STEEL GRADES AND SECTIONS

Structural steel is a standard construction material made from specific grades of steel and formed
in a range of industry-standard cross-sectional shapes (or ‘Sections’). Structural steel grades are
designed with specific chemical compositions and mechanical properties formulated for
particular applications.

Steel sections are produced by rolling the steel, whilst hot, into various standard profiles. The
quality of the steel that is used must comply with BS 4360 ‘Specification for weldable structural
steels’, which designates four basic grades for steel: 40, 43, 50 and 55. (It should be noted that
grade 40 steel is not used for structural purposes.)

PREVIOUS PREVIOUS STEEL CURRENT STEEL CURRENT STANDARD

STANDARD GRADE GRADE
BS 4360 40DD S 235 JR BS EN 10025-2
40 E S 235 JO
40EE
S 235 J2+N
43 D S 275 JR
43DD S 275 JO
43 E
43EE S 275 J2+N
OO3 S 335 JR
OO3 S 335 JO
0.04 S 335 J2+N
0.04 S 335 K2+N
0.04
OO4
O.O4
O.O4

Material Properties
Stress-Strain Characteristics
The stress-strain characteristics for a typical structural steel as shown in Figure 5.11 of
Chapter 5 indicate a ductile material which exhibits linearly elastic behavior followed by
significant plasticity before failure occurs. The minimum yield stress and the maximum
tensile stress indicated in Figure 5.11 are represented in Clause 3.1.1 of BS 5950-1:2000
by the symbols Ys and Us respectively. The assumed strength (py) for design purposes is
the smaller of 1.0Ys and Us/1.2, and is dependent on the thickness of the material being
used. Values of py for the more commonly used grades and thicknesses of steel are given
in Table 9 of the code.
 Steel Grade Thickness* less than or equal Design strength (N/mm )2

to (mm)
S275 16 275
40 265
63 255
80 245
100
235
150
225
S355 16 355
40 345
63 335
80 325
100
315
150
295
S460 16 460
40 440
63 430
80 410
100
400

There are many examples of European grades of structural steel – for example, S195, S235,
S275, S355, S420, and S460. For the purposes of this course, we will focus on the chemical
composition, mechanical properties, and applications of S235, S275, and S355, which are three
common structural steel grades used in all manner of construction projects.

In line with the European Standard classifications, structural steels must be referenced using
standard symbols including but not limited to S, 235, J2, K2, C, Z, W, JR, and JO, where:

 ‘S’ denotes the fact that it is structural steel;

 ‘235’ which relates to the minimum yield strength of the steel (tested at a thickness of
16mm);
 ‘J2’, ‘K2’, ‘JR’, and ‘JO’ all demonstrate the material toughness in relation to the Charpy
impact or ‘V’ notch test methodology;
 ‘W’ is weathering steel (atmospheric corrosion-resistant);
 ‘Z’ represents structural steel with improved strength perpendicular to the surface, and
 ‘C’ is cold-formed.

Depending on the manufacturing process, chemical composition and relevant application, further
letters and classifications might be used to reference particular grades or products of structural
steel.
The BS standard classifications are not a global standard and therefore a number of
corresponding grades with the same chemical and mechanical properties may be used in other
parts of the world. For example, structural steels fabricated for the US market must be specified
in accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). International
guidelines are referenced with an ‘A’ and then the relevant grade, for example, A36 or A53.

EU and US Equivalent Grades

EU US

S235 A283C

S275 A570Gr40

S355 A572Gr50

In most countries, structural steel is regulated and must meet a minimum specific criterion for
shape, size, chemical composition and strength.

The chemical composition of structural steel is extremely important and highly regulated. It is a
fundamental factor which defines the mechanical properties of the steel. In the following table,
you can see the maximum percentage levels of certain regulated elements present in European
structural steel grades S235, S275, and S355.

Chemical Composition of Structural Steels - S235, S275 and S355

The Chemical composition of Structural Steel is extremely important and highly

regulated. It is a fundamental factor which defines the Mechanical properties of the steel
material. In the following table you can see the Max % levels of certain regulated
elements present in European Structural steel grades S235, S275 and S355.
 EU C% Mn% P% S% Si%
Grade

S235 0.22 1.60 0.05 0.05 0.05

max max max max max

S275 0.25 1.60 0.04 0.05 0.05

max max max max max

S355 0.23 1.60 0.05 0.05 0.05

max max max max max

The chemical composition of structural steel is incredibly important to the engineer and
will change with specific grades depending on their intended use. For example,
S355K2W is a structural steel that has been hardened, denoted by K2, and has been
designed with a chemical composition to withstand increased weathering - W.
Therefore, this grade of structural steel will have a slightly different chemical
composition to the standard S355 grade.

Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel - S235, S275, S355

The mechanical properties of structural steel are fundamental to its classification and application.
Even though chemical composition is a dominant factor in determining the mechanical properties
of steel, it is also very important to understand the minimum standards for the mechanical
properties or performance characteristics, such as yield strength and tensile strength, which are
described in more detail below.

Yield Strength

The yield strength of structural steel measures the minimum force required to create a permanent
deformation in the steel. The naming convention used in European Standard refers to the
minimum yield strength of the steel grade tested at 16mm thick.
 Structural Steel Minimum Yield Strength at nominal
Grade at 16mm thickness 16mm

psi N/mm2 (MPa)

S235 33 000 235 N/mm2

S275 36 000 275 N/mm2

S355 50 000 355 N/mm2

Tensile Strength (Ultimate stress)

The Tensile Strength of structural steel relates to the point at which permanent
deformation occurs when the material is pulled or stretched laterally along its length.

Structural Steel Tensile Strength MPa at Nom thickness between 3mm

Grade and 16mm

S235 360 – 510 MPa

S275 370 – 530 MPa

S355 470 – 630 MPa

Ductility (Clause 2.4.4)

The ductility is measured in terms of the notch toughness and the Charpy value from the Charpy
V-notch test. It is important to ensure that steel has sufficient ductility, particularly at low
temperatures to avoid brittle fracture.
In addition to specifying the grade of the steel, e.g. S 275, it is necessary to identify the
appropriate quality by specifying a sub-grade. Sub-grades are defined in the appropriate
British Standards for steels and used in Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7 of BS 5950-1:2000; e.g.
♦ JR represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at room temperature
♦ J0 represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at 0oC
♦ J2 represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at −20oC
♦ K2 represents an impact resistance value of 27 Joules at −30oC

Elastic Properties (Clause 3.1.3)

The ratio of stress to strain is called the modulus of elasticity.
A material with a greater elastic modulus has higher tensile stress or stiffness in general
The most commonly required material elastic properties for steel are given in Clause 3.1.3
as:
♦ Modulus of Elasticity E = 205 × 103 N/mm2
♦ Poisson’s Ratio ν = 0.3
♦ Shear Modulus G = E/[2(1+ν)] = (78.85 × 103 N/mm2)
♦ Coefficient of Thermal Expansion α = 12 × 10−6/ oC

Typical Structural Steel ‘Sections’ / Cross-Sectional Shapes

Structural steel comes in many grades but is normally sold pre-formed with a defined cross-
sectional shape, designed for specific applications. For example, it is common to find structural
steel sold in I-beams, Z-beams, box lintels, hollow structural section (HSS), L-shaped and steel
plate.

Depending on the desired application, an engineer will specify a grade of steel -usually to meet
minimum strength, maximum weight and possibly weathering requirements, as well as the
sectional shape - relative to the desired location and expected load to be carried or job to be
performed.

Applications of Structural Steel

Structural steels are used in many ways and their application can be diverse. They are
particularly useful because they offer the unique combination of good welding properties with
guaranteed strengths. Structural steel is an extremely adaptable product and is often favored by
engineers trying to maximize strength or ‘S’ structure while minimizing its weight.

It will come as no surprise that the construction industry is the biggest consumer of structural
steel, where it is used for a number of purposes. Whether a small box lintel is used to carry the
load of a structural wall in a residential property or a vast I-beam is bolted in place to hold the
road surface on a bridge, structural steel can be specified, designed and fabricated for any type of
job.

Merits of steel as a construction material

• Strength of steel is of approximately ten times that of concrete.
• Steel has large strength to weight ratio, steel structures.
• Steel to be more economical than concrete structures for tall buildings and
large span buildings and bridges.
• Steel structures can be constructed very fast and this enables the structure
to be used early thereby leading to overall economy.
• Steel structures are ductile and robust and can withstand severe loadings
such as earthquakes.
• Steel structures can be easily repaired and retrofitted to carry higher loads.
• Steel is also a very eco-friendly material and steel structures can be easily
dismantled and sold as scrap.
• Thus the lifecycle cost of steel structures, which includes the cost of
construction, maintenance, repair and dismantling, can be less than that for
concrete structures.
• As produced in factory under better quality control, steel structures have
higher reliability and safety.

