TAKORADI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF BUILT AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

INVESTIGATING THE CAUSES OF OVERTIME IN CONSTRUCTION

PAUL WILSON

SEPTEMBER, 2023
 TAKORADI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF BUILT AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

INVESTIGATING THE CAUSES OF OVERTIME IN CONSTRUCTION

PAUL WILSON

0720410095

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING

TECHNOLOGY OF TAKORADI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA
IN CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

SEPTEMBER, 2023

i
 DECLARATION

STUDENTS DECLARATION

I declare that this project except for quotations and references contained in published works
which have all been identified and duly acknowledged, is entirely my original work, and it has
not been submitted, either in part or whole, for any other degree elsewhere.

NAME: PAUL WILSON

SIGNATURE: ……………………

DATE: ……………………………

SUPERVISORS DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work were supervised by the

guidelines for supervision of thesis/ project report/ project as laid down by Takoradi Technical

University, Takoradi.

NAME: MR EMMANUEL ASEIDU

SIGNATURE: ……………………...

DATE: ……………………................

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 CERTIFICATION

This project has been checked and approved for submission to the Department of Building

Technology for the award of a Higher National Diploma Certificate in the aforementioned

Department.

CERTIFIED BY:

DR. FREDRICK OWUSU DANSO

HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Signature: …………………...

Date: ……………………….

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 DEDICATION

This dedication is in loving memory of my late parents, Mr. and Mrs. Wilson, whose unwavering
support and vision inspired my journey in construction. To my caring uncle, Joseph Etrue Arthur,
your guidance during challenging times was invaluable. To my dear sisters, Paulina Wilson and
Susanna Wilson, your motivation and unwavering support have been my driving force. I dedicate
my accomplishments to my family's memory and the enduring bonds we share. This journey
belongs to all who have touched my life, and I thank you for being part of it.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to God, who has been my guiding
light throughout this journey. Without His unwavering grace and divine wisdom, none of this
would have been possible.
I would like to pay tribute to my late parents, Mr. and Mrs. Wilson, whose enduring spiritual
support and the vision they instilled in me have been the foundation of my career in construction.
Their memory lives on in every brick laid and every structure built, a testament to their enduring
influence on my path.
To my dear uncle, Joseph Etrue Arthur, your unwavering care and support during the challenging
times after my parents' passing have been a lifeline. Your wisdom and guidance have been
invaluable, and I am forever grateful for your presence in my life.
I must also acknowledge the immense contribution of my two sisters, Paulina Wilson and
Susanna Wilson. Your motivation, encouragement, and unwavering support have been my
driving force. Your belief in me has pushed me to reach for the stars, and I am profoundly
thankful for the bond we share.
To all my family, friends, and mentors who have been a part of this journey, thank you for your
love, encouragement, and belief in my dreams. Together, we have achieved remarkable
milestones, and I look forward to the continued journey ahead.
This accomplishment is not mine alone; it belongs to each one of you who has touched my life in
a meaningful way. Thank you for being my pillars of strength and inspiration

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT..................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENT..................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................................x
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................xi
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY.......................................................................................1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT....................................................................................................2
1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY...........................................................................................................2
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY...........................................................................................2
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS....................................................................................................2
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.......................................................................................2
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY......................................................................................................3
1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY.....................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................4
LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................................4
2.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................4
2.2 THE OVERVIEW OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY..............................................4
2.3 THE CONCEPT OF OVERTIME.........................................................................................5
2.3.1 Proactive Overtime..........................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Reactive Overtime...........................................................................................................6
2.4 FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO OVERTIME DURING CONSTRUCTION PROJECT
EXECUTION...............................................................................................................................7
2.4.1 Poor Time Management...................................................................................................7
2.4.2 Delays in Materials Delivery...........................................................................................7
2.4.3 Equipment Breakdowns or Maintenance Issues..............................................................8
2.4.4 Design Errors or Discrepancies.......................................................................................8
2.4.5 Ineffective Communication Between Project Stakeholders............................................8
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 2.4.6 Poor Project Planning and Scheduling.............................................................................8
2.4.7 Labour Productivity Issues..............................................................................................9
2.4.8 Safety Incidents................................................................................................................9
2.4.9 Insufficient Resources......................................................................................................9
2.4.10 Heavy-Related Loads or Too Much Work..................................................................10
2.5 IMPACT OF OVERTIME ON CONSTRUCTION WORKERS........................................10
2.5.1 Increase in Physical Fatigue for Construction Workers................................................10
2.5.2 Reduced Focus and Attention among Construction Workers........................................10
2.5.3 Decreased Job Commitment among Construction Workers..........................................11
2.5.4 Long Hours Affect the Well-Being of Workers............................................................11
2.5.5 High Blood Pressure in Construction Workers..............................................................11
2.5.6 Reduced Focus and Attention among Construction Workers........................................12
2.5.7 Affect the Quality of Work Performance......................................................................12
2.5.8 Family-Related Conflicts...............................................................................................13
2.5.9 Negative Impacts on Sleep Quality...............................................................................13
2.6 WAYS TO HANDLE THE ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH OVERTIME ON
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS.................................................................................................13
2.6.1 Using Performance Incentives and Bonuses for Timely Completion............................13
2.6.2 Implementing Flexible Work Arrangements and Shift..................................................14
2.6.3 Clear Communication and Coordination Among Project Stakeholders........................14
2.6.4 Using Advanced Construction Technology and Automation........................................14
2.6.5 Implementing Effective Project Planning and Scheduling............................................15
2.6.6 Take Regular Breaks to Recharge and Prevent Burnout...............................................15
2.6.7 Providing Comprehensive Training and Skills..............................................................16
2.6.8 Set Clear Goals and Objectives for Construction Workers...........................................16
2.6.9 Conduct Regular Monitoring and Tracking of Project Progress...................................16
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................18
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................18
3.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................18
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN..........................................................................................................18
3.3 POPULATION.....................................................................................................................18
3.4 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE..............................................................19
3.5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD.......................................................................................19
3.6 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT..............................................................................20
3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS......................................................................................20

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CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................21
DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION.................................................................21
4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................21
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS........................................21
4.2.1 Gender............................................................................................................................21
4.2.2 Educational Level..........................................................................................................22
4.2.3 Number of Years of Work Experience..........................................................................23
4.2.4 Current Job Position in The Industry.............................................................................23
4.3 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO OVERTIME ON CONSTRUCTION PROJECT
EXECUTION.............................................................................................................................24
4.3.1 Discussion on The Factors That Contribute to Overtime..............................................25
4.3.2 Poor Time Management.................................................................................................25
4.3.3 Weather-Related Factors................................................................................................25
4.3.4 Design Errors or Discrepancies.....................................................................................25
4.3.5 Heavy Related Load or Too Much Work......................................................................26
4.3.6 Poor Project Planning and Scheduling...........................................................................26
4.3.7 Delays in Material Delivery...........................................................................................26
4.3.8 Equipment Breakdowns or Maintenance Issues............................................................26
4.3.9 Frequent Changes to Project Scope (Variations)...........................................................27
4.3.10 Discussion....................................................................................................................27
4.4 IMPACT OF OVERTIME ON CONSTRUCTION WORKERS........................................27
4.4.1 Discussion on The Impacts of Overtime........................................................................29
4.4.2 Increase Accident Occurrence On-Site..........................................................................29
4.4.3 Increased Absenteeism Among Construction Workers.................................................29
4.4.4 Affect the Quality of Work Performance......................................................................29
4.4.5 Increased Physical Fatigue for Construction Workers..................................................29
4.4.6 Reduce Focus and Attention Among Construction Workers.........................................30
4.4.7 Lead to Decreased Productivity in Construction Workers............................................30
4.4.8 High Blood Pressure in Construction Workers..............................................................30
4.4.9 Decreased Job Commitment Among Construction Workers.........................................30
4.4.10 Discussion....................................................................................................................31
4.5 WAYS TO HANDLE OVERTIME AND ITS RELATED ISSUES DURING
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT EXECUTION...........................................................................31
4.5.1 Discussion on Ways to Handle Overtime and its Related Issues..................................32
4.5.2 Using Advanced Construction Technology and Automation........................................32

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 4.5.3 Take Regular Breaks to Recharge and Prevent Burnout...............................................33
4.5.4 Using Performance Incentives and Bonuses for Timely Completion............................33
4.5.5 Implementing Flexible Work Arrangements and Shift..................................................33
4.5.6 Implementing Effective Project Planning and Scheduling............................................33
4.5.7 Set Clear Goals and Objectives for Construction Workers...........................................34
4.5.8 Providing Comprehensive Training and Skills..............................................................34
4.5.9 Clear Communication and Coordination among Project Stakeholders.........................34
4.5.10 Discussion....................................................................................................................34
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................................36
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION............................36
5.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................36
5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS................................................................................................36
5.3 CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................36
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................37
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................39
APPENDIX....................................................................................................................................52

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Respondents Gender.....................................................................................................23
Figure 4.2 Respondents' educational background..........................................................................23

x
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Respondents' working experience..................................................................................24
Table 4.2 Respondents' current position........................................................................................24
Table 4.3 Factors that contribute to overtime................................................................................25
Table 4.4 Impact of overtime on construction workers.................................................................28
Table 4.5 Ways to handle overtime and its related issues..............................................................32

