1. Selected nonparametric tests Chi-Square goodness of fit test.

To determine whether a variable has a frequency distribution comparable to the one expected

2X

•■• .1■11•11

1 E T (f,i — fei )2 I f el

expected frequency can be based on • theory • previous experience • comparison groups

Answer: Certainly! Let's break down the concepts step by step:

1. **Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test:**

- **Explanation:** This test helps us figure out if the observed frequencies of a variable (like the
number of people with different hair colors) match what we would expect based on some idea,
experience, or comparison with other groups.

- **Example:** Imagine you want to see if the colors of M&M candies in a bag match the expected
distribution. You might expect an equal number of each color, like 20% red, 20% blue, and so on.
The chi-square goodness of fit test helps you check if the actual number of each color in your bag is
close to what you expected.

2. **Expected Frequency based on:**

- **Theory:** Sometimes, we have a theory or idea about how things should be distributed. For
example, if we're rolling a fair six-sided die, we expect each number to come up about 1/6 of the
time.

- **Previous Experience:** If we've done something before and recorded the frequencies, we can
use that as a basis for what to expect. If, historically, 30% of students in a class got an A, we might
expect a similar distribution in a new class.

- **Comparison Groups:** We might compare our data with another group. If we're looking at the
number of people choosing different ice cream flavors in our town compared to a neighboring town,
we could use the neighboring town's distribution as a reference.
 - **Example:** Let's say you have a theory that people in your city prefer vanilla ice cream. Based
on this theory, you expect 40% of people to choose vanilla. You can use the chi-square goodness of
fit test to see if the actual ice cream choices in a sample align with this expected distribution.

In summary, the chi-square goodness of fit test helps us check if what we observe matches what we
expected based on some idea, experience, or comparison. It's like making sure the colors of M&Ms
or the ice cream choices in our town are in line with what we thought they should be.

2. Selected nonparametric tests Chi-Square goodness of fit test. Example

The average prognosis of total hip replacement in relation to pain reduction in hip joint is excellent -
80% good - 10% medium - 5% bad - 5% In our study of we had got a different outcome

expected

excellent - 95% good - 2% medium - 2% bad - I%

observed

Do observed frequencies differ from expected

Answer: Certainly, let's break down the example using the given format:

1. **Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test for Hip Replacement Study:**

- **Explanation:** We want to determine if the observed outcomes of hip replacement surgeries,

based on pain reduction, differ from what was expected. The expected outcomes were initially
estimated as 80% excellent, 10% good, 5% medium, and 5% bad. However, our study provided
different observations, and we want to see if these differences are significant.

2. **Expected Frequencies based on:**

- **Theory:** The initial expectations were based on the general understanding of how hip
replacement surgeries typically result in pain reduction. The expected distribution was 80%
excellent, 10% good, 5% medium, and 5% bad.

- **Example:** If we performed 100 hip replacement surgeries, we initially expected 80 to be

excellent, 10 to be good, 5 to be medium, and 5 to be bad based on our theoretical understanding.

3. **Observed Frequencies:**
 - **Example:** In our study, out of 100 hip replacement surgeries, we observed 95 were excellent,
2 were good, 2 were medium, and 1 was bad.

4. **Chi-Square Test Calculation:**

- To determine if the observed frequencies differ from expected, we use the chi-square formula:

\[ \chi^2 = \sum \frac{(O_i - E_i)^2}{E_i} \]

where \(O_i\) is the observed frequency and \(E_i\) is the expected frequency for each category.

5. **Interpretation:**

- After calculating the chi-square statistic, we compare it to a critical value or use it to find a p-
value. If the p-value is below a chosen significance level (e.g., 0.05), we conclude that the observed
frequencies significantly differ from what was expected, suggesting a meaningful difference in
outcomes compared to the initial expectations.

In summary, the chi-square goodness of fit test allows us to assess whether the observed outcomes
of hip replacement surgeries, regarding pain reduction, significantly differ from what was initially
expected based on theoretical knowledge. This statistical test helps us determine if the differences
are more than what could be attributed to chance.

3. Selected nonparametric tests Chi-Square goodness of fit test. Example

x'= 14.2, df=3 (4-1)

0.001 < p < 0.01

Null hypothesis is rejected

X2>9.84 p < 0.05 %>I1.34 p<0.01 X2> 16.27 p < 0.001

Answer: Let's break down the information provided in the format you've shared:

1. **Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test Example:**

- **Chi-Square Statistic (\(X^2\)):** \(X^2\) is calculated as 14.2 based on the observed and
expected frequencies in the study. The degrees of freedom (\(df\)) are given as 3 (4 categories - 1).
2. **Significance Levels and P-Values:**

- The statement "0.001 < p < 0.01" indicates that the p-value obtained from the chi-square test
falls between 0.001 and 0.01. This range represents the level of significance. In hypothesis testing, a
lower p-value suggests stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.

