bring a
higher level of understanding to individuals.[290]
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Muhammad
Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century. He has been attacked by his
non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, as well as for his multiple
marriages, possession of slaves and military expeditions across the Middle East.
See also
Achtiname of Muhammad
Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad
Clergy
Diplomatic career of Muhammad
Glossary of Islam
Islamic economics in the world
Islamic philosophy
List of founders of religious traditions

Muhammad in film
List of biographies of Muhammad
The Message (1976 film)
Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet (documentary)
Military career of Muhammad
Paraclete in Islam
Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)
Relics of Muhammad
The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History (book)
Umm Ayman (Barakah)
Notes
1. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers Muhammad to be the "Seal of the

Prophets" (Khātam an-Nabiyyīn) and the last law-bearing Prophet but not the last
Prophet. See:
Simon Ross Valentine (2008). Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief,
Practice . Columbia University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-85065-916-7.
"Finality of Prophethood | Hadhrat Muhammad (PUBH) the Last Prophet" .
Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.
2. There are smaller sects which too believe Muhammad to be not the last Prophet:
The Nation of Islam considers Elijah Muhammad to be a prophet (source: African
American Religious Leaders – Page 76, Jim Haskins, Kathleen Benson – 2008).
United Submitters International consider Rashad Khalifa to be a prophet. (Source:
Daniel Pipes, Miniatures: Views of Islamic and Middle Eastern Politics, page 98 (2004))
3. 'Islam' is always referred to in the Quran as a dīn, a word that means "way" or
"path" in Arabic, but is usually translated in English as "religion" for the sake of
convenience
4. S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6 The Encyclopaedia of Islam says that the Quran
responds "constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical
circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data."
5. The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra
Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to
utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā
and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is
hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the
Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.
6. "Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is
simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism."(The
Cambridge companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p.35)
7. "Although, there could be some historical basis for the story, in its present form, it
is certainly a later, exegetical fabrication. Sura LIII, 1-20 and the end of the sura are not
a unity, as is claimed by the story, XXII, 52 is later than LIII, 2107 and is almost
certainly Medinan; and several details of the story- the mosque, the sadjda, and others
not mentioned in the short summary above do not belong to Meccan setting. Caetani
and J. Burton have argued against the historicity of the story on other grounds, Caetani
on the basis of week isnads, Burton concluded that the story was invented by jurists so
that XXII 52 could serve as a Kuranic proof-text for their abrogation theories."("Kuran"
in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404)
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3. Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632, the dominant Islamic tradition.
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Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912 .
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860223-5.
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Incorporated. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
Further reading
Ahmad, Mirza Bashir (2011). Life & Character of the Seal of Prophets, Vols. I and
II . Islam International Publications. ISBN 9781-84880-052-6.
Andrae, Tor (2000). Mohammed: The Man and His Faith. Dover. ISBN 0-486-
41136-2.
Berg, Herbert (ed) (2003). Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins. E. J.
Brill. ISBN 90-04-12602-3.
Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-287605-8.
Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam. (s.n.)
(Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute). ISBN 969-8413-00-6.
Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the
Sources (Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32). Brill. ISBN 90-
04-11513-7.
Musa, A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic
Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008
Rubin, Uri (1995). The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by
the Early Muslims (A Textual Analysis). Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-110-X.
Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration
of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-
4128-5.
Stillman, Norman (1975). The Jews of Arab Lands: a History and Source Book.
Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0.
Spencer, Robert (2006). The Truth About Muhammad. Regnery Publishing, USA.
ISBN 978-1-59698-028-0.
External links
Works by or about Muhammad in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Other biographies
Muhammad , article on Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet — PBS Site
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Muhammad - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 61

Last edited 5 hours ago by Favonian

Common calligraphic representation of

Died 8 June 632 CE (aged 62 or 63)

Resting place Tomb under the Green Dome of

Years active 583–609 CE as merchant

Successor Abu Bakr (as 1st Caliph)

Opponent(s) Abu Jahl

Spouse(s) Wives Married

Signature Seal of Muhammad

Born approximately in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca,[10][11] Muhammad was

conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and other premodern contexts

Names and appellations in the Quran

Sources for Muhammad's life

Beginnings of the Quran

Isra and Mi'raj

Last years in Mecca before Hijra

Establishment of a new polity

Beginning of armed conflict

Conflict with Mecca

Death and tomb

Early social changes under Islam

Other religious views

Names and appellations in the Quran

The name Muhammad written in

The name Muhammad (/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/)[23] means "praiseworthy" and appears

Sources for Muhammad's life

Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad

A folio from an early Quran, written in

[Quran 47:2 ][Quran 48:29 ]

Main tribes and settlements of Arabia

Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia, Jahiliyyah and Arabian mythology

In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual

Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad

c. 569 Death of his father, Abdullah

576 Death of his mother, Aminah

c. 583 his grand father transfers him to Syria

c. 595 Meets and marries Khadijah

610 Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca

c. 613 Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans

c. 614 Heavy persecution of Muslims begins

c. 615 Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia

616 Banu Hashim clan boycott begins

619 Banu Hashim clan boycott ends

c. 620 Isra and Mi'raj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God)

622 Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib)

624 Battle of Badr

625 Battle of Uhud

627 Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina)

629 Conquest of Mecca

632 Farewell pilgrimage and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia

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Main article: Muhammad in Mecca

Childhood and early life

Miniature from Rashid-al-Din

Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq,

Beginnings of the Quran

The cave Hira in the mountain

A depiction of Muhammad receiving

Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as "sometimes it is

The last ayah from the sura An-Najm

In 615, some of Muhammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire

Isra and Mi'raj

The Al-Aqsa Mosque, part of the al-