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CASE
PASS
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
GRADE 12
CHEMISTRY (P2)
EXAM COACHING: PREPARATION AND TIPS
PREPARED BY
MR. MBAY I.B
(PHYSICAL SCIENCES EDUCATOR AT NORTHWOOD SCHOOL)
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1. HOW TO USE THE SURE CASE PASS BOOKLET
2. BASIC SKILLS
ATTENTION:
The biggest mistake made by learners is to spend more of their study time on calculations
instead of theory.
Note that calculations involved in a FULL chemistry paper carry LESS THAN 30% of the
total mark
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4. EASILY OBTAINABLE MARKS PER QUESTION
QUESTION 1
MULTIPLE CHOICE: covering all topics
Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 2 is 8 MARKS
Practise
NOW try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past papers. Write down your answers.
Evaluate
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 8 marks for each question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third past question paper and move to question 3
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
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QUESTION 3
ORGANIC MOLECULES: Physical properties
Memorise and master the following terms and aspect
1 Define Boiling point
2 Define Vapour pressure
3 Define Melting point
Remember the Higher the Boiling point the Lower the Vapour pressure
Memorise and master the name of Intermolecular forces for each Homologous
series
Homologous series Main force Other forces present
Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes Van der waals forces
(London)
Aldehydes, Ketones, Esters, Van der waals forces London forces
Haloalkanes (Dipole-dipole)
Alcohols, Carboxylic acids Hydrogen bond Dipole-dipole and
(Strong dipole-dipole) London forces
Remember that Hydrogen bonds are stronger than Van Der Waals forces
Van Der Waals forces (dipole) are stronger than Van der Waals forces (London)
Remember the substance that has stronger Intermolecular forces will require more
energy to overcome the force.
INCLUDE THIS STATEMENT IN EACH EXPLANATION or REASON when
comparing the Boiling Point/ Vapour pressure/ Melting point of different substances.
If the question involves an Investigation, remember the following
1) The DEPENDENT VARIABLE will always be either the Boiling point, the vapour
pressure, the melting point or Evaporation (It can be any other physical property
such as Evaporation, volatility, surface tension, viscosity…).
Read the question statement and identify which physical property the question is
referring to.
2) The INDEPENDENT VARIABLE will be ONE of the following factors:
Functional group
Molecular mass
Surface area (Side chains/ Branches) or
Polarity
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3) To identify the Independent Variable, Check which factor among the 4 factors
listed above is DIFFERENT between the substances you are comparing
4) The CONTROLLED VARIABLE will then be 3 out of the 4 factors listed above
(E.g. If Molecular mass is the Independent variable, then the controlled variables
will be Functional group, surface area and polarity)
5) To identify the controlled variable, check which factor is the SAME for the
substances you are comparing.
If you are asked to write down an investigative Question, just say
How does the (Independent variable) affect the (Dependent Variable)?
If you are asked to write down a Hypothesis for the investigation, just say
An increase in the (Independent variable) will increase the (dependent variable)
If the question asks to explain the difference between Boiling point, Melting point or
vapour pressure, use the following point form approach
1) Write the NAME of the intermolecular force for each compound
Choose between Van Der Waals forces and Hydrogen Bond
2) State Which Substance has a stronger force than the other
3) Give a reason for the statement in point 2
The reason will depend on the INDEPENDENT variable
(Functional group, Greater molecular mass, greater surface area or more polar)
4) State that more energy is needed to overcome the stronger force.
Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 3 is 7 MARKS
Practise
Now try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past exam papers. Write down your answer
Assess
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 7 marks for each past question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third question paper and move to question 4
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
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QUESTION 4
ORGANIC MOLECULES: Chemical reactions
Memorise and master the following terms and aspects
Define cracking
Remember the following types of reactions
1) Combustion/ Oxidation (Complete or incomplete)
2) Cracking (Thermal or Catalytic)
3) Substitution (Halogenation, Hydrolysis and Alcohol Haloalkane)
4) Elimination (Dehydrogenation, Dehydrohalogenation and Dehydration)
5) Addition (Hydrogenation, Halogenation, Hydrohalogenation and Hydration)
6) Esterification (Primary alcohol + Carboxylic acid Ester + Water)
Remember that Esterification involves the reaction between a Carboxylic acid and
a PRIMARY alcohol as reactants to give off Ester and Water as products
Esterification requires Heat and H2SO4 as a catalyst/Dehydrating agent
Remember that Combustion reaction is a reaction between an ALKANE with
OXYGEN (O2) to produce Carbon dioxide and water
Remember that Cracking has an Alkane as the reactant, then a short alkane and
alkene(s) as products
Long Alkane Short Alkane + Alkene(s)
There are 2 methods used for cracking
If heat is used it is called Thermal cracking
If a catalyst (another substance) is used then it is called Catalytic cracking
For Substitution, Addition and Elimination, only 4 homologous series will be
involved:
3 saturated molecules (Alkanes, Haloalkanes and Alcohols) and
1 unsaturated molecule (Alkene)
For Substitution reaction, there are 2 reactants (1 saturated Organic and 1
inorganic) and 2 products (1 saturated Organic and 1 inorganic)
For Addition reaction, there are 2 reactants (1 unsaturated organic and 1 inorganic)
and 1 Product (saturated Organic).
But this organic product may have 2 variants; the MAJOR and the MINOR products.
The major Product is the one that obeys Markovnikov rule
The minor product is the one that goes against the rule
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For Elimination reaction, there is only 1 reactant (saturated organic) and 2 products
(1 unsaturated organic and 1 inorganic)
The unsaturated organic product may have 2 variants, the Major and the minor.
1) The ARROW indicates which substance is a reactant and which one is the
product. It points from the reactant to the product.
- In reaction I, Compound X is a reactant and Y a product.
- In reaction II, Compound Y is a reactant and X a product
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When Haloalkanes react with a strong base such as NaOH or KOH, there are two
possibilities:
- If the strong base is dilute, the Haloalkane undergoes Substitution and the product
will be an Alcohol
- If the strong base is concentrated, the Haloalkane undergoes Elimination and the
product will be an Alkene and HX (where X is a halogen: F, Cl, Br or I)
Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 4 is 7 MARKS
Practise
Now try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past exam papers. Write down your answer
Assess
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 7 marks for each past question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third question paper and move to question 5
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
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QUESTION 5
RATES OF REACTIONS
Know, memorise and master the following terms and concepts
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- The controlled variable will then be the rest of the factors that are applicable to the
reaction
To calculate the average reaction rate using a graph, just calculate the gradient of
the graph from the starting point to the point where the graph starts to get horizontal
To calculate the average reaction using values in a table, calculate the change in
the amount and divide by the change in time, from t = 0 to time whereby the amount
just becomes constant.
Remember that the reaction rate is a Positive number. Insert a negative sign when
calculating reaction rate from a graph with a negative gradient.
Master how to interpret Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution curves
Temperature vs Energy
Concentration vs Energy
Catalyst vs Energy
The curve that gives a greater area after the Activation energy represents a faster
reaction (higher temperature. Higher concentration or addition of catalyst)
Calculations:
𝑚
- Use the formula 𝑛 = 𝑀 if mass is given or has to be calculated
𝑉
- Use the formula 𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 when dealing with gases and molar volume of gas is
given
𝑛
- Use the formula 𝑐 = 𝑣 when dealing with aqueous solutions or gases whereby
Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 5 is 10 MARKS
Practise
Now try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past exam papers. Write down your answer
Assess
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 10 marks for each past question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third question paper and move to question 6
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
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QUESTION 6
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Memorise and master the following terms
1 Define Closed system
2 Define reversible reaction
3 Define Chemical equilibrium (dynamic equilibrium)
4 Explain the use of the term “dynamic”
5 Define Homogeneous and Heterogeneous reaction
6 State Le Chatelier’s principle
The table on the next page summarises answers you should give when using Le
Chatelier’s principle to explain the effect of each factor affecting equilibrium.