Demerits of steel as a construction material

To get the most benefit out of steel,
• steel structures should be protected to resist corrosion.
• Protected from fire.
• Good quality control is essential to ensure proper
fitting of the various structural elements.
• The effects of temperature should be considered in
design.
• To prevent development of cracks under fatigue and
earthquake loads the connections and in particular the
welds should be designed and detailed properly.
Special steels and protective measures
 HOT ROLLED
The hot-rolling process involves heating the steel at high temperatures and then passing it
through rollers to achieve the desired shape and thickness. HRC comes in various types,
including commercial quality, structural quality, and drawing quality. It is heated at over
1,700˚F, which is above the re-crystallization temperature for most steels. This makes the steel
easier to form, and resulting in products that are easier to work with. The steel is then cooled at
room temperature, which “normalizes” it, eliminating the worry for stresses in the material
arising when quenching or work-hardening.

Characteristic of hot rolled steel sections

When the steel cools off, it will shrink non-uniformly, which gives slightly less control on the
overall size and shape of a finished hot-rolled product.

Hot-rolled steel typically has a scaly surface finish. The scales can be removed by several
techniques i.e pickling, grinding, or sand-blasting.

COLD ROLLED
Cold rolled steel is essentially hot rolled steel that has been through further processing. Once hot
rolled steel has cooled, it is then re-rolled at room temperature to achieve more exact dimensions
and better surface qualities.
Compared to hot-rolled steel, cold-rolled steel has a nearly 20% increase in strength through the
use of strain hardening. It’s through a series of breakdown, semi-finishing, sizing, semi-
roughing, roughing, and finishing that cold-rolled steel shapes can be created.
Cold-rolling steel allows for the creation of very precise shapes. Since the process is performed
at room temperature, the steel will not shrink as it cools, as it does in the hot-rolled process.
The exterior finish of cold-rolled steel is very desirable when aesthetics and visual appeal are a
priority in your project. However, the applications of cold-rolled steel are somewhat limited to a
couple of shapes – square, round, flat, and variations thereof.
Cold rolled steel can often be identified by the following characteristics:

 Better, more finished surfaces with closer tolerances

 Smooth surfaces that are often oily to the touch
 Bars are true and square, and often have well-defined edges and corners
 Tubes have better concentric uniformity and straightness

NOTE: Hot-rolling and cold-rolling should not be mistaken for different grades of steel.
Steels of different grades can be produced as hot-rolled or cold-rolled.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Corrosion and corrosion prevention
Primarily it is important to recognize and define the corrosivity of the environment to which the
structure is to be exposed to enable the specification of an appropriate protective system. A steel
structure exposed to an aggressive environment needs to be protected with a durable system that
may require maintenance for extended life. The optimum protection treatment combines good
surface preparation with suitable coating materials for a required durability at a minimum cost.
Most corrosion of steel can be considered as an electrochemical process which occurs in stages.
Initial attack occurs at anodic areas on the surface, where ferrous ions go into solution. Electrons
are released from the anode and move through the metallic structure to the adjacent catholic sites
on the surface, where they combine with oxygen and water to form hydroxyl ions. These react
with the ferrous ions from the anode to produce ferrous hydroxide, which itself is further
oxidized in air to produce hydrated ferric oxide: red rust (Fig. 35.1).

The sum of these reactions is described by the following equation:

4Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O = 2Fe2O3H2O
(iron/steel) + (oxygen) + (water) = rust

Two important points emerge:

(1) For iron or steel to corrode it is necessary to have the simultaneous presence of
water and oxygen; in the absence of either, corrosion does not occur.
(2) All corrosion occurs at the anode; no corrosion occurs at the cathode.

Corrosion rates
Within a given local environment corrosion rates can vary markedly due to the
effects of sheltering and prevailing winds. It is therefore the ‘microclimate’ immediately
surrounding the structure which determines corrosion rates for practical
purposes.
The principal factors that determine the rate of corrosion of steel in air are:

(1) Time of wetness. This is the proportion of total time during which the surface is
wet, due to rainfall condensation, etc. It follows, therefore, that for unprotected
steel in dry environments, e.g. inside heated buildings, corrosion will be negligible
due to the low availability of water.
(2) Atmospheric pollution. The type and amount of atmospheric pollution and contaminants,
e.g. Sulphur dioxide chlorides, dust, etc.
(3) Sulphates. These originate from Sulphur dioxide gas, which is produced during
the combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. Sulphur-bearing oils and coal. The Sulphur
dioxide gas reacts with water or moisture in the atmosphere to form sulphurous
and sulphuric acids. Industrial environments are a prime source of sulphur
dioxide.
(4) Chlorides. These are mainly present in marine environments. The highest concentrations
of chlorides are to be found in coastal regions, and there is a rapid
reduction moving inland.
Design and corrosion
The prevention of corrosion should therefore be taken into account during the design stage of a
project. The main points to be considered are:

(1) Entrapment of moisture and dirt:

(a) avoid the creation of cavities, crevices, etc.
(b) welded joints are preferable to bolted joints
(c) avoid or seal lap joints
(d) edge-seal HSFG faying surfaces
(e) provide drainage holes for water, where necessary
(f) seal box sections except where they are to be hot-dip galvanized
(g) provide free circulation of air around the structure.
(2) Contact with other materials:
(a) avoid bimetallic connections or insulate the contact surfaces
(b) provide adequate depth of cover and quality of concrete (see BS 8110)
(c) separate steel and timber by the use of coatings or sheet plastics.
(3) Coating application;
design should ensure that the selected protective coatingscan be applied efficiently:
(a) provide vent-holes and drain-holes for items to be hot-dip galvanized
(b) provide adequate access for paint spraying, thermal (metal) spraying, etc.
(4) General factors.
(a) large flat surfaces are easier to protect than more complicated shapes
(b) provide access for subsequent maintenance
(c) provide lifting lugs or brackets where possible to reduce damage during
handling and erection.

Corrosion and corrosion prevention (BS 5493)

Various methods of surface preparation are presented in BS 7079: Part A1: 1989 or
the equivalent ISO 8501–1: 1988 standards and are summarized as follows:
(1) Hand and power tool cleaning (St)
Thorough hand and power tool cleaning.
Both manual and mechanical methods using scrapers, wire brushes, etc., can remove
about 30–50% of rust and scale.
(2) Blast cleaning (Sa)
The blast cleaning process involves the projection of abrasive particles (shot or grit)
in a jet of compressed air or by centrifugal impellers at high velocities on to the steel surface.
This process can be 100% efficient in the removal of rust and scale.
(3) Wet (abrasive) blast cleaning
A further variation on the blast cleaning process is described as wet blasting. In
this process a small amount of water is entrained in the abrasive/compressed
air stream. This is particularly useful in washing from the surface soluble iron
salts which are formed in the rust by atmospheric pollutants (e.g. chlorides and
sulphates) during weathering.These are often located deep in corrosion pits on the steel surface
and cannot be removed by conventional dry blast cleaning methods. Wet abrasive blasting has
proved to be particularly useful on offshore structures and prior to maintenance painting for
structures in heavily polluted environments.
(4) Acid pickling
This process involves immersing the steel in a bath of suitable inhibited acids which dissolve or
remove mill-scale and rust but do not appreciably attack the exposed steel surface. It can be
100% effective. Acid pickling is normally used on structural steel intended for hot-dip
galvanizing but is now rarely used as pre-treatment before painting.

Metallic coatings
There are four commonly used methods of applying metal coating to steel surfaces:
hot-dip galvanizing, thermal (metal) spraying, electroplating and sherardizing. The latter two
processes are not used in structural steelwork but are used for fittings, In general the corrosion
protection afforded by metallic coatings is largely dependent upon the choice of coating metal
and its thickness and is not greatly influenced by the method of application.

Hot-dip galvanizing
The most common method of applying a metal coating to structural steel is by galvanizing.
The galvanizing process involves the following stages:
The cleaned steel is then immersed in a fluxing agent to ensure good contact between the zinc
and steel during immersion. The cleaned and fluxed steel is dipped into a bath of molten zinc at a
temperature of about 450°C at which the steel reacts with the molten zinc to form a series of
zinc/iron alloys on its surface. As the steel work piece is removed from the bath a layer of
relatively pure zinc is deposited on top of the alloy layers.

Thermal (metal) spray coatings

An alternative method of applying a metallic coating to structural steelwork is by thermal (metal)
spraying of either zinc or aluminium. The metal, in powder or wire form, is fed through a special
spray-gun containing a heat source which can be either an oxy-gas flame or an electric arc.
Molten globules of the metal are blown by compressed air jet on to the previously blast-cleaned
steel surface. No alloying occurs and the coating which is produced consists of overlapping
platelets of metal and is porous. The pores are subsequently sealed, either by applying a thin
organic coating which soaks into the surface, or by allowing the metal coating to weather,
when corrosion products block the pores.
Paint coatings
Painting is the principal method of protecting structural steelwork from corrosion. Paints are
applied to steel surfaces by many methods but in all cases they produce a wet film. The thickness
of the wet film can be measured, before the solvent evaporates, using a comb-gauge.
Paints are made by mixing and blending three main components:
(1) Pigments: finely ground inorganic or organic powders which provide colour,
opacity, film cohesion and sometimes corrosion inhibition.
(2) Binders: usually resins or oils but can be inorganic compounds such as soluble
silicates. The binder is the film-forming component in the paint.
(3) Solvents: used to dissolve the binder and to facilitate application of the paint.
Solvents are usually organic liquids or water.