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 ABSTRACT
Overtime, the practice of working additional hours beyond the regular work schedule, is a prevalent
phenomenon across various construction companies. The project aims to investigate the impact of
overtime on construction workers during project execution and to identify ways to handle the issues
associated with overtime. The objectives of the study were: factors that contribute to overtime, the
impacts of overtime on construction workers, and ways to handle the issues associated with overtime.
A snowball sampling technique was used to collect data from construction workers, and ninety-five
(95) questionnaires were collected and analyzed using the Relative Important Index method (RII).
The study found some of the factors that contribute to overtime in construction which include p oor
time management, weather-related factors, design errors or discrepancies, heavy related load, and
poor project planning and scheduling. The most significant impacts of overtime on construction
workers were, increased accident occurrence on-site, increased absenteeism among construction
workers, effects on quality of work performance, increased physical fatigue for construction workers,
and reduced focus and attention among construction workers. The study suggested some of the ways
to handle the issues associated with overtime which include, using advanced construction technology
and automation, taking regular breaks to recharge and prevent burnout, using performance incentives
and bonuses for timely completion, implementing flexible work arrangements and shift, and
implementing effective project planning and scheduling. Based on the findings of the study it was
recommended that construction companies should have strategic project planning, flexible working
arrangements, and safety culture to promote the well-being of construction workers.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The construction industry in Ghana has experienced substantial growth and development
lately, making it a vital contributor to the country's economy. However, the industry still
faces several challenges such as insufficient infrastructure, shortage of skilled labour, weak
occupational health and safety standards, and insufficient project management (Ameyaw et
al., 2018). Good project management is crucial for the successful completion of construction
projects in Ghana, particularly skills related to project planning, scheduling, cost control, and
risk management, demonstrating the importance of providing suitable training and education
for professionals (Ayangade & Alabi, 2020).
Overtime is an essential aspect of labour management in the Ghanaian construction industry.
Overtime refers to the additional time worked beyond the standard working hours of an
employee (Mensah & Ofori, 2015). Workers usually work overtime due to workload
demands, urgent deadlines, or economic reasons such as cost-saving or increased
productivity, and are usually compensated with additional pay or time off instead of overtime
pay. Although overtime is important to meet project deadlines, it can have detrimental effects
on workers and businesses. It can lead to an increased risk of accidents, injuries, and
illnesses, create a decline in productivity and morale among workers, and also result in higher
labour costs for companies (Buckle et al., 2020). Ghana's National Labour Act of 2003
stipulates that employees who work beyond the standard working hours must receive
compensation at a rate that is at least one-and-a-half times their regular rate of pay (Ghana
Labour Law, 2003).
In conclusion, this background of study has revealed that overtime is a widespread and
persistent challenge in the construction industry. Our analysis of the literature has highlighted
several causes of overtime, including poor project planning and scheduling, equipment
breakdown, poor project management, and delays in materials delivery. Overtime can have
negative impacts on workers' safety, productivity, health, and work-life balance, and can lead
to increased costs and delays. Addressing the causes of overtime requires a multi-faceted
approach that involves improved planning and scheduling, better project management, the
use of advanced construction technology, and the implementation of flexible work

1
arrangements. This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the factors that contribute
to overtime in construction and to identify ways to handle issues associated with overtime.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

According to Xue et al., (2021), the construction industry heavily relies on overtime work,
often incentivized by financial rewards, which can negatively impact the well-being of
construction workers. This issue is exacerbated by a lack of effective overtime management
strategies, leading to reduced work quality, higher injury and illness rates, and increased risk
of worker burnout (Teo et al., 2005). Given the vital role of the construction industry in
Ghana's economy, there is a pressing need to explore and implement holistic approaches to
overtime management that prioritize worker safety, health, and job satisfaction (Mensah et
al., 2014). Failure to address this problem not only jeopardizes the well-being of workers but
also threatens the long-term success and sustainability of construction projects in the country.

1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY

This project aims to investigate the impact of overtime on construction workers during
project execution and to identify ways to handle the issues associated with overtime.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study are:

I. To determine the factors that contribute to overtime during construction project execution.
ii. To identify the various impacts of overtime on construction workers.
iii. To identify the ways to handle the issues associated with overtime on construction
projects.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

I. Why do people work overtime?

ii. What is the impact of overtime on the well-being of construction workers?
iii. What are the ways to handle the issues associated with overtime on construction projects?

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will provide a document for academia to study the impact of overtime on
construction workers. It will also create awareness for the people in the society to know how
overtime can affect them when it keeps occurring at construction work while it will also

2
create awareness for the construction industry to work on their time management to reduce
extended overtime and its associated cost.

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1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study focuses on the factors that contribute to overtime, the various ways overtime affect
construction workers, and identifies ways to handle issues associated with overtime during
the implementation of construction projects.

1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY

This paper is structured into five chapters and is briefly described below.
Chapter one presents an introduction to the subject, its background, and the specific problem
associated with it. This chapter also specifies the aim, objectives, research questions,
significance of the study, and scope of the study.
Chapter two deals with the literature review on overtime, its impact on workers, and the
construction project.
Chapter three looks into the details of the data collection process involved in the study which
included methods of data collection, primary and secondary data collection, analysis method
used, and summary.
Chapter four discusses the process of data analysis to achieve the aim and objectives of this
study.
Chapter five summarizes the findings and presents the overall conclusion of this study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this section, we are going to look at the overview of the construction industry, the concept
of overtime, types of overtime, factors that contribute to overtime during construction project
execution, identify the various impacts of overtime on construction workers, and identify
ways to handle issues associated with overtime on construction project.

2.2 THE OVERVIEW OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

In most developing countries, construction is a solid sector of the economy, which takes care
of planning, designing, and constructing physical infrastructure such as roads, hospitals,
schools, housing, and enhanced facilities for other industries (Hillebrandt, 1985). The
Ghanaian construction industry performs a large role in the economy and also assists in the
attainment of sustainable development goals (Anaman and Osei-Amponsah, 2007). Isa et al.
(2013), in a publication, said that the construction industry is an attractive area for research in
enhancing the effectiveness of government works toward sustainable economic development.
Nicco-Annan (2006) asserted that the Ghanaian construction industry in its small space
inhabits an important portion of the national economy. The construction industry provides a
very important contribution to the national and local economy through its job-generating
ability for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled labour (Memon et al., 2013). The construction
process needs inputs from other industries and production factors (labour, land, and capital).
This could generate considerable employment through multiplier effects.

The state of the construction industry will affect the most common measures of a national
economy, such as GDP as mentioned earlier. It will affect the availability of capital, the
decisions a government makes, and even the social health of the country. The construction
industry also has significant interaction with other economic sectors as multiplier effects
through its backward and forward linkages (Sweis et al., 2008).
The construction industry is frequently used as a tool by the government to manage the local
or national economy. For example, when there’s a recession and unemployment is high, the
government uses the construction sector to increase public expenditure (Ball and Wood,

5
1994). Therefore, the detailed way in which the construction sector interacts with the national
or local economy and the wealth of the people involved should be understood.

2.3 THE CONCEPT OF OVERTIME

Overtime refers to the additional hours’ employees work beyond their regular schedule, for
which they receive compensation (Allen, 2018). It is commonly utilized in companies with
unpredictable workloads or urgent situations. Overtime offers benefits for both employers
and employees but also comes with challenges.

Employers rely on overtime to uphold production levels, meet customer demands during peak
periods, and ensure timely project completion (Chen et al., 2015). It allows businesses to
extend operational hours, remain competitive, and adapt to a fast-paced market. Employees
view overtime as an opportunity to increase their earnings, serving as a strong motivator for
those seeking additional income or specific financial goals (Kaplan, 2019).

However, extended working hours associated with overtime can lead to fatigue, stress, and
burnout, which can negatively impact productivity and job satisfaction (Hammer et al., 2015).
Employers should prioritize employee well-being and engagement by providing adequate rest
and recovery time.

From an employer's perspective, relying too heavily on overtime can result in higher labour
costs, especially when paying overtime wages at a premium rate becomes routine (Allen,
2018). Employers should assess whether overtime is a cost-effective solution and consider
alternatives such as temporary staffing, flexible schedules, or optimizing task allocation.

To avoid issues like abuse or overburdening specific employees, proper management and
monitoring of overtime are crucial (Eisenberg, 2013). Establishing transparent policies on
overtime eligibility, regularly communicating guidelines, and ensuring a fair distribution of
overtime opportunities are key steps.

Overtime serves a crucial function in maintaining production, increasing workforce

availability, and providing additional income for employees (Allen, 2018). However, it
requires careful consideration to mitigate potential negative effects on employee well-being
and prevent financial strains on employers. Implementing comprehensive policies and
effective communication channels is necessary to successfully manage overtime and ensure
its fair and appropriate utilization within an organization.

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Beckers et al. (2008) identified two types of overtime: proactive and reactive, which have
different psychological perceptions. Although there is general agreement that overtime can
have negative effects on workers' physical and psychological well-being, there are still
workers who choose to engage in overtime work.

2.3.1 Proactive Overtime

Engaging in proactive overtime is driven by various motivations. Firstly, some individuals

genuinely enjoy their work, finding satisfaction in it, which leads them to willingly put in
extra hours. They also have a strong sense of responsibility, pushing them to surpass their
work objectives because they intrinsically want to accomplish tasks (Organ et al., 1988).
Additionally, the prospect of rewards and career advancement motivates them to invest more
time to secure promotions and recognition.

Surprisingly, even the less positive aspect of avoiding punishment for unfinished tasks
contributes to this proactive overtime behaviour. This aspect, although rooted in negative
emotions, still qualifies as a form of proactive overtime according to research (Cui et al.,
2020). It's worth noting that those who engage in proactive overtime often hold more
lucrative positions due to their higher earnings. Contrary to expectations of exhaustion,
proactive overtime often doesn't lead to feelings of fatigue, thanks to the sense of
acknowledgment it brings and the implied elevation of job or social status.