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TEMPERATURE
If Temperature is increased If Temperature is decrease
- The system favours the reaction - The system favours the reaction
that will decrease the temperature that will increase the temperature
- Increase in temperature favours the - Decrease in temperature favours
Endothermic reaction the Exothermic reaction
- Mention which reaction is favoured, - Mention which reaction is favoured,
forward or reverse forward or reverse
- Mention the change in - Mention the change in concentration
concentrations of reactants and of reactants and products
products
PRESSURE
If pressure is increased If pressure is decreased
by decreasing the volume of the container By increasing the volume of the container
- The system favours the reaction - The system favours the reaction
that will decrease the pressure that will increase the pressure
- Increase in pressure favours the - Decrease in pressure favours the
reaction that proceeds towards the reaction that proceeds towards the
fewer number of moles greater number of moles
- Mention the reaction that is - Mention the reaction that is
favoured, forward or reverse favoured, forward or reverse
- Mention the change in concentration - Mention the change in concentration
of reactants and products of reactants and products
CONCENTRATION
If concentration of a reactant is If concentration of a reactant is
increased decreased
- The system favours the reaction - The system favours the reaction
that will decrease that reactant’s that will increase that reactant’s
concentration concentration
- Forward reaction is favoured - Reverse reaction is favoured
- Concentration of reactants will - Concentration of reactants will
decrease and concentration of increase and concentration of
products will increase products will decrease
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If concentration of a product is If concentration of a product is
increased decreased
- The system favours the reaction - The system favours the reaction
that will decrease that product’s that will increase that product’s
concentration concentration
- Reverse reaction is favoured - Forward reaction is favoured
- Concentration of reactants will - Concentration of reactants will
increase and concentration of decrease and concentration of
products will decrease products will increase
Remember that the Kc value can only change if the temperature changes.
Use the following expression/ equation to determine whether the Kc value will
increase or decrease.
[Products]
Kc = And [Reactants] ↔ [Products]
[Reactants]
The graph on the next pages shows how to identify the factor that was changed
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Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 6 is 8 MARKS
Practise
Now try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past exam papers. Write down your answer
Assess
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 8 marks for each past question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third question paper and move to question 7
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
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QUESTION 7
ACIDS AND BASES
Memorise and master the following terms
Define an Acid according to Lowry – Bronsted
Define a Base according to Lowry – Bronsted
Define an Acid according to Arrhenius
Define a Base according to Arrhenius
Define Strong acid
Define weak acid
Define strong base
Define weak base
Define Monoprotic and Diprotic acid
Define Ampholyte
Define Hydrolysis
Define standard solution
Define Indicator
Define End point
Define Equivalent point
List examples of common acids (strong and weak) and bases (strong and weak)
Learn how to identify conjugate acid – base pairs in an acid – base reaction
- To get the conjugate acid of a substance (base), just add ONE Hydrogen (H) to the
formula (e.g. conjugate acid of HSO4- is H2SO4)
- To get the conjugate base of a substance (acid), just remove ONE Hydrogen from
its formula (e.g. Conjugate base of H2O is OH-)
Remember that a strong base gives off a weak conjugate acid and vice versa
Remember that a strong acid gives off a weak conjugate base and vice versa
Ka and Kb values
- An acid with a greater Ka value is stronger than one with a lower Ka value
- A base with a greater Kb value is stronger than one with a lower Kb value
Select, with reason, a suitable indicator used for titration
- Methyl Orange
Strong acid + weak base = Acidic solution, pH range below 7
- Bromothymol Blue
Strong acid + strong base = Neutral solution, pH range around 7
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- Phenolphthalein
Weak acid + strong base = Basic (alkaline) solution, pH range above 7
If you are asked to calculate the pH of a solution, use the formula
pH = - log [H3O+]
If a pH value is given, use [H3O+] = 10-pH to find the concentration of H3O+
Ration between [acid] and [H3O+] and ratio between [base] and [OH-]
- For monoprotic acids (such as HCl, HBr and HNO3) the concentration of H3O+ is
equal to the concentration of the acid (Ratio is 1:1).
- For diprotic acids such as H2SO4 the concentration of H3O+ is twice the
concentration of the acid (Ratio is 1:2)
- Same applies for bases:
[OH-] = [NaOH], ratio is 1:1 OR [OH-] = 2 x [Mg (OH)2], ratio is 1:2
When calculating the pH value of a base, remember the relationship between
[H3O+] and [OH-] from the Kw equation [H3O+] x [OH-] = 1 x 10-14
Acid – base reactions usually involve aqueous solutions, so the formula
𝑛
𝑐 = 𝑣 is very important. Use it!
𝐶𝑎.𝑉𝑎 𝑛𝑎
Use the formula =
𝐶𝑏.𝑉𝑏 𝑛𝑏
In this case you have to use the ratio in the balanced equation to find which of the
acid or the base is in excess and which one is the limiting reagent.