Fire protection and fire engineering

The strength of all materials reduces as their temperature increases. Steel is no exception. It is
essential that the structure should not weaken in fire to the extent that collapse occurs
prematurely, while the occupants are seeking to make their way to safety. For this reason it is
necessary to provide a minimum degree of fire resistance to the building structure

Fire protection and fire engineering

Fire resistance provisions are expressed in units of time: 1/2, 1, 11/2 and 2 hours. It is important
to realize that these times are not allowable escape times for building occupants or even survival
times for the structure.They are simply a convenient way of grading different categories of
buildings by fire load, from those in which a fire is likely to be relatively small, such as low-rise
offices, to those in which a fire might result in a major conflagration, such as a library.

BS 5950: Part 8
BS 5950: Part 82 permits two methods of assessing the fire resistance of bare steel
members. The first, the load ratio method, consists of comparing the design temperature,
which is defined as the temperature reached by an unprotected member in the required fire-
resistance time, with the limiting temperature, which is the temperature at which it will fail. The
load ratio is defined as:
load ratio=load carried at the fire limit state
load capacity at 20 C

If the limiting temperature exceeds the design temperature no protection is necessary.

The method permits designers to make use of reduced loads and higher strength steels to achieve
improved fire-resistance times in unprotected sections. The second method, which is applicable
to beams only, gives benefits when members are partially exposed and when the temperature
distribution is known. It consists of comparing the calculated moment capacity at the required
fire-resistance time with the applied moment. When the moment capacity exceeds the applied
moment no protection is necessary. This method of design is used for unusual structural
forms such as ‘shelf-angle’ floor beams. Some examples of the use of the moment capacity
method are given in the handbook to BS 5950: Part 8.
Limiting temperatures for various structural members are presented in the Appendix Limiting
temperatures. These ‘failure’ temperatures are independent of the form or amount of fire
protection.

Strength of steel at elevated temperatures

Steel begins to lose strength at about 200°C and continues to lose strength at an increasing rate
up to a temperature of about 750°C, when the rate of strength loss flattens off.

Methods of protection
34.5.1 Spray-applied protection
Spray protection is applied around the exposed perimeter of the member, and therefore the
relevant section factors are for profile protection. Application is fast, and it is easy to protect
complex shapes or connections. However, sprays are applied wet, which can create problems in
winter conditions, they can be messy, and the appearance is often poor. For this reason they are
generally used in hidden areas such as on beams above suspended ceilings, or in plant rooms.
34.5.2 Board protection
Board systems form a box around the section and therefore have a reduced heated perimeter in
comparison to spray systems. They are dry fixed by gluing, stapling or screwing, so there is less
interference with other trades on site, and the box appearance is often more suitable for frame
elements, such as free-standing columns, which will be in view.
34.5.3 Intumescent coatings
Intumescent coatings have become more widely used in recent years. Unlike traditional
protection materials their insulating layer is formed only by the action of heat when the fire
breaks out. The coating is applied as a thin layer, perhaps as thin as 1mm, but it contains a
compound in its formulation which releases a gas when heat is applied. This gas inflates the
coating into a thick carbonaceous foam, which provides heat insulation to the steel underneath.
The coatings are available in a range of colours and may be used for aesthetic reasons on visible
steelwork.
Two types of intumescent coating are currently available. The first is commonly
used for ratings up to 11/2 hours used in dry interiors and is not recommended for
wet applications such as swimming pools or in exterior conditions. The second type,
which is water resistant, has a maximum rating of 2 hours but is expensive.
34.5.4 Pre-delivery protection
Application of intumescent coatings in the fabricator’s works, fabrication and fire protection,
into a single off-site contract before delivery means that steelwork can arrive on site finished,
eliminating a whole trade on site. This reduces construction time and can cut overall construction
costs.
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Structural members are categorized based up on the internal forces in them. For example:

 Tension member –subjected to tensile axial force only

 Column or compression member –subjected to compressive axial force only

 Tension/Compression member –subjected to tensile/compressive axial forces

 Beam member –subjected to flexural loads, i.e., shear force and bending moment only. The
axial force in a beam member is negligible.