This inclination towards proactive overtime is exemplified by individuals often referred to as

"work-obsessed" leaders, who derive significant joy from their work and willingly invest
substantial time and effort into it. This phenomenon extends to various professionals,
including entrepreneurs and IT workers, who receive substantial compensation for their
extended hours of dedication (Cui et al., 2020).

2.3.2 Reactive Overtime

On the other hand, reactive overtime stems from different factors and exhibits distinct
characteristics. It includes cases of proactive overtime prompted by external pressures,
mandatory overtime due to external coercion, and overtime resulting from external influence
combined with a lack of enthusiasm. Proactive overtime under external pressure primarily
arises from the desire to gain rewards or avoid penalties, with the key difference being the

7
absence of intrinsic motivation for working longer hours (Li et al., 2020). The latter two
forms of reactive over time involve passivity and negative feelings.

It's important to highlight the category of proactive overtime under external pressure, which
sets itself apart from proactive overtime because employees lack the self-driven motivation
for overtime. In contrast, the remaining categories are marked by passivity and a prevalence
of negative emotions. Notably, the last category refers to situations where overtime work isn't
physically performed at the workplace (Cui et al., 2020). Workers involved in reactive
overtime often deal with increased fatigue and health issues. These individuals experience
heightened negative emotions and a decrease in job satisfaction, particularly when their
overtime efforts go uncompensated (Beckers et al., 2008).

2.4 FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO OVERTIME DURING CONSTRUCTION

PROJECT EXECUTION

Construction projects are complex and require precise planning to execute within a specified
time frame. However, they often exceed expected timelines, leading to overtime, increased
costs, and delays. Several factors contribute to overtime during construction projects, and it is
crucial to understand them to manage and reduce excessive project delays. This article will
explore some of these factors.

2.4.1 Poor Time Management

Inefficient time management can lead to an increase in overtime, as reported by 69% of

employees in a study conducted by The Harris Poll (Alexander, 2017). Poor planning and
task prioritization can cause individuals to feel overwhelmed and leave tasks incomplete,
resulting in longer work hours as deadlines approach (Sugarman, 2019). In addition, a poorly
distributed workload can lead to bottlenecks and a backlog of work, leading to more overtime
to compensate. The negative effects of poor time management include increased stress,
decreased productivity, and lower job satisfaction (Kumar et al., 2018).

2.4.2 Delays in Materials Delivery

Late delivery of materials is a frequent problem in construction projects, resulting in

unexpected costs, such as overtime. Research by the Construction Industry Institute shows
that, on average, projects experience a 6.9% delay due to delayed material delivery. Extended
project timelines can lead to increased labour costs and safety concerns, as fatigued workers

8
are prone to mistakes or accidents. Overtime can also cause decreased productivity and
quality of work as workers become burnt out and less engaged (Kaming et al., 1997;
McCormick & Ilter, 2013).

2.4.3 Equipment Breakdowns or Maintenance Issues

Workers may have to work overtime due to equipment breakdowns or maintenance issues, as
they may need additional time to repair or fix the equipment instead of completing their tasks.
Such issues can also cause production delays, leading to decreased productivity for the
organization. To minimize these issues, companies should have a comprehensive
maintenance plan, conduct regular inspections, and ensure timely servicing of equipment. In
summary, equipment problems and maintenance issues are unavoidable, but their impact on
productivity can be reduced by taking appropriate measures (Henderson, 2018; Hill, 2017).

2.4.4 Design Errors or Discrepancies

Design discrepancies can lead to substantial cost increases and delays in construction
projects. Approximately half of construction delays are due to design errors, according to
Rovas and Zografos (2014). The example of the Berlin Brandenburg airport illustrates this, as
construction costs exceeded €7 billion due to design errors such as fire safety issues and
lighting problems (Farchy, 2020). Another example is the pedestrian and bicycle bridge over
the Delaware River, which was delayed from 2015 to 2020 due to design discrepancies
(Mitchell, 2020). These examples demonstrate how design errors and discrepancies can cause
significant delays and inflate costs in construction projects.

2.4.5 Ineffective Communication Between Project Stakeholders

Poor communication among project stakeholders can result in misunderstandings, errors, and
ineffective decision-making, causing additional planning, rework, and overtime (Wolak,
2017). This can lead to delays and inefficiencies due to misunderstanding and lack of
coordination (Othman et al., 2019), creating conflicting priorities, and unexpected issues that
cause budget and time overruns (Cripps & Zyngier, 2017). To avoid these issues,
stakeholders must engage in effective communication, ensuring clarity of roles and
expectations, and avoiding scope creep.

2.4.6 Poor Project Planning and Scheduling

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Inadequate project planning and scheduling are major contributors to project failure,
according to Standish Group (2018). Winstanley and Stuart (2017) agree, stating that poor
planning and scheduling lead to project delays, cost overruns, and rework. These issues arise
from the failure to allocate resources properly, communicate with stakeholders, anticipate
risks, and establish clear objectives and timelines (Kerzner, 2017). Poor planning and
scheduling can also compromise project quality, leading to suboptimal deliverables and scope
creep. Ineffective scheduling can cause team member burnout, negatively affecting
productivity (Snyder, 2014). These factors combined can result in delays, budget overruns,
scope creep, and poor outputs.

2.4.7 Labour Productivity Issues

Labour productivity issues are a significant concern for governments and businesses alike.
The level of skills and education of workers is a crucial factor impacting productivity, with
highly educated workers being more efficient (Li et al., 2019). Employee engagement and
motivation are also critical factors, with engaged employees being more productive (Lewis &
Heckman, 2006). These multifaceted issues require a holistic approach, including the
adoption of modern technology to streamline the production process.

2.4.8 Safety Incidents

Safety incidents refer to any unplanned event that results in harm or injury to individuals or
damage to property. Organizations need to take safety incidents seriously and develop
strategies to prevent them from happening. According to Lamm et al., (2021), safety
incidents can have severe consequences for individuals and organizations, such as legal
liabilities, damage to reputation, and loss of revenue.

2.4.9 Insufficient Resources

The problem of insufficient resources leading to overtime is a widespread issue across

various industries (Zhang et al., 2019). A shortage of staff, equipment, or materials can force
employees to work longer hours to complete their tasks. This can lead to fatigue and burnout,
which may impact employee productivity and overall well-being. Additionally, overtime can
result in significant costs for organizations, such as increased labour expenses and turnover
(Zhang et al., 2019). To prevent these negative consequences, organizations must prioritize
proper planning and resource allocation to ensure that all tasks can be completed without

10
having to rely on overtime. This approach can help promote a healthier work-life balance and
increase employee satisfaction.

2.4.10 Heavy-Related Loads or Too Much Work

The negative impacts of heavy workloads and excessive job demands on individuals can be
significant, affecting their physical and mental health, job performance, and job satisfaction.
Such demands can lead to higher stress levels, which in turn can contribute to various health
problems (Schaufeli et al., 2018; Taris et al., 2017). Additionally, excessive work demands
can lead to burnout, reduced job satisfaction, employee turnover, and decreased
organizational performance (De Lange et al., 2020). It will then lead to overtime as
employees won’t get the strength to work efficiently.

2.5 IMPACT OF OVERTIME ON CONSTRUCTION WORKERS

The text highlights how overtime in construction projects affects workers' health and well-
being, leading to lower productivity, increased accidents, and reduced morale, although little
attention has been given to it. Consequently, it is crucial to examine the impact of overtime
on construction workers' health as the sector faces overtime-related challenges. The following
are some of the impacts of overtime on construction workers:

2.5.1 Increase in Physical Fatigue for Construction Workers

Working overtime in construction work can have negative impacts on workers' health, safety,
productivity, and work quality. Research shows that prolonged work hours can result in
physical fatigue, increased risk of accidents, and musculoskeletal disorders. Such negative
effects are often compounded by other organizational and social factors such as job
insecurity, lack of support, and poor communication. To prevent worker burnout and enhance
worker safety and productivity, construction companies should limit overtime hours and
provide adequate rest periods and support to workers (Eurofound, 2016; Seligman and Page,
2013; Shahnavaz, et al., 2013).

2.5.2 Reduced Focus and Attention among Construction Workers

11
Construction workers often work overtime to meet project deadlines, adversely affecting their
concentration and cognitive function due to extended hours. Inadequate rest impairs attention,
memory, and decision-making, increasing the risk of accidents (Talib et al., 2017). Overtime
correlates with reduced concentration, slower responses, and a higher likelihood of errors,
particularly problematic in a dynamic and hazardous construction environment (Li et al.,
2018). Studies show a significant link between overtime and fatigue, further diminishing
concentration and reaction capabilities (Rosa et al., 2016). Prolonged work hours lead to
decreased cognitive abilities, mood swings, and irritability, ultimately reducing productivity
and compromising workplace safety (Scott et al., 2008).

2.5.3 Decreased Job Commitment among Construction Workers

Overtime has become the norm in construction due to tight schedules, but it's linked to
decreased job commitment. Prolonged hours lead to work exhaustion, lower job satisfaction,
and reduced engagement, diminishing commitment (Goetzel et al., 2014; Bakker &
Demerouti, 2013). The work-life imbalance caused by excessive work hours further erodes
commitment, potentially leading to burnout (Porter & Standbridge, 2015). Additionally,
overtime creates high job demands, depleting job resources, as per the JD-R model (Bakker
& Demerouti, 2013), which can negatively impact commitment. Overall, consistent overtime
negatively affects job commitment among construction workers.

2.5.4 Long Hours Affect the Well-Being of Workers

Extended work hours can detrimentally affect both physical and mental health. Health risks
include cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, eating disorders, and sleep deprivation (Belkic
et al., 2004; Freedman & Stoddard, 2016). Overtime workers are also at a higher risk of
accidents and injuries (Burchell et al., 2014).