(1 mark for the formula and 1 mark for the ratio)
Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 7 is 8 MARKS
Practise
Now try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past exam papers. Write down your answer
Assess
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 8 marks for each past question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third question paper and move to question 8
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
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QUESTION 8
GALVANIC CELLS
Memorise and master the following terms
Define Redox reaction
Define Oxidation number
Define Oxidation in terms of electron transfer
Define Reduction in terms of electron transfer
Define Oxidation in terms of Oxidation number
Define Reduction in terms of Oxidation number
Define Reducing agent
Define oxidising agent
Define Galvanic cell
Define Anode
Define Cathode
Use this set of formulae to remember some definitions
EɵCell = EɵCathode - EɵAnode
EɵCell = EɵReduction - EɵOxidation
EɵCell = EɵOxidising agent - EɵReducing agent
Notice that such as Cathode, Reduction and Oxidising agent are on the same
position for this equation. This simply means they relate.
- Reduction takes place at the Cathode (remember RED CAT?)
- Oxidising agent undergoes Reduction, so it gains electrons
Same applies to the associated terms; Anode, Oxidation and Reducing agent
- Oxidation takes place at the anode (remember AN OX?)
- Reducing agent undergoes oxidation, so it loses electrons
Master how to use the Table of Standards reduction potentials
If you use TABLE 4B:
- The substance that appears above (on top) will undergo oxidation, and it is a
stronger reducing agent
- The substance that appears bellow (bottom) will undergo reduction, and it is a
stronger oxidising agent
Master how to write the oxidation half – reaction, reduction half – reaction and the
net redox reaction. NEVER use a double arrow in these reactions)
State the energy conversion in Galvanic cell: Chemical to Electrical
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Master how to identify the anode and the cathode
Use the table of standard reduction potential: TABLE 4B
The top substance is the Anode and the bottom substance is the cathode
Master how to write the Cell notation, with or without the standard conditions
Memorise the standard conditions
250C for temperature, 1 mol.dm-3 for concentration and 1 atm (101, 3 kPa) for
pressure if a gas is used
Voltmeter or Ammeter reading versus Le Chatelier’s principle
- Is ZERO when the reaction has reached equilibrium
- Increases if the forward reaction is favoured
- Decreases if the reverse reaction is favoured
Remember and memorise the following aspects
- The reaction in galvanic cells is spontaneous
- There are Two half-cells (two different electrolytes)
- The reaction is Exothermic
- Electrons move from the anode to the cathode
- The anode is negative and the cathode positive
- Platinum and Graphite (Carbon) are used as electrodes because they are Solid,
unreactive and good conductors of electricity
- The functions of the Salt bridge
To maintain the neutrality of solutions
To complete the circuit
- The cell potential for Galvanic cells is always positive.
Calculate the cell potential or identify an unknown metal using the formula
EɵCell = EɵCathode - EɵAnode
Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 8 is 10 MARKS
Practise
Now try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past exam papers. Write down your answer
Assess
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 10 marks for each past question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third question paper and move to question 9
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
-
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QUESTION 9
ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
Know, memorise and master the following terms
1 Define Electrolyte
2 Define Electrolysis
3 Define Electrolytic cell
4 Define Electroplating
All other definitions under Galvanic cells are still valid and applicable here
Remember and memorise the following aspects
- The reaction in Electrolytic cells is Non-spontaneous
- The reaction is endothermic
- There is only ONE electrolyte
- The Anode is positive and connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the
cathode is negative, connected to the negative terminal of the battery
- There is NO salt bridge for electrolytic cells.
The question on electrolytic cells will be based on ONE of the Four applications
below: (Know and master ALL of them)
Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride, Decomposition of copper Chloride,
Purification of copper (Electro refining of copper) and Electroplating.