 Beam-column member – member subjected to combined axial force and flexural loads (shear
force, and bending moments)

 All the members of a truss are connected using pin/hinge connections. All external forces are
applied at the pins/hinges. As a result, all truss members are subjected to axial forces (tension
or compression) only.
 In braced and moment frames, the horizontal members (beams) are subjected to flexural loads
only.
 In braced frames, the vertical members (columns) are subjected to compressive axial forces
only.
 In braced frames, the diagonal members (braces) are subjected to tension/compression axial
forces only.
 In moment frames, the vertical members (beam-columns) are subjected to combined axial and
flexural loads.
For practice, let us categorize the member shown in Figures 2 and 3.
 R
S P
10 ft.
E O
T J Q
12 ft.
I N
D

12 ft.
H M
C

12 ft.
G L
B

15 ft.

A F K

25 ft. 25 ft.

Figure 2. Structural elevation of frame A-A

n u b1
g
m t a1
10 ft. f
l s z
e

12 ft.
k r y
d

12 ft.
j q x
c

12 ft.
i p w
b

15 ft.
h o v
a

35 ft. 35 ft. 35 ft.

Figure 3. Structural elevation of frame B-B

1.5 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS

Members of a structural frame are connected together using connections. Prominent

connection types include: (1) truss / bracing member connections; (2) simple shear connections;
(3) fully-restrained moment connections; and (4) partially-restrained flexible moment connections.
 Truss / bracing member connections are used to connect two or more truss members together.
Only the axial forces in the members have to be transferred through the connection for
continuity.

 Simple shear connections are the pin connections used to connect beam to column members.
Only the shear forces are transferred through the connection for continuity. The bending
moments are not transferred through the connection.

 Moment connections are fix connections used to connect beam to column members. Both the
shear forces and bending moments are transferred through the connections with very small
deformations (full restraint).

 Partially restrained connections are flexible connections used to connect beam to column
members. The shear forces are transferred fully through the connection. However, the bending
moment is only transferred partially.
Figure 5. Bracing connection and Simple Shear Connection at G in Frame A-A.

Beam

Column

Figure 6. All-bolted double angle shear connection.

 • Bevel
• Full penetration groove weld
• Field welding
• Weld access hole
• back -up bar

Beam
• fillet welds
• shear tabs

Column

Figure 7. Directly welded flange fully restrained moment connection.

 Figure 4 shows an example truss connection. Figure 5 shows an example bracing

connection. Figure 6 shows an example shear connection. Figure 7 shows an example
moment connection.
 Connections are developed using bolts or welds.
 Bolts are used to connect two or more plate elements that are in the same plane. Bolt-holes
are drilled in the plate elements. The threaded bolt shank passes through the holes, and the
connection is secured using nuts.
 Bolts are usually made of higher strength steel.
 Welds can be used to connect plate elements that are in the same or different planes. A
high voltage electric arc is developed between the two plate elements. The electric arc
causes localized melting of the base metal (plate element) and the weld electrode. After
cooling, all the molten metal (base and weld) solidifies into one continuum. Thus,
developing a welded connection.
 In Figure 4, all the truss members are connected together by welding to a common gusset
plate. The axial forces in the members are transferred through the gusset plates. This same
connection can also be developed using bolts. How?
 In Figure 5, the bracing members are connected to gusset plates, which are also connected
to the beam and column. The bracing member can be connected to the gusset plate using
bolts or welds. However, the gusset plate has to be welded to the beam / column.
 In Figure 6, two angles are bolted to the web of the beam. The perpendicular legs of the
angles are bolted to the flange of the column. Thus, an all-bolted double-angle shear
connection is achieved. This all-bolted connection will be easier to assemble in the field as
compared to welding. How is this a shear connection?
 In Figure 7, the beam flanges are beveled and welded directly to the flange of column using
full penetration groove welds. This welding will have to be done in the field during erection
and it will require the use of back-up bars. Weld-access holes and skilled welders are
required to achieve a weld of acceptable quality.
 In Figure 7, the beam web is bolted to a shear tab (plate), which is fillet welded to the column in
the shop. This shear tab connection transfers the shear from the beam to the column. How is
Figure 7 a moment connection?
STRUCTURAL STEELWORK DESIGN TO BS 5950
INTRODUCTION
The unit cover the design of structural steel work to British standard 5950 which is a limit state
code that was introduced in 1985. The older permissible stress code BS 449 has now been
largely superseded. BS 5950 is a standard combining codes of practice covering the design,
construction and fire protection of steel structures and specifications for materials, workmanship
and erection. It comprises the following parts:

Part 1: Code of practice for design — Rolled and welded sections;

Part 2: Specification for materials, fabrication and erection — Rolled and
welded sections;
Part 3: Design in composite construction — Section 3.1: Code of practice for
design of simple and continuous composite beams;
Part 4: Code of practice for design of composite slabs with profiled steel
sheeting;
Part 5: Code of practice for design of cold formed thin gauge sections;
Part 6: Code of practice for design of light gauge profiled steel sheeting;
Part 7: Specification for materials, fabrication and erection — Cold formed
sections and sheeting;
Part 8: Code of practice for fire resistant design;
Part 9: Code of practice for stressed skin design.
LIMIT STATE DESIGN
In the limit state design method, the structure shall be designed to withstand safely all loads
likely to act on it throughout its life. It shall not suffer total collapse under accidental loads such
as from explosions or impact or due to consequences of human error to an extent beyond the
local damages. The objective of the design is to achieve a structure that will remain fit for use
during its life with acceptable target reliability. In other words, the probability of a limit state
being reached during its lifetime should be very low. The acceptable limit for the safety and
serviceability requirements before failure occurs is called a limit state. In general, the structure
shall be designed on the basis of the most critical limit state and shall be checked for other limit
states.
Steel structures are to be designed and constructed to satisfy the design requirements with regard
to stability, strength, serviceability, brittle fracture, fatigue, fire, and durability such that they
meet the following:
a) Remain fit with adequate reliability and be able to sustain all actions (loads) and other
influences experienced during construction and use;
b) Have adequate durability under normal maintenance;
c) Do not suffer overall damage or collapse disproportionately under accidental events like
explosions, vehicle impact or due to consequences of human error to an extent beyond local
damage. The potential for catastrophic damage shall be limited or avoided by appropriate choice
of one or more of the following:
• Avoiding, eliminating or reducing exposure to hazards, which the structure is likely to sustain.
• Choosing structural forms, layouts and details and designing such that:
i) the structure has low sensitivity to hazardous conditions; and ii) the structure survives with
only local damage even after serious damage to any one individual element by the hazard.
• Choosing suitable material, design and detailing procedure, construction specifications, and
control procedures for shop fabrication and field construction as relevant to the particular
structure.
The design approach employed in BS 5950 is based on limit state philosophy. The fundamental
principles of the philosophy were explained in Chapter 3 in the context of concrete design. In
relation to steel structures, some of the ultimate and serviceability limit states (ULSs and SLSs)
that may have to be considered are as follows
Ultimate limit states
Strength
The individual structural elements should be checked to ensure that they will not yield, rupture or
buckle under the influence of the ultimate design loads, forces, moments and so on. This will
entail checking beams for the ULSs of bending and shear, and columns for a impressive ULS
and when applicable a bending ULS.
Stability
The building or structural framework as a whole should be checked to ensure that the applied
loads do not induce excessive sway or cause overturning.
Fracture due to fatigue
Fatigue failure could occur in a structure that is repeatedly subjected to rapid reversal of stress.
Connections are particularly prone to such failure. In the majority of building structures, changes
in stress are gradual. However, where dynamic loading could occur, such as from travelling
cranes, the risk of fatigue failure should be considered.
Brittle failure
Sudden failure due to brittle fracture can occur in steelwork exposed to low temperatures; welded
structures are particularly susceptible. Since the steel members in most building frames are
protected from the weather, they are not exposed to low temperatures and therefore brittle
fracture need not be considered. It is more likely to occur in large welded structures, such as
bridges, which are exposed to the extremes of winter temperature. In such circumstances, it is
necessary to select steel of adequate notch ductility and to devise details that avoid high stress
concentrations.
Serviceability limit states
Deflection
Adequate provision must be made to ensure that excessive deflection which could adversely
effect any components or finishes supported by the steel members does not occur.
Corrosion and durability
Corrosion induced by atmospheric or chemical conditions can adversely affect the durability of a
steel structure. The designer must therefore specify a protective treatment suited to the location
of the structure.
Fire protection
Due consideration should also be given to the provision of adequate protection to satisfy fire
regulations. Traditionally fire protection was provided by casing the steelwork in concrete.
Nowadays a number of lightweight alternatives are available.
DESIGN METHODS
Three methods of design are included in BS 5950 Part 1:, Based on connection
Simple design
This method applies to structures in which the end connections between members are such that
they cannot develop any significant restraint moments. Thus, for the purpose of design, the
structure may be considered to be pin-jointed on the basis of the following assumptions:
(a) All beams are simply supported, pin joints, moments are not developed.
(b) All connections are designed to resist only resultant reactions at the appropriate eccentricity.
(c) Columns are subjected to loads applied at the appropriate eccentricity.
(d) Resistance to sway, such as that resulting from lateral wind loads, is provided by either
bracing, shear walls or core walls.
Continuous design (Rigid design)
In this method the structure is considered to be rigidly jointed such that it behaves as a
continuous framework. Therefore, the connections must be capable of transmitting both forces
and bending moments. Portal frames are designed in this manner using either elastic or plastic
analysis.
Semi-Continuous design (Semi-rigid design)
This is an empirical method, seldom adopted, which permits partial interaction between beams
and columns to be assumed provided that certain stated parameters are satisfied.
Plastic design
In this method, the structural usefulness of the material is limited up to ultimate load. This
method has its main application in the analysis and design of statically indeterminate framed
structures. This method provides striking economy as regards the weight of the steel. This
method provides the margin of safety in terms of load factor which one is not less than provided
in elastic design.
Design Process
In the design process, the assessment of whether the structural design requirements will be met
or not requires a knowledge of the stiffness and strength of the structure under load, and of its
local stresses and deformations. The term structural analysis is used to denote the analytical
process by which this knowledge of the response of the structure can be obtained.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCESS
The design process for a beam can be summarized as follows:
1. determination of design shear forces, Fv, and bending moments, M, at critical points on the
element (see Chapter 2);
2. selection of UB or UC;
3. classification of section;
4. check shear strength; if unsatisfactory return to (2);
5. check bending capacity; if unsatisfactory return to (2);
6. check deflection; if unsatisfactory return to (2);
7. check web bearing and buckling at supports or concentrated load; if unsatisfactory provide
web stiffener or return to (2);
8. check lateral torsional buckling (section 4.8.11); if unsatisfactory return to (2) or provide
lateral and torsional restraints;
9. summarize results.
INITIAL SECTION SELECTION
skeletal building structures, that bending is the critical mode of failure, and so beam bending
theory can be used to make an initial selection of section. Readers should refer to Chapter 2 for
more clarification on bending theory if necessary. To avoid bending failure, it is necessary to
ensure that the design moment, M, does not exceed the moment capacity of the section, Mc, i.e.
M < Mc
Generally, the moment capacity for a steel section is given by
Mc = pyS
where
py is the assumed design strength of the steel
S is the plastic modulus of the section
Combining the above equations gives an expression
for S:
S > M/py
This can be used to select suitable universal beam sections from steel tables (Appendix B) with
the plastic modulus of section S greater than the calculated value.

