Internal

Combustion
Engines
Alireza Mashayekh
Spring 2024
Alternatives to the
IC Engine
Alternatives to the IC Engine
● Today (2024) there is much
discussion about the demise of the
IC engine
● The next slides will describe the
situation, introduce alternative
power plants, and provide some
perspective on this topic
● Throughout the history of
automobiles, alternative power
plants have been proposed, tested
and even produced
○ The IC engine has remained the most
successful in these applications so far
Alternative Vehicle Technologies
● BEV: Electric/Battery/Motor – Electric Vehicles
● FCEV: Electric/Fuel Cell/Motor – Fuel Cell Vehicles
● HEV: Electric/Battery/Motor/Engine/Fuel – Hybrid Vehicles
● PHEV: Electric/Battery/Motor/Engine/Fuel with “plug in”
charging capabilities – Plug In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
● Gas Turbine and other power plants
Alternative Power Plants
A Little History Lesson
● Presumably the first EV was made in 1891 (a six-passenger wagon made by William
Morrison) & by 1895 more engineers began to devote their attention to EVs. Many
innovations followed as the interest in EVs increased greatly in the late 1890s
to early 1900s. In addition, electric mobility grew in other areas like trains &
trams.

● However, the fall of EVs came much quicker than expected between 1990 to 1930
when many prevailing factors favored the growth of ICEVs. The technology &
infrastructure needed for EVs could not match this pace of development but in my
view, it was Henry Ford who pulled the plugs of EVs by his doggedness & focused
approach in creating an affordable ICEV for the masses. Technological innovation
like electric starter (Charles Kettering, 1912) increased the acceptability of
ICEVs & multiple players forayed into ICEV manufacturing. During this time while
the market of ICEVs grew rapidly, the prices of ICEVs kept on falling. By
contrast, the price of the EVs continued to rise and by the end of 1912, when
Model T was selling between the price range of $500~$1000, an EV was costing
$1750. By 1936 EVs disappeared from the market.

https://emobilityplus.com/2021/04/20/evolution-of-connected-autonomous-electrical-vehicles/
BEV Example – Chevy Bolt
● $37,495 (-$7,500
rebate)
● 5 pass sub-compact
● 200 hp
● 238 mile range
● 124 mpgeq
● 0-60 mph: 6.5 secs
● 60 kW-hr
● Full charge cost at
The GM Bolt is about the same size as the GM Trax $0.10/kWhr is $6.00
which has a price of ~$22,000 with about a 120 hp
IC engine
“Window Stickers” or Monroney Sticker
● What is the “mpgeq” or
“mpge”?
● This is the key value:
how much electrical
energy is needed to go
100 miles
● In this case, 27.0
kWh/100 miles
○ This value is obtained
from different driving
cycles and using
adjustment factors
“Window Stickers” or Monroney Sticker
● To convert to “mpgeq” we need equivalent of energy in 1
gal gasoline
● 1 gal gasoline = 115000 Btu
● 115000 Btu/gal (1/3412 Btu/kWh) = 33.705 kWh/gal

● For example, for the vehicle with 27.0 kWh/100 miles:

● mpgeq = 100 miles/27 kWh (33.705 kWh/gal)
● mpgeq = 124.8 miles/gal
Tesla
● Founded in 2003
● Goal: “to accelerate the day of electric
vehicles.”
● First electric vehicles to use Li-ion
Roadster batteries

Model S Model 3 Model X Model Y

Tesla
● First vehicle in 2008 was the Roadster at about $109,000
● Second vehicle in 2012 was the Model S sedan at about
$76,000
● Third vehicle in 2015 was the Model X crossover SUV at
about $80,700
● Fourth vehicle in 2017 was the Model 3 sedan
○ Advertised as low as $36,000 – but so far these have sold for about
$50,200
Hybrid Electric Vehicles– Examples

Ford Fusion Hybrid (2019) Honda Insight (2019)