Long hours can contribute to work-related stress, depression, and anxiety disorders while
limiting leisure and family time can lead to social isolation and psychological distress
(Beckers & Kompier, 2015; Burchell et al., 2014). Moreover, extended work hours can strain
family life, causing emotional exhaustion, reduced family satisfaction, marital issues, and
poor family communication (Beckers & Kompier, 2015). In summary, excessive working
hours can have far-reaching consequences on physical health, mental well-being, and family
relationships.

12
2.5.5 High Blood Pressure in Construction Workers

According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (2017), high blood pressure is a
significant risk factor for heart disease and stroke, leading causes of death. Construction
workers, often engaged in physically demanding and stressful overtime work, face an
elevated risk of developing hypertension, as evidenced by a study by (Hébert et al., 2016).

Various factors contribute to hypertension in overtime construction workers. Work-related

stress, common during tight deadlines, triggers the release of stress hormones like adrenaline
and cortisol, elevating blood pressure and heart rate (Sembajwe et al., 2013). Overtime
labourers may adopt unhealthy lifestyles due to limited leisure time, poor diets, and lack of
physical activity, all risk factors for high blood pressure. Additionally, the frequent use of
medications like painkillers to manage work-related injuries can raise blood pressure when
used over extended periods (Adams et al., 2017).

2.5.6 Reduced Focus and Attention among Construction Workers

Overtime work, common in industries like construction, can lead to fatigue, stress, and
diminished focus, impacting workers' attention and safety (Mohamed & Al-Hussami, 2017).
Kogi et al. (2019) found that overtime reduced alertness, increasing accidents among
construction workers.

Extended hours can also lower cognitive function, diminishing problem-solving and
motivation (Hemmatjo et al., 2019). De La Hoz et al. (2013) supported this, showing that
overtime impairs focus and overall performance. In summary, overtime's adverse effects on
construction workers include reduced attention and focus, potentially compromising safety,
productivity, and accident rates at construction sites.

2.5.7 Affect the Quality of Work Performance

Extended overtime can significantly impact work performance. Prolonged hours can result in
fatigue, exhaustion, and burnout, leading to decreased productivity and increased errors (Woo et
al., 2017). Additionally, it can affect workers' mental and physical health, resulting in mental
health problems like depression and anxiety, which reduce concentration, motivation, and work
quality (Virtanen et al., 2018).

Furthermore, overtime can disrupt work-life balance, causing increased stress and decreased job
satisfaction. Regularly working long hours is associated with higher stress levels and lower job

13
satisfaction (Kossek et al., 2017). In summary, overtime can harm work performance by causing
fatigue, health issues, and work-life imbalance, ultimately reducing productivity and job
satisfaction. In conclusion, working overtime can have significant impacts on the quality of work
performance, affecting both physical and mental health, work-life balance, and job satisfaction.

2.5.8 Family-Related Conflicts

Individuals who work overtime often experience work-family conflict, leading to negative
outcomes such as job dissatisfaction, burnout, stress, and reduced productivity. This conflict
can arise due to missing important family events, lack of quality family time, and inability to
maintain a work-life balance (Sorkin et al., 2015). Moreover, family-related conflicts can also
impact physical health, as indicated in a study that found a higher risk of cardiovascular
diseases in individuals who worked long hours and reported work-family conflicts (Virtanen
et al., 2018). To mitigate the negative impacts of work-family conflict, companies should
prioritize work-life balance and family-friendly policies (Greenhaus et al., 2003).

2.5.9 Negative Impacts on Sleep Quality

Working overtime negatively impacts an individual's sleep quality, leading to health issues such
as insomnia, fatigue, and decreased productivity. Research indicates that individuals who work
over 55 hours per week experience poorer sleep quality than those who work standard hours.
Working long hours can cause increased stress, longer workdays, and reduced time for relaxation,
leading to disrupted sleep patterns (Barnes et al., 2014; Burgard et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2019). In
addition, working consecutive overtime shifts can lead to further sleep disruption. Employers
should prioritize their employees' well-being and consider offering resources such as stress
management support to help their employees manage their workload and improve their sleep
quality (Park et al., 2020).

2.6 WAYS TO HANDLE THE ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH OVERTIME ON

CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS.

The following are some of the ways to handle overtime issues on construction projects:

2.6.1 Using Performance Incentives and Bonuses for Timely Completion

Offering performance incentives and bonuses is a strategic approach to improving employee

productivity and managing overtime. Incentivizing employees to meet or exceed work goals
can lead to improved job performance and decreased absenteeism. Research has shown that

14
performance incentives can motivate employees to work harder and more efficiently,
ultimately reducing the need for overtime (Diedericks & Fourie, 2015). Financial incentives
have also been found to encourage employees to work longer hours, helping to address
overtime needs and avoid additional staffing costs (Pollard & Heneman, 2010). Incentives
can include financial rewards, additional time off, or other benefits that align with employees'
needs and preferences. Employers can adopt incentive programs to motivate employees,
manage overtime, and improve overall productivity.

2.6.2 Implementing Flexible Work Arrangements and Shift

Flexible work arrangements and shifts are promising strategies to manage overtime while
also ensuring employee well-being and satisfaction. Providing options like telecommuting,
compressed work weeks, and job sharing can improve work-life balance and reduce the need
for overtime. As noted by previous studies, flexible work arrangements can significantly
reduce overtime work (Zhang et al., 2020). Furthermore, scheduling different shifts,
including evening and weekend shifts, can help organizations meet staffing needs, minimize
overtime, and avoid burnout or fatigue from excessive overtime work (Grawitch et al., 2010).
By adopting flexible work arrangements and scheduling strategies, organizations can improve
workplace flexibility, enhance job satisfaction, and ultimately increase productivity and
performance.

2.6.3 Clear Communication and Coordination Among Project Stakeholders

Clear communication and coordination among project stakeholders are pivotal in managing
overtime effectively. They help in identifying bottlenecks, allocating resources proactively
(Hatzonis & Daskalakis, 2020), and setting realistic timelines, reducing the need for overtime
due to unexpected changes (Turner, 2014). Additionally, effective communication prevents
redundant work and ensures task dependencies are understood, cutting down delays and
overtime (Hegarty & Byrne, 2017). In summary, by facilitating proactive planning, setting
expectations, and improving efficiency, robust communication and coordination are crucial
for minimizing overtime and achieving successful project outcomes.

2.6.4 Using Advanced Construction Technology and Automation

Utilizing advanced construction technology and automation, including Building Information

Modeling (BIM), 3D printing, drones, and robotics, can revolutionize construction

15
productivity and mitigate overtime challenges. These technologies streamline processes,
reduce costs, enhance precision, and foster better collaboration (Cheng et al., 2020).
Additionally, automation decreases reliance on manual labor, cutting overtime costs
(Tzortzopoulos et al., 2019). Moreover, automation enhances safety by tackling hazardous
tasks typically associated with overtime-related accidents (Habibi et al., 2019). In summary,
advanced tech and automation optimize workflows, minimize overtime, and elevate safety,
aiding construction professionals in efficient project delivery.

2.6.5 Implementing Effective Project Planning and Scheduling

Implementing effective project planning and scheduling can greatly enhance the management
of overtime in a project. According to Kerzner (2017), project planning is the process of
defining project objectives, tasks, timelines, and resources required to achieve the project
goals, while scheduling is the process of determining the timeline for each task and resource
allocation. Effective project planning and scheduling can help in the following ways:

 Optimizing resource allocation: By planning and scheduling tasks, it becomes easier

to see when resources are over-allocated, and steps can be taken to optimize the allocation to
avoid burn-out and overtime (Kerzner, 2017). It helps identify bottlenecks and allows for
resource reallocation to minimize overloading.

 Minimizing re-work and delays: Setting realistic deadlines and schedules, reduces
the likelihood of delays that lead to overtime work. Proper planning and scheduling help
identify dependencies and critical tasks in a project, so issues are dealt with in time, and
overtime is reduced (Kerzner, 2017).

 Ensuring project quality: Effective project planning and scheduling also help ensure
project quality. By allocating enough time for each task, helps to prevent the need for
rushing through the tasks, which can result in errors or re-work that typically leads to
overtime (Meredith & Mantel, 2018).

In conclusion, implementing effective project planning and scheduling can help manage
overtime in a project, enhancing performance, and avoiding burn-out. It ensures that the

16
project is delivered on time and within budget while ensuring quality and minimizing
overtime.

2.6.6 Take Regular Breaks to Recharge and Prevent Burnout

Regular breaks are crucial to prevent burnout and handle overtime tasks. Burnout is common
due to prolonged working hours, stress, and overload, leading to reduced productivity and
exhaustion. Studies show that taking short and frequent breaks can improve work
performance and increase satisfaction while decreasing stress levels (Gino & Staats, 2015;
Krampe & Ericsson, 2000). This approach helps to replenish energy levels, increase focus,
reduce physical and mental strain, and improve mental clarity and alertness. Thus, regular
breaks can reduce burnout risks and enhance job performance despite working overtime.

2.6.7 Providing Comprehensive Training and Skills

To improve the ability of employees to handle overtime effectively, it is essential to provide

them with comprehensive training and skills development. Such training can boost
employees' confidence and competency, enabling them to handle their responsibilities more
efficiently and manage their time more effectively. Studies show that training and skills
development significantly enhance employee performance and productivity while improving
time management and multitasking skills (Chen and Huang, 2017; Liu et al., 2019).
Moreover, training and development opportunities can increase employee motivation,
commitment, and job satisfaction (Chen and Chang, 2018). Overall, comprehensive training
and skills development are critical for improving employees' ability to handle overtime
effectively and benefiting both the employees and the organization.