3. **Null Hypothesis Rejection:**

- The statement "Null hypothesis is rejected" implies that the null hypothesis, which typically
states that there is no significant difference between observed and expected frequencies, is rejected
in favor of an alternative hypothesis. In other words, the study found significant differences.

4. **Critical Values for Different Significance Levels:**

- \(X^2 > 9.84, p < 0.05\): This indicates that if the calculated chi-square statistic is greater than
9.84, the null hypothesis can be rejected at the 0.05 significance level.

- \(X^2 > 11.34, p < 0.01\): If the calculated \(X^2\) is greater than 11.34, the null hypothesis can
be rejected at the 0.01 significance level.

- \(X^2 > 16.27, p < 0.001\): If the calculated \(X^2\) is greater than 16.27, the null hypothesis can
be rejected at an even stricter significance level of 0.001.

In summary, the chi-square goodness of fit test was conducted, resulting in a calculated \(X^2\)
statistic of 14.2 with 3 degrees of freedom. The p-value falls between 0.001 and 0.01, leading to the
rejection of the null hypothesis. Additionally, critical values are provided for different significance
levels, indicating the threshold beyond which the null hypothesis can be rejected.

4. Advantages

• Simpler model — Easier to build, test and understand than other models • More reliable — More
reliable as only one variable is used. • Descriptive method — A univariate model is a strong
descriptive method. Analysts can change one variable each time the model is run to obtain results
that show "what if" scenarios. For example, changing the variables from age to income can show
different results which describe what happens when one factor changes within the model.

Answer: Certainly, let's break down the advantages provided in the above format:
1. **Simpler Model:**

- **Explanation:** Univariate models are simpler and easier to build, test, and understand
compared to more complex models that involve multiple variables.

- **Example:** If you're studying the impact of temperature on ice cream sales, a univariate
model might focus solely on temperature without considering other factors, making it simpler to
analyze.

2. **More Reliable:**

- **Explanation:** Univariate models can be more reliable because they involve only one variable.
This simplicity can make it easier to identify and understand the relationship between that variable
and the outcome.

- **Example:** If you're predicting exam scores based only on study hours, a univariate model
might be more reliable than a multivariate model that includes several other factors.

3. **Descriptive Method:**

- **Explanation:** Univariate models serve as strong descriptive methods, allowing analysts to

focus on one variable at a time. This approach is useful for understanding how changes in a single
factor impact the outcome.

- **Example:** Suppose you're analyzing the factors influencing car fuel efficiency. Using a
univariate model, you can change one variable at a time, like engine size, to see how it affects fuel
efficiency, providing insights into specific influences.

In summary, univariate models offer advantages such as simplicity, reliability due to the focus on a
single variable, and the descriptive power to explore the impact of individual factors. These models
can be particularly useful when trying to understand the relationship between a variable and an
outcome in a straightforward manner.

5. Disadvantages

• Not comprehensive — A univariate model is less comprehensive compared to multivariate models.

In the real world, there is often more than just one factor at play and a univariate model is unable to
take this into account due to its inherent limitations. • Does not establish relationships — As only
one variable can be changed at a time, univariate models are unable to show relationships between
different factors.
Answer: Let's break down the disadvantages provided in the above format:

1. **Not Comprehensive:**

- **Explanation:** Univariate models are less comprehensive because they only consider one
variable at a time. In real-world situations, multiple factors often interact, and a univariate model
may overlook these complexities.

- **Example:** If you're analyzing factors affecting customer satisfaction, a univariate model

focusing solely on product quality might miss the interactions with factors like customer service or
price.

2. **Does Not Establish Relationships:**

- **Explanation:** Univariate models, by design, allow only one variable to be changed at a time.
This limitation makes it challenging to establish relationships between different factors, as
interactions among variables are not considered.

- **Example:** Suppose you're studying the impact of advertising on product sales. A univariate
model may show the effect of changing the advertising budget, but it won't capture how advertising
interacts with other factors like seasonality or competitor activities.

In summary, while univariate models have their strengths, they come with limitations. They are less
comprehensive in addressing the complexity of real-world scenarios where multiple factors interact.
Additionally, their focus on one variable at a time limits their ability to establish relationships
between different factors, which is a drawback when trying to capture the full picture of complex
systems.