Chevy Silverado Mild

Lexus ES 300h (2019)
Hybrid (2019)
Electric Vehicle Market Share
● In 2017, about 17.3
million vehicles were
sold in the US
● About 200,000 of
these were electric
or hybrid vehicles
● About 110,000 of the
electric/hybrid sales
were in California
● Pure electric
vehicles represent
about ½ of the sales
EV Sales: Who Are the Buyers?
● Those that can qualify for federal and state rebates
○ For example, those in CA, CO, CT, NY, OR, VT, TX …
● Those that are able to afford a bit of an extravagant
purchase
● Those wanting to make an environmental statement
○ Debatable whether buying a long-range BEV is good for the environment
in short-term
● Early Adopters – those that like to be the first with new
technology
● “Tesla” fans!
EV Sales: Who Are not the Buyers?
● The majority of automobile customers who are only looking
for inexpensive transportation with minimal problems
● Many are unsure of new technology
○ Note: it has been documented that most car sales people do not try
very hard to “sell” alternative powered vehicles.
● Those that are fans of the IC engine!
EV Pros & Cons
Pros:

Electric motors have favorable characteristics for vehicle

applications:

1. High torque at low speed

2. Potentially lower emissions
3. Application flexibility (e.g., one motor per axle or wheel)
4. Permits reuse of braking energy (regenerative braking)
EV Pros & Cons
Cons:

mostly battery issues:

1. Low energy density
2. Compromises on range, recharge times
3. High cost
4. Replacement issues
5. Disposal issues
6. High weight
7. Vehicle may cost more until technology becomes cheaper
8. Lack of repair infrastructure
9. May compromise high power levels
The Problem with Batteries
LOWER VOL.
STANDARD ENERGY DENSITY
HEATING ENERGY RANGE
FUEL DENSITY COMPARISON TO
VALUE DENSITY (miles)*
(kg/m3) DIESEL
(MJ/kg) (MJ/m3)
DIESEL
44 850 37,400 100 300
(TYPICAL)
GASOLINE
42 750 31,500 84 252
(TYPICAL)

ETHANOL 26.9 785 21,100 56 168

LITHIUM-ION
n/a n/a 2,500 7 20
BATTERY

LEAD-ACID
n/a n/a 288 0.8 2.4
BATTERY

* Based on same dedicated energy volume, same conversion efficiencies

 IF BATTERIES ARE NOT
SUFFICIENT FOR ENERGY

The Best Solution? STORAGE, WHAT ABOUT A

COMBINATION OF ENGINE-
BATTERY-MOTOR?
Up for debate!

HYBRID VEHICLES
Hybrid Electric Vehicles – Examples

DIESEL/ELECTRIC
LOCOMOTIVE
Hybrid Power Plants
● The first hybrids were produced in 1907 – 1920
○ Once electric starters were available, the first hybrids could not
compete with the standard vehicle
● The next successful commercial hybrid vehicle (Prius) was
produced in 1997 and sold in Japan by Toyota
● In 2000, the Prius was sold in the US
● In 2024, dozens of hybrid models are available
Hybrid Power Plants – Pros & Cons
Pros:
1. May use a small IC engine to charge the battery and/or supplement the
power to the vehicle
2. The electric motor can be used for low power requirements at its
highest efficiency
3. IC engine can be operated at more ideal conditions
4. Depending on the duty cycle, overall gains in efficiency could be
doubled relative to conventional vehicles