2.6.8 Set Clear Goals and Objectives for Construction Workers

To enhance or manage overtime for construction workers, setting clear goals and objectives is
crucial. Firstly, clear goals and objectives help workers understand how to complete their
work more effectively and efficiently, reducing the need for overtime (Sobolev et al., 2019).
Secondly, goals and objectives enable workers to prioritize tasks, preventing unnecessary
delays that may lead to overtime (Gibson et al., 2010). Thirdly, goals and objectives help
workers to anticipate and mitigate potential challenges, reducing the need for overtime
(Ergen et al., 2013). Finally, clear goals and objectives provide workers with a sense of
direction and scope, simplifying workload management and reducing the need for overtime

17
(Li et al., 2018). Overall, setting clear goals and objectives is essential for improving
construction workers' ability to handle or enhance overtime effectively.

2.6.9 Conduct Regular Monitoring and Tracking of Project Progress

Regular monitoring and tracking of project progress is crucial in managing overtime and
enhancing project success. Tracking progress helps identify potential issues and risks,
enabling the project team to take appropriate measures to rectify such situations (Kerzner,
2017). Additionally, incorporating progress tracking allows the identification of areas that
can be improved, leading to solutions that prevent overwork and overtime (Vanhoucke,
2012). Tracking progress also aids in making necessary adjustments to the project to avoid
overtime and stay within the allocated time frame (Cleland et al., 2007). In summary,
monitoring and tracking progress is critical in handling or enhancing the success of a project,
especially when dealing with overtime situations.

18
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes various methods used in this study and the reasons for choosing such
methods. Kothari (2002) noted that methodology is the various steps that are generally
adopted by the researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them.
This chapter outlines the study design, judging the quality of the research, study population,
research, sampling procedure, and the data collection instruments that will be used in this
study. It also describes how data was analyzed and the study area.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting observations (Nachmias & Nachmias, 1993). In other words, Yin
(2003), considers it as an action plan for getting from here to there. Where here, is regarded
as the initial set of questions to be answered, and there, is some set of conclusions about the
questions. It was identified by Naoum (1998) that there are three main strategies in research
design, these are; Qualitative, quantitative, and triangulation. (Naoum and Coles 1997) also
added that the decision to go in for any of the above strategies depends on the purpose of the
study, the availability, and the type of research.
This research uses a purely quantitative research methodology. The following definition,
taken from Aliaga and Gunderson (2000), describes what we mean by quantitative research
methods very well: Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical
data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods (in particular statistics)’. The
choice of quantitative research is based on the fact that all the variables in this research can
be quantified numerically, and dominant factors, majority cases, and general overview can all
be expressed in terms of numbers.

3.3 POPULATION

Anderson (1995) described the population as the universe or group of people of interest. The
group of people from whom information was required for research, refers to a complete set of

19
individuals, objects, or instruments having the same or common. Observable characteristics
include construction workers.

3.4 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

A sample is a chosen subset usually representative of a wider population (Lopez and

Whitehead, 2013). According to Arikunto (2006), a sample is a part or representative of the
total population studied. The researcher used sample size to save time and resources because
analyzing the entire population will be difficult so the researcher applied sampling techniques
to deduce a sample for the study (Taherdoost, 2016).

In this study, the researcher used a technique called snowball sampling. Snowball sampling is
when the researcher starts with one person and asks them to suggest other people to include
in the study. It is like when you ask a friend to introduce you to their friends. This method is
handy for finding people who might be hard to reach or aren't usually included in surveys
(Creswell, 2012; Johnson, 2014).

3.5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD

A questionnaire is an appraisal instruction in the written form comprising several items and
administered to several people to collect data for a survey or guidance purposes. It is also a
printed form usually containing a set of close-ended statements or questions with response
alternatives for completion (Scott 2007).
Data was collected through the use of questionnaires and Likert scales, which allowed
individuals to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a statement on a scale of
1 to 5 where, (1 represents strongly disagree, 2 represents disagree, 3 represents neutral, 4
represents agree, and 5 represents strongly agree). The questionnaires consisted of five
sections, with the first section gathering information about the respondent's background and
experiences. The second section assessed their knowledge on overtime, while the third
section focused on the factors that contribute to overtime. The fourth section addressed the
impact of overtime on construction workers, and the final section discussed ways to handle
issues associated with overtime on construction projects.

3.6 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The researcher constructed a questionnaire to collect data from respondents.

3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

20
A researcher Pandey (2015) stated that data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of
both the qualitative and quantitative types, its usual tendency in behavioral research is that
much use of quantitative analysis is made and statistical methods and techniques are
employed. The research used percentages and comparative figures to analyze the data
collected. Both statistical and descriptive analysis were applied in analyzing the primary and
secondary data collected statistical technique used was a table to aid a quick visual display of
results and ensure a better understanding to draw an easier conclusion from the data
presented.
Abdal-Hadi (2010) explained that the Relative Importance Index (RII) method has been
commonly utilized by various researchers in the construction industry to assess attitudes
toward surveyed factors. This researcher used this method to rank the various questions
given.

∑W 5 ns +4 ns+3 ns +2 ns+1 ns
RII= =
A XN 5N

W = weight given to every factor by the respondent.

A = The highest obtained weight
N = is the total number of respondents

21
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the data and further discusses the result. It was done to the questions
asked. The data was processed using Microsoft Excel and RII. Every data used in this
analysis was first-hand information collected from the sample of interest. This chapter is
divided into three parts based on the objectives of the study. The first part discussed the
current demographic characteristics of the respondents, the second part discussed the analysis
of the factors that contribute to overtime during construction project execution, and the third
part looked at ways issues surrounding overtime can be effectively handled.
Using a snowball sample, a total of ninety- five (95) construction workers responded to the
questionnaires.

4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

Demographic characteristics of respondents took into account the gender of respondents,

level of education, years of experience in construction work, and their current profession in
the industry. This was done to get a general idea of the background of survey respondents.

4.2.1 Gender

The gender of the participants was investigated. As depicted in Figure 4.1, out of the
respondents, 60 were identified as males, making up 63% of the total, while the remaining
participants were females, constituting 37%. This observation is noteworthy considering the
contemporary trend where women are increasingly engaged in activities traditionally tagged
as a preserve for men. The study's revelation of a higher number of male participants implies
that men currently dominate the profession and surpass women in construction-related
endeavours.

22
 37%

63%

Figure 4.1 Respondents gender

MALE FEMALE 4.2.2 Educational Level

The participants' educational attainment was also examined. This information is visualized in
Figure 4.2. Out of the total respondents, forty (40) individuals, accounting for 42%, held
Bachelor's Degrees, twenty (20) respondents, making up 21%, possessed Higher National
Diplomas, fifteen (15) participants, representing 16%, carried Technician certificates, ten (10)
respondents, constituting 10%, were PhD holders. while ten (10) respondents, accounting for
11% hold professional qualifications. Their substantial educational background equips them
to offer knowledgeable and precise insights regarding construction matters at construction
sites.

Technician
certificate
HND 16%
21%

Professional
qualification
11%

PhD Bachelor
11% 42%

Figure 4.2 Respondents educational background

23
4.2.3 Number of Years of Work Experience

Based on the data presented in Table 4.1. Fifty (50) respondents, corresponding to 53%, had
accrued one 1-10 years’ experience. Following this, twenty (20) individuals, making up 21%,
had less than a year of work experience. Fifteen (15) respondents, constituting 16%, had
between eleven 11-20 years of experience in construction work. Merely ten (10) participants,
representing 10%, held more than twenty-one (21) years of experience in construction tasks.
This finding underscores the fact that a majority of the respondents are well-versed in
construction activities, thereby implying that challenges in the field of construction may not
be new to them. This outcome aligns with the adage that experience is an excellent teacher.
Leveraging their proficiencies, knowledge, and extensive experience in construction, they are
likely to provide valuable insights for the study and be better equipped to address the issue of
overtime in Ghana's construction industry.

Table 4.1 Respondents working experience

No. Working experience Frequency Percentage (%)

1 Less than a year 20 21
2 1-10 years 50 53
3 11-20 years 15 16
4 Twenty years and above 10 10
TOTAL 95 100
Source: field survey, 2023

4.2.4 Current Job Position in The Industry

Table 4.2 shows the respondents' working role in the industry. Precisely thirty-four (34)
respondents, corresponding to 36%, were construction labourers. Following this, thirty-three
(33) respondents, making up 35%, were supervisors or foremen. Seventeen (17) respondents,
constituting 17%, were project managers. Merely eleven (11) participants, representing 11%,
were construction engineers. The respondent's role in discussions about overtime can
influence the direction, emphasis, and outcomes of the conversation, reflecting their unique
perspectives, interests, and responsibilities within the context of employment and labour
relations and they were in a good position to talk about overtime.

Table 4.2 Respondents current position

No. Working experience Frequency Percentage (%)

1 Engineer 11 11

24
 2 Labour 34 36
3 Supervisor or Foreman 33 35
4 Project manager 17 18
TOTAL 95 100
Source: field survey, 2023

4.3 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO OVERTIME ON CONSTRUCTION PROJECT

EXECUTION

This section presents the analyzed data on the factors that contribute to overtime during
project execution. The results were analyzed based on the scale and the relative important
index as presented in table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 Factors that contribute to overtime.

ITEMS STATEMENT SA A N DA SD RII

FACTORS
NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. % NO % NO.
.