1) Electrolysis of Concentrated sodium Chloride,
You have to know and memorise the following aspects
- Chlorine ions (Cl-) will be oxidised, Water will be reduced and Sodium ions will be
the spectator ions
- Oxidation half-reaction : 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-
- Reduction half-reaction: 2H2O + 2e- H2 + 2OH-
- Net redox reaction without spectator ions: 2Cl- + 2H2O Cl2 + H2 + 2OH-
- Net redox reaction with spectator ions: 2NaCl + 2H2O Cl2 + H2 + 2NaOH
- Chlorine gas forms at the anode
- Hydrogen gas forms at the cathode
As the reaction progresses:
- The concentration of Cl- decreases
- The concentration of OH- increases
- The concentration of Na+ remains constant
- The solution becomes basic (alkaline) because of the OH- formed
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2) Decomposition of copper chloride
There are Two possibilities;
- The use of unreactive electrodes (Platinum or Carbon)
- The use of active electrodes (Copper)
If unreactive electrodes are used, you should know and memorise the following
- Chlorine ions (Cl-) will be oxidised, Copper ions (Cu2+) will be reduced
- Oxidation half-reaction: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e
- Reduction half-reaction: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
- Net redox reaction: 2Cl- + Cu2+ Cl2 + Cu
- Chlorine gas forms at the anode
- Copper metal forms at the cathode, thus increases the mass of the cathode
As the reaction progresses;
- The concentration of Cl- decreases
- The concentration of Cu2+ decreases
If Copper is used as electrodes (anode and cathode), memorise the following
- Copper metal Cu(s) will be oxidised, copper ions Cu2+ will be reduced and Chlorine
ions Cl- will be the spectator ions.
- Oxidation half-reaction: Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
- Reduction half-reaction: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
As the reaction progresses,
- The mass of the anode decreases
- The mass of the cathode increases
- The concentration of the copper ions Cu2+ in the solution remains the same,
because the rate of oxidation of Cu(s) is equal to the rate of reduction of Cu2+
The concentration of Cl- remains the same
3) Purification of copper (Electro refining of copper)
Memorise and master the following aspects
- Copper containing impurities is the anode and connected to positive terminal of the
battery
- A pure copper is used as cathode and connected to the negative terminal of the
battery
- Copper metal Cu(s) is oxidised and copper ions (Cu2+) will be reduced
- Oxidation half-reaction: Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
- Reduction half-reaction: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
- Other metals at the cathode will also be oxidised
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- Metal ions, such as Ag+ and Pt2+, having a stronger oxidising ability than copper will
be reduced and form a sludge at the bottom of the reaction vessel
- The mass of the anode decreases and the mass of the cathode increases
4) Electroplating
Electroplating is coating a metal with a thin layer of another metal through
electrolysis.
Memorise and master the following aspects
- The metal used to electroplate another metal must be the anode and connected to
the positive terminal of the battery
- The metal to be electroplated (spoon, medal, ring…) must be the cathode and
connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
- The metal that is used to electroplate another metal will undergo oxidation (at the
anode) and reduction (at the cathode)
- The electrolyte must contain metal ions of the metal to electroplate with.
- The concentration of the ions in the electrolyte remains the same because the rate
at which oxidation takes place equals the rate at which reduction takes place.
- For example if silver (Ag) is used to electroplate a ring
Silver will be the anode and the ring will be the cathode
The electrolyte must contain Silver ions Ag+ (e.g. AgNO3)
Oxidation half-reaction: Ag Ag+ + e-
Reduction half-reaction: Ag + e- Ag+
Outcome
EASILY OBTAINABLE marks for question 9 is 6 MARKS
Practise
Now try to answer 2 questions from 2 different past exam papers. Write down your answer
Assess
Did it work? Did you score a minimum of 6 marks for each past question paper?
- If YES, TRY a third question paper
- If NO, READ AGAIN your notes and repeat this exercise
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5. TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND LAWS
1. Molar volume of gases
3
One mole of any gas occupies 22, 4 dm at STP.
2. Boiling point:
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a substance equals atmospheric pressure.
3. Melting point:
The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at equilibrium.
4. Vapour pressure:
The pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its liquid in a closed system.
5. organic molecules
Molecules containing carbon atoms.
6. Hydrocarbon:
Organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon only.
7. Homologous series:
A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general formula and each
member differs by CH2 from the next one
8. Saturated compounds:
Compounds in which there are only single bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
9. Unsaturated compounds:
Compounds with double or triple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
10. Functional group:
A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a
group of organic compounds.
11. Structural isomer:
Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae.
12. Chain isomers:
Molecules with the same molecular formula, but different types of chains
13. Positional isomers:
Molecules with the same molecular formula, but different positions of the substituents or functional
groups on the parent chain
14. Functional isomers:
Molecules with the same molecular formula, but different functional groups
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6. FORMULA SHEET
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