Cons:
1. Battery still required (cost, safety, …)
2. Vehicle more complex and expensive
3. Long-term durability not known; particularly for harsh conditions
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES: Summary and Conclusions
● Hybrid technology has demonstrated some success
● The question will be whether hybrids can obtain greater
market share
● As fuel efficiency becomes more important, these
technologies will have more success
● As competition, new low-emission diesel engines may be
more cost effective – particularly in high power/torque
applications
● Some versions (PHEV?), however, may co-exist
Worldwide Electric Vehicle Situation
● In China, in 2017, electric/hybrid vehicle sales were about
770,000 (2.3%). (Total vehicle sales = 28.9 million.)
● Electric vehicle (EV) makers sold a total of 3.3 million
units in China in 2021 (out of 26.28 million total cars
sold), up from 1.3 million in 2020, and 1.2 million in 2019
● EV sales worldwide increased 69% in the first 11 months of
the year, with China outpacing global growth
● China provides consumer and manufacturing incentives as well
as putting limits on the sales of IC engine vehicles
● China is hoping to improve their air quality and become a
world leader in electric vehicles
Worldwide Electric Vehicle Situation
Global Passenger EV Market Share
● Global BEV sales grew 29%
YoY in Q3 2023.
● China ranked first, with
58% share of total sales,
followed by the US and
Germany.
● With the current growth
trajectory, global BEV
sales are expected to
reach 10 million units by
the end of 2023.
World Wide Electric Vehicle Situation
● Some countries have stated that IC engines will be
eventually banned, but no legislation has been passed yet
● The following have stated that no conventional vehicles
may be sold in near-future:
○ Norway: by 2025
○ India: by 2030 (if economical)
○ Germany: by 2030
○ France: by 2040
○ United Kingdom: by 2050
Automobile Companies’ View of EV
● Many companies have announced plans to emphasize electric
vehicles and to eventually stop producing IC engines
○ Toyota: by 2040
○ Volvo: by 2020 (will still include IC engines in hybrid
configurations)
○ Other companies (GM, Ford, VW, …) have made similar announcements but
without specific dates
Argument for EV
● Lower operating costs (inexpensive electricity, no oil
changes, less maintenance, …)
● Superior performance
● Lower environmental impact (debatable!)
● Longer automobile “life”
● The future may include less private ownership of vehicles
● Perhaps less brake maintenance due to regenerative
braking
● Quiet operation
Arguments Against EV
● Range “anxiety”
● Long charging times
● Not affordable for the majority of people yet
● Rural areas are a difficult match for electric vehicles
● Concerns about supplies of materials such as lithium and
cobalt
● Culture of driving large vehicles with long range and
short refilling times (US)
● Lower residual value of vehicle
Arguments Against EV
● Battery replacement and disposal issues
● Adversely impacted by cold or hot weather
● Those in apartments (and similar places) may not have the
convenience of charging during the night
● Gasoline and diesel road taxes will eventually be passed
onto electric vehicle owners
● Environmental benefits are dependent on the local
electricity generation
● Potential life style changes needed for electric vehicle
ownership
Issues Regarding Emission from Electric Vehicles
● The emissions due to electric vehicles depends on the
type of electricity generation (e.g., coal or solar)
● For today’s average electricity generation (in US),
electric vehicles will not result in much if any
reduction in CO2 emissions
● Today’s IC engine powered vehicles may, in fact, produce
less emissions* and have less detrimental impact on the
environment**

*J. A. Lesser, “Short Circuit: the High Cost of Electric Vehicle Subsidies,” May 2018
**J. W. Brennan and T. E. Barder, “Battery Electric Vehicles vs. Internal Combustion
Engine Vehicles,” 2016
Potential Lifestyle Changes for Electric Vehicle Owners
● Some charging stations will require membership (e.g.,
Tesla)
● Need to estimate your range – this changes with ambient
temperatures, use of heating/AC, and driving styles
● Some charging stations may not be available – used by
others or broken
● If you need your vehicle at an unexpected time, you may
not have enough charge
Why Automobile Executives Must Promote Electric Vehicles
● Public companies are subject to scrutiny by brokers and
stock holders
● Not to make statements about “change” is interpreted as a
weakness
● Most executives probably know that electric vehicles will
fill a role
● By most estimates, electric vehicles are money losers for
manufacturers, but are expected to help meet strict
emission laws
Other Alternative Power Plants
● Fuel Cell
● Gas Turbine
● Steam Power Plant (Rankine Cycle)
● Other IC engines (Wankle, free piston, opposed piston,
two-stroke, …)
Fuel Cell Powertrain
Fuel Cell Vehicles
● Typically requires hydrogen, generates electricity, needs
electric motors, …
● Hydrogen problematic, other fuels difficult, expensive, …

Toyota Mirai (2018) Hyundai Nexo (2014)

Gas Turbine Vehicles
● Poor fuel economy, hot exhaust, expensive technology
● Somewhat better match for heavy duty vehicles

GM Gas Turbine Vehicle Chrysler Gas Turbine

(1958) Vehicle (1963)
Steam Turbine Vehicles
● Poor fuel economy, make-up water, large and heavy, …
● Somewhat better match for heavy duty vehicles

GM Steam-Powered
GM Researchers (1970)
Vehicles
Alternative Power Plants Summary and Conclusions
● Electric vehicles and electrified IC engine vehicles will be
part of future automotive fleets
● The level of “voluntary” penetration will depend on future
price reductions, battery improvements, and increases of the
charging infrastructure
● The level of penetration may be mandated by certain
governments – this could be problematic
● Wide spread adoption of electric vehicles could result in
material shortages, battery disposal issues, …
○ Electric Vehicles' Battery Problem
○ Tesla's Battery Supply Problem
● The IC engine continues to improve with respect to
efficiency, low emissions, ease of operation, and durability
 End:
Alternatives to the
IC Engine