Poor time management 92 96.8% 3 3.2% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0.993

Weather-related factors 90 94.7% 5 5.3% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0.989

Design errors or 80 84.2% 15 15.8% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0.968

discrepancies
Heavy related load 74 77.9% 15 15.8% 6 6.3% 0 0% 0 0% 0.943

Poor project planning and 70 73.7% 15 15.9% 8 8.4% 2 2.1% 0 0% 0.922

scheduling
Delays in material delivery 60 63.2% 24 25.3% 9 9.5% 2 2.1% 0 0% 0.899

Equipment breakdowns or 10 10.5% 82 86.3% 3 3.2% 0 0% 0 0% 0.814

maintenance issues
Frequent changes to project 40 42.1% 20 21.1% 30 31.6% 5 5.3% 0 0% 0.800

scope (variations)
Ineffective communication 25 26.3% 50 52.6% 12 12.6% 2 2.1% 6 6.3% 0.781

between project stakeholders

Shortage of staff / Worker 50 52.6% 20 21.1% 10 10.5% 5 5.3% 0 0% 0.779

Frequent inspections 20 21.1% 30 31.6% 30 31.6% 19 20% 6 6.3% 0.745

TOTAL 611 58.4% 278 26.6% 108 10.3% 35 3.4% 12 1.2%

25
On the result of the respondents on the factors that contribute to overtime during construction
project execution, 611 out of 1045 responses, representing 58.3% strongly agreed, 278
responses representing 26.8% agreed, 108 responses representing 10.3% were neutral, 35
responses representing 3.4% disagreed and 12 responses representing 1.2% strongly
disagreed.

4.3.1 Discussion on The Factors That Contribute to Overtime

This section elaborates on the top-ranked factors that contribute to overtime when executing
construction projects.

4.3.2 Poor Time Management

From Table 4.3, 96.8% of the responses agreed strongly that poor time management results in
overtime while 3.2% of the responses indicated agreed. None of the responses opined for
neutral, disagreed, and strongly disagreed that poor time management results in working
overtime during construction project execution. According to Kamara et al., (2002), it was
inferred that the reason behind overtime during construction project execution could be
linked to poor time management as 96.8% of the respondents strongly agreed with this
notion. Moreover, poor time management was identified as the most important factor with an
RII value of 0.993.

4.3.3 Weather-Related Factors

More so, the table revealed that weather-related factors are the second majority factor that
contributes to overtime during construction project execution, 94.7% of the responses agreed
strongly while 5.3% responses indicated agreed. None of the responses opted for neutral,
disagreed, or strongly disagreed. The country's tropical climate is characterized by distinct
wet and dry seasons, which can impact construction activities. According to Ameyaw et al.,
(2018), the unpredictable weather conditions in Ghana, especially heavy rainfall, cause delays
in construction project execution, leading to overtime. The study found that the majority of
the respondents strongly agreed that weather-related factors contribute to overtime during
construction projects.

4.3.4 Design Errors or Discrepancies

26
Design errors or discrepancies were the third identified contributory factor that leads
overtime as 84.2% of responses agreed strongly, while 15.8% of the responses indicated
agreed. No respondent indicated or ticked neutral, disagreed, or strongly disagreed. Design
errors or discrepancies in construction can result in overtime due to rework, material wastage,
extended project timelines, coordination efforts, risk mitigation, client expectations, and
quality assurance measures (Chan et al., 2019).

4.3.5 Heavy Related Load or Too Much Work

Heavy related loads or too much work was among the five leading contributory factors that
led to overtime. The result shows that 77.9% of the responses agreed strongly, 15.8% of the
responses ticked agreed and 6.3% of the responses ticked neutral. Too much work can cause
overtime when there is an excessive workload that cannot be completed within regular
working hours, necessitating additional hours to meet deadlines or address increased demand
(Landsbergis et al., 2014).

4.3.6 Poor Project Planning and Scheduling

From Table 4.3, 73.7% of the responses agreed strongly with the assertion that poor project
planning and scheduling contribute to overtime during construction project execution,
Furthermore, 15.9% of the responses agreed while 8.4% indicated neutral, 2.1% of the
responses disagreed with this while none of the responses indicated strongly disagreed. Poor
project planning can lead to overtime by failing to allocate adequate time for tasks,
underestimating resource requirements, and encountering unforeseen issues, forcing workers
to extend their hours to compensate for delays and meet project objectives (Al-Ghafri et al.,
2017).

4.3.7 Delays in Material Delivery

Delays in materials delivery were identified as one of the contributory factors that lead to
overtime during construction project execution as 63.2% of responses agreed strongly, while
25.3% of the responses indicated agreed. Furthermore, 9.5% of the responses indicated
neutral. No respondent disagreed or strongly disagreed. Delays in material delivery can cause
overtime by impeding the timely availability of essential supplies, forcing workers to work
extra hours to catch up and maintain the project's pace (Rahimi et al., 2017).

27
4.3.8 Equipment Breakdowns or Maintenance Issues

From Table 4.3, 10.5% of the responses agreed strongly that equipment breakdown or
maintenance issues contribute to overtime during construction project execution. 86.3% of
the responses agreed and 3.2% ticked neutral. Equipment breakdowns or maintenance issues
can cause overtime by interrupting the workflow, requiring immediate repairs or
replacements, and leading to extended working hours to compensate for the lost time and
ensure the project remains on schedule (Cheng et al., 2016).

4.3.9 Frequent Changes to Project Scope (Variations)

From Table 4.3, 42.1% of the responses agreed strongly with the assertion that frequent
changes to project scope (variation) cause overtime during construction project execution.
21.1% of the responses agreed while 31.6% indicated neutral. 5.3% of the responses
disagreed with this while none of the responses indicated strongly disagreed. Frequent
changes to project scope can cause overtime by disrupting the original work plan,
necessitating adjustments, and potentially leading to additional work hours required to
accommodate these alterations and maintain project progress (Zhang et al., 2018).

4.3.10 Discussion

The data analysis involved a discussion of the top eight factors ranked by their relative
importance index (RII) in Table 4.3. Leading the list was poor time management with the
highest RII value of 0.993, followed by weather-related factors in second place with an RII
value of 0.989, and design errors or discrepancies ranked third with an RII value of 0.968.
The remaining factors in descending order of RII were heavy related loads RII value of
0.943, poor project planning and scheduling RII value of 0.922, delays in materials RII value
of 0.899, equipment breakdowns or maintenance issues RII value of 0.814, and frequent
changes to project scope RII value 0.800.

4.4 IMPACT OF OVERTIME ON CONSTRUCTION WORKERS

This section of the study reveals responses on the impact of overtime. Table 4.4, presents the
analyzed data which is followed by the discussion.

28
Table 4.4 Impact of overtime on construction workers.

ITEMS STATEMENT SA A N DA SD RII

IMPACTS
NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. % NO.

Increase accident 77 81.1% 15 15.9% 3 3.2% 0 0% 0 0% 0.956

occurrence on-site
Increased absenteeism 74 77.9% 20 21.1% 1 1.1% 0 0% 0 0% 0.954
among construction
workers
Affect the quality of work 68 71.6% 24 25.3% 3 3.2% 0 0% 0 0% 0.937

performance
Increased physical fatigue 70 73.7% 14 14.7% 10 10.5% 1 1.1% 0 0% 0.922

for construction workers

Reduced focus and 50 52.6% 39 41.1% 4 4.2% 0 0% 2 2.1% 0.884
attention among construction
workers
Lead to decreased 54 56.8% 21 22.1% 15 15.8% 5 5.3% 0 0% 0.861
productivity in construction
workers
High blood pressure in 30 31.6% 60 63.2% 4 4.2% 1 1.1% 0 0% 0.851

construction workers
Decreased job 40 42.1% 40 42.1% 10 10.5% 2 2.1% 3 3.2% 0.836
commitment among
construction workers
Sleep disorder in 26 27.4% 59 62.1% 10 10.5% 0 0% 0 0% 0.834

construction workers
Increased physical fatigue 35 36.8% 40 42.1% 19 20% 1 1.1% 0 0% 0.829

for construction workers

Long hours affect the 5 5.3% 90 95.7% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0.810

well-being of workers
TOTAL 529 50.6% 422 40.4% 79 7.6% 10 1.0% 5 0.4%

Regarding the outcomes from the respondents concerning the impact of overtime on
construction workers, a total of 529 out of 1045 responses, equivalent to 50.6%, agreed

29
strongly to the impacts outlined. Additionally, 422 of the responses, constituting 40.4%,
agreed to the impacts outline. Furthermore, 79 of the responses indicating 7.6%, stayed
neutral on the impacts. In contrast, 1.0% of the responses disagreed whiles, and 0.4%, of the
responses strongly disagreed with the impacts outlined.

4.4.1 Discussion on The Impacts of Overtime

This section elaborates on the top eight ranked impacts of overtime.

4.4.2 Increase Accident Occurrence On-Site

A vast majority of respondents, accounting for 81.1%, agreed strongly that working overtime
increases accident occurrence on-site. Additionally, 15.9% of the responses indicated agreed,
while 3.2% of the responses ticked neutral. No respondents ticked disagreed or strongly
disagreed. Overtime can increase accidents on a construction site by causing worker fatigue,
reduced alertness, and increased stress, which can impair safety awareness and lead to a
higher risk of workplace incidents (Dong et al., 2017).

4.4.3 Increased Absenteeism Among Construction Workers

From Table 4.4, 77.9% of the responses strongly agreed that overtime increases absenteeism
among construction workers, 21.1% of the responses agreed and 1.1% of the responses ticked
neutral. None respondents ticked disagreed or strongly disagreed. Overtime can increase
absenteeism among construction workers by leading to burnout, fatigue, and stress, which
may result in workers taking more sick days or time off to recover from extended work hours
(Khan et al., 2020).

4.4.4 Affect the Quality of Work Performance

Working overtime affects the quality of work performance as Table 4.4 indicated that 71.6%
of the responses agreed strongly on this impact. 25.3% of the responses opted for agreed,
while 3.2% of the responses ticked neutral. Overtime can negatively affect the quality of
work performance by leading to fatigue and reduced concentration, potentially resulting in
errors and decreased productivity (Liu, 2017).

4.4.5 Increased Physical Fatigue for Construction Workers

30
From Table 4.4, 73.7% of the responses agreed strongly that overtime is a third leading factor
in causing increased physical fatigue among construction workers. Furthermore, 14.7% of the
responses agreed with this view. A smaller proportion, equivalent to 10.5% of the responses
maintained a neutral position on this issue. Notably, only 1.1% disagreed with the idea that
overtime contributes to increased physical fatigue among construction workers. Overtime
increases physical fatigue for construction workers by extending their working hours beyond
a typical shift, leading to exhaustion and reduced physical capacity, which can compromise
safety and job performance (Zineldin & Kapoor, 2017).

4.4.6 Reduce Focus and Attention Among Construction Workers

However, 52.6% of the responses agreed strongly that overtime reduces focus and attention
among construction workers. 41.1% of the responses ticked agreed, 4.2% of the responses
indicated neutral while 2.1% of the responses opted for strongly disagreed. No respondent
selected disagree. Overtime reduces focus and attention among construction workers by
causing mental fatigue and decreased concentration, which can lead to mistakes and safety
hazards on the job site (Karasick & Adkins, 2019).

4.4.7 Lead to Decreased Productivity in Construction Workers

To keep the ball rolling, 56.8% of the responses agreed strongly with the assertion that overtime
leads to decreased productivity in construction workers. 22.1% of the responses agreed, 15.8% of
responses ticked neutral while 5.3% of the responses indicated disagreed. None of the responses
indicated strongly disagreed. Overtime leads to decreased productivity in construction workers
due to burnout, reduced energy, and diminishing motivation, resulting in slower work progress
and lower efficiency (Choobineh et al., 2013).

4.4.8 High Blood Pressure in Construction Workers

High blood pressure in construction workers was among the top eight impacts of overtime. 31.6%
of the responses agreed strongly, 63.2% to responses agreed, while 4.2% of the responses
indicated neutral. Finally, 1.1% of the responses ticked disagreed but none of the responses
indicated strongly disagreed. Overtime can contribute to high blood pressure in construction
workers due to prolonged stress, inadequate rest, and the physical demands of the job, which can
increase the risk of hypertension (Kivimäki et al., 2015).

31
4.4.9 Decreased Job Commitment Among Construction Workers

Lastly, 42.1% of the responses agreed strongly, and 42.1% of the responses agreed that overtime
decreases job commitment among construction workers. 10.5% of the responses disagreed while
3.2% of the responses opined strongly disagreed. Overtime can decrease job commitment among
construction workers by causing work-life imbalance, leading to feelings of dissatisfaction and
reduced dedication to the job and the organization (Boateng et al., 2020).

4.4.10 Discussion

The data analysis involved a discussion of the top eight impacts ranked by their relative
importance index (RII) in Table 4.4. Topping the list was an increased occurrence of
accidents on the construction site with the highest RII value of 0.956, followed by increased
absenteeism among construction workers ranking second with an RII value of 0.954. In third
place, there was an impact on the quality of work performance with an RII value of 0.937,
and in fourth place, there was an increase in physical fatigue for construction workers with an
RII value of 0.922. The remaining impacts, in descending order of RII, included a reduction
in focus and attention among construction workers RII value of 0.884, decreased productivity
in construction workers with an RII value of 0.861, the development of high blood pressure
in construction workers with an RII value of 0.851, and decreased job commitment among
construction workers RII value 0.836.

4.5 WAYS TO HANDLE OVERTIME AND ITS RELATED ISSUES DURING

CONSTRUCTION PROJECT EXECUTION.

This section of the study reveals responses on ways to handle overtime and its related issues
during construction project execution. Table 4.5, presents the analyzed data which is
followed by the discussion.
Table 4.5 Ways to handle overtime and its related issues.

ITEMS STATEMENT SA A N DA SD RII

MEASURES

32
 NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. % NO % NO.

Using advanced construction 60 63.2% 22 23.2% 10 10.5% 3 3.2% 0 0% 0.893

technology and automation

Take regular breaks to 50 52.6% 29 30.5% 15 15.8% 1 1.1% 0 0% 0.870

recharge and prevent burnout

Using performance incentives 24 25.3% 70 73.7% 1 1.1% 2 2.1% 0 0% 0.857
and bonuses for timely
completion
Implementing flexible work 30 31.6% 60 63.2% 3 3.2% 2 2.1% 0 0% 0.848

arrangements and shift

Implementing effective 50 52.6% 26 27.4% 12 12.6% 5 5.2% 2 2.1% 0.846
project planning and
scheduling
20
Set clear goals and objectives for 21.1% 70 73.7% 5 5.2% 0 0% 0 0% 0.832

construction workers
Providing comprehensive 12 12.6% 80 84.2% 3 3.2% 0 0% 0 0% 0.819

training and skills

Clear communication and 10 10.5% 69 72.6% 10 10.5% 6 6.3% 0 0% 0.775
coordination among project
stakeholders
Adequate project 10 10.5% 50 52.6% 20 21.1% 10 10.5% 5 5.2% 0.705

Documentation
TOTAL 266 31.1% 476 55.7% 79 9.2% 29 3.2% 7 0.8%

The results of the responses on ways to handle overtime issues during construction project
execution were analyzed. Out of 857 responses, 226 representing 31.1% strongly agreed with
the responses, 476 representing 55.7% agreed, 79 of the responses representing 9.2% were
neutral, 29 of the responses representing 3.2% disagreed while 7 of the responses 0.8%
disagreed strongly to the measures outlined for handling issues related to overtime during
construction project execution.

4.5.1 Discussion on Ways to Handle Overtime and its Related Issues

This section pertains the eight to ways to handle overtime and its related issues during
construction project execution.

33
4.5.2 Using Advanced Construction Technology and Automation

Table 4.5 shows that using advanced construction technology and automation is one of the
strongest ways to handle overtime issues during construction project execution. It was
indicated that 63.2% of the responses agreed strongly, 23.2% of the responses agreed, and
10.5% of the responses ticked neutral on the table, while 3.2% of the responses disagreed. No
respondent voted strongly disagreed. Handling overtime using advanced construction
technology and automation involves optimizing workflow efficiency, reducing manual labour
requirements, and enhancing project management processes to minimize the need for
extended work hours (Kim et al., 2018).

4.5.3 Take Regular Breaks to Recharge and Prevent Burnout

Taking regular break recharge and preventing burnout was the second favourite way to
handle overtime issues during project execution from Table 4.5. 52.6% of the responses
agreed strongly, 30.5% of the responses agreed, and 15.8% of the responses ticked neutral,
while 1.1% of the responses disagreed from the analysis table. Handling overtime involves
taking regular breaks to recharge and prevent burnout, ensuring workers remain physically
and mentally refreshed for sustained productivity and safety (Gino & Staats, 2015).

4.5.4 Using Performance Incentives and Bonuses for Timely Completion

Table 4.5 indicates that 25.3% of the responses agreed strongly with the assertion, 73.7% of
the responses agreed, 1.1% selected neutral, and 2.1% asserted disagreed. To manage
overtime effectively, one can implement performance-based incentives and bonuses that
encourage and reward construction workers for achieving project milestones (Diedericks &
Fourie, 2015).

4.5.5 Implementing Flexible Work Arrangements and Shift

From Table 4.5, 31.6% of the responses agreed strongly that implementing flexible work
arrangements and shifts will handle overtime issues during construction project execution
while 63.2% of the responses agreed, 3.2% voted for neutral and 2.1% disagreed. None
34
responses opined or strongly disagreed. To address overtime, one can implement flexible
work arrangements and shifts, allowing for better workload distribution and reducing the
need for extended working hours (Raghavendran et al., 2012).

4.5.6 Implementing Effective Project Planning and Scheduling

Nonetheless, the data extracted from the participants indicated that 52.6%, firmly endorsed
the idea that the implementation of effective project planning and scheduling contributes to
the effectiveness and advancement of overtime during the execution of construction projects.
Additionally, 27.4% of the responses agreed, while 12.6% of the responses held a neutral
stance. In contrast, a small number of responses accounting for 2.1%, strongly disagreed with
this notion. Managing overtime involves implementing effective project planning and
scheduling, ensuring that tasks are well-organized, resources are allocated efficiently, and
workloads are balanced to minimize the need for extended hours (Alinaitwe et al., 2014)

4.5.7 Set Clear Goals and Objectives for Construction Workers

The data extracted from the participants indicated that 21.1% of the responses agreed strongly
with the idea that setting clear goals and objectives for construction workers is another way to
handle overtime. Additionally, 73.7% of the responses agreed, while 5.2% of the responses
held a neutral stance. Handling overtime involves setting clear goals and objectives for
construction workers to provide them with a structured framework for their tasks, ensuring
efficiency and focus on project priorities (Chen et al., 2017).

4.5.8 Providing Comprehensive Training and Skills

Providing comprehensive training and skills is another way to handle overtime during project
execution. From Table 4.5, 12.6% of the responses agreed strongly, 84.2% of the responses
agreed, and 3.2% of the responses ticked neutral. To manage overtime effectively, providing
comprehensive training and skills development to construction workers is crucial for
improving their efficiency and competence in performing tasks within regular working hours
(Chen and Huang, 2017).

4.5.9 Clear Communication and Coordination among Project Stakeholders

35
Table 4.5, indicates that 10.5% of the responses agreed strongly that clear communication
and coordination among project stakeholders are one of the ways to handle overtime
activities during project execution. 72.6% of the responses agreed, 10.5% of the responses
ticked neutral, while 6.3% of the responses disagreed from the analysis table. Managing
overtime requires clear communication and coordination among project stakeholders to
streamline work processes, prevent misunderstandings, and ensure efficient resource
allocation and scheduling (Hegarty & Byrne, 2017).

4.5.10 Discussion

The data analysis involved a discussion of the top eight measures ranked by their relative
importance index (RII) in Table 4.5. Ranked first was the use of advanced construction
technology and automation with an RII of 0.893, followed by the practice of taking regular
breaks to recharge and prevent burnout, which was ranked second with an RII of 0.870.
Ranked third was the application of performance incentives and bonuses for timely
completion with an RII of 0.857, while the fourth position was secured by implementing
flexible work arrangements and shifts with an RII of 0.848. In fifth place, there was the
implementation of effective project planning and scheduling with an RII of 0.846, and in
sixth place, there was the practice of setting clear goals and objectives for construction
workers with an RII of 0.832. Ranked seventh was providing comprehensive training and
skills with an RII of 0.819, and finally, in the eighth position, there was clear communication
and coordination among project stakeholders with an RII of 0.775.

36
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the study's findings and recommendations, aiming to address the
insights drawn from the comprehensive analysis in line with the study's objectives. These
objectives encompassed investigating the factors influencing overtime, evaluating its effects
on construction workers, and identifying ways to handle the uses associated with overtime on
construction projects.

5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

This project aims to investigate the impact of overtime on construction workers during
project execution and to identify ways to handle the issues associated with overtime. In the
study, we examined the gender distribution of our respondents, with 60 individuals identified
as males, constituting 62.2% of the total sample, while the remaining respondents were
females. The research investigates the three primary objectives: understanding the factors
contributing to overtime during construction projects, assessing the impact of overtime on
construction workers, and identifying effective ways to handle issues associated with
overtime on construction projects. To achieve these objectives, participants were asked to
express their agreement with a series of questions related to each objective. We then analyzed
and ranked the top eight questions for each objective based on their relative importance index
values (RII). This analysis allowed us to identify the most significant factors contributing to
overtime, the impact it has on construction workers, and the preferred methods for handling
issues associated with overtime on construction projects.

5.3 CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, this comprehensive study has illuminated the factors that contribute to
overtime in the construction industry. It identified factors like poor time management,
weather-related factors, design errors or discrepancies, heavy related load or too much work,
poor project planning and scheduling, delays in materials delivery, equipment breakdown or
maintenance issues, and frequent changes to project scope as key drivers of overtime. These
factors collectively create a complex challenge, necessitating a thoughtful approach to
managing overtime effectively.
37
The study also highlighted the adverse impacts of overtime on construction workers which,
include increasing accidents occurrence on site, increased absenteeism among construction
workers, affected quality of work performance, increased physical fatigue, and reduced focus
and attention, leading to decreased productivity in construction workers, high blood pressure
in construction workers, and decrease job commitment among construction workers. This
underscores the importance of addressing worker well-being and safety concerns.
Furthermore, the study provided ways to handle issues associated with overtime during
construction project execution. These strategies include using advanced construction
technology and automation, taking regular breaks and recharging burnout, using performance
incentives and bonuses for timely completion, implementing flexible work arrangements and
shifts, implementing effective project planning and scheduling, setting clear goals and
objectives for construction workers, providing comprehensive training and skills, clear
communication and coordination among project stakeholders.
In essence, this research emphasizes the need for a balanced approach to overtime
management in the construction sector. By understanding the contributing factors,
acknowledging the impacts on workers, and implementing the recommended strategies, it is
possible to create a healthier work environment for construction workers and simultaneously
enhance project efficiency and quality. The insights and recommendations presented in this
study provide a valuable foundation for further research and practical application in the field
of construction industry overtime management.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations will support a step-by-step process for improving the
regulation and effectiveness of overtime, ultimately leading to improved worker health and
well-being.
They include the following:

 Strategic Project Planning

Construction companies should improve project planning by conducting thorough feasibility

assessments of project timelines and milestones. This should include careful consideration of
potential delays and challenges. Ensure that project schedules are realistic and achievable
within regular working hours. Involve project managers, stakeholders, and construction teams
in collaborative planning to align expectations.

38
 Resource Optimization

The construction sector should optimize the allocation of both manpower and materials
through the utilization of predictive analytics and resource management software. Keep a
close eye on resource availability and project advancement in real time to proactively avoid
shortages in the workforce. Periodically review resource allocation strategies to ensure they
remain adaptable to evolving project needs.

 Flexible Work Arrangements

Construction companies should implement flexible work arrangements, such as staggered

shifts or compressed workweeks, to accommodate fluctuations in workload. This flexibility
allows for a more even distribution of the workload among construction workers, reducing
the likelihood of extended overtime hours. Ensure that these arrangements are communicated
clearly and fairly to all workers.
Worker Well-Being Prioritize worker health and well-being through comprehensive wellness
programs.
Offer regular breaks to prevent exhaustion and promote physical and mental health.
Provide access to medical services and stress management support to address worker needs
effectively. Create a culture that encourages workers to prioritize their well-being.

 Safety Culture
I recommend that the construction industry or sector implement ongoing safety training and
education for all its workers. Furthermore, they should actively promote and provide
incentives for reporting unsafe conditions or incidents. This proactive approach to fostering a
robust safety culture not only prioritizes worker well-being but also significantly reduces the
likelihood of accidents and injuries resulting from fatigue caused by extended working hours.
 Data-Driven Decisions

The construction sector and its teams should harness the power of data analytics and
historical project information for making well-informed choices concerning resource
distribution and project scheduling. By examining past projects, they can pinpoint trends and
possible opportunities for minimizing overtime. Employ data-driven insights to anticipate and
preempt circumstances that might lead to excessive overtime. Consistently assess and refine
strategies based on data-driven feedback.

39
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 APPENDIX
TAKORADI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF BUILT AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

QUESTIONNAIRES

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am a student enrolled at Takoradi Technical University, currently pursuing a Higher

National Diploma in Construction Engineering and Management. My present academic
endeavour involves conducting a survey centered around the research topic: "Investigating
the causes of overtime in construction." This questionnaire has been designed to facilitate the
gathering of relevant data concerning this subject, which will contribute to the completion of
my final year project.
The objectives of the study are:

i. To determine the factors that contribute to overtime during construction project

execution.

ii. To identify the various impacts of overtime on construction workers.

iii. To identify the ways to handle issues associated with overtime in construction

projects.

I take this opportunity to humbly request your responses which will take you some minutes of
your time to answer my questions. It is solely for academic purposes and your identity will
not be disclosed to any other person. Your answers will be completely confidential. Kindly
remain anonymous and feel free to provide your responses in the best way you can. Thank
you for your time.
Paul Wilson
0556626416

54
SECTION A: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1. Kindly indicate your gender.

Male

Female

2. What is your highest educational background?

Technician certificate

Higher National Diploma

Bachelor Degree

PhD

Professional qualification

Others, please specify………………

3. How many years of work experience do you have?

Less than a year

1 to 10 years

11 to 20 years

21years and above

4. What is your current job position within the construction industry?

Labour

Supervisor / Foreman

Project manager

Engineer

Other please specify…………………………………………

55
SECTION B: Respondent's knowledge of overtime

5. Have you experienced overtime before?

YES

NO

6. How often do you work overtime in a typical month?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

7. On average, how many extra hours of work do you put in during overtime?

Less than three (3) hours

Three (3) to six (6) hours

Six (6) to nine (9) hours

More than nine (9) hours

56
SECTION C: Factors that contribute to overtime during construction project

execution.

Below are some of the factors that contribute to overtime during construction project

implementation. On a scale of 1 – 5, kindly indicate the extent of your level of agreement or

disagreement with each of the statements; where 1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree

3=Neutral 4= Agree 5=Strongly agree

No Factors 1 2 3 4 5

1 Poor project planning and scheduling

2 Delays in material delivery

3 Ineffective communication between project stakeholders

4 Design errors or discrepancies

5 Weather-related factors

6 Frequent changes to project scope (variations)

7 Equipment breakdowns or maintenance issues

8 Frequent inspections or approvals

9 Heavy related load / Too much work

10 Poor time management

11 Shortage of staff / Worker

Any other please indicate……

13

14

57
SECTION D: Impact of overtime on the construction workers.

Below are some of the impacts of overtime on construction workers. On a scale of 1 – 5,

kindly indicate the extent of your level of agreement or disagreement with each of the

statements; were,

1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3=Neutral 3= Agree 4=Strongly

agree

No. IMPACT 1 2 3 4 5

1 Increased physical fatigue for construction workers

2 Sleep disorder in construction workers

3 Increase accident occurrence on-site

4 Reduced focus and attention among construction workers

5 Long hours affect the well-being of workers

6 Lead to decreased productivity in construction workers

7 Affect the quality of work performance

8 High blood pressure in construction workers

9 Increased absenteeism among construction workers

10 Decreased job commitment among construction workers

Any other specify………

11

12

58
 13

SECTION E: Ways to Handle Issues Associated with Overtime in Construction Projects

Below are some of the ways to enhance the performance and progress of overtime during

construction project execution. On a scale of 1 – 5, kindly indicate the extent of your level of

agreement or disagreement with each of the statements; where 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 =

Disagree, 3= Neutral 3= Agree 4=Strongly agree

No. PERFORMANCE AND PROGRESS OF OVERTIME 1 2 3 4 5

1 Using performance incentives and bonuses for timely

completion

2 Implementing flexible work arrangements and shift

3 Implementing effective project planning and scheduling

4 Clear communication and coordination among project

stakeholders

5 Using advanced construction technology and automation

6 Providing comprehensive training and skills development

opportunities for workers

7 Adequate project documentation

8 Take regular breaks to recharge and prevent burnout

9 Set clear goals and objectives for construction workers

Any other specify………

59
60