CLASSIFICATION OF SECTION
Having selected a suitable section, or proposed a suitable section fabricated by welding, it must
be classified
Strength classification.
In making the initial choice of section, a steel strength will have been assumed. If grade S275
steel is to be used, for example, it may have been assumed that the strength is 275 N/mm 2. Now
by referring to the flange thickness T from the steel tables, the design strength can be obtained
from Table 9 of BS 5950. If the section is fabricated from welded plate, the strength of the web
and flange may be taken separately from Table 9 of BS 5950 as that for the web thickness t and
flange thickness T respectively.

CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS (Cl. 3.5.2) Table11

The classification of a section gives an indication of its expected performance with particular
reference to the elements of the cross section that are in compression due to bending or axial
load. If the section is stocky, i.e. has thick flanges and web, it can sustain the formation of a
plastic hinge. On the other hand, a slender section, i.e. with thin flanges and web, will fail by
local buckling before the yield stress can be reached. Four classes of section are identified in
clause 3.5.2 of BS 5950:
Class 1 (Plastic)
Cross-sections which can develop plastic hinges and have the rotation capacity required for
failure of the structure by formation of plastic mechanism. The width to thickness ratio of plate
elements shall be less than that specified under Class 1 (Plastic)
• Class 2 (Compact)
Cross-sections which can develop plastic moment of resistance, but have inadequate plastic
hinge rotation capacity for formation of plastic mechanism, due to local buckling come under
this class. The width to thickness ratio of plate elements shall be less than that specified under
Class 2 (Compact), but greater than that specified under Class .1
• Class 3 (Semi-compact)
Cross-sections in which the extreme fiber in compression can reach yield stress but cannot
develop the plastic moment of resistance, due to local buckling. The width to thickness ratio of
plate elements shall be less than that specified under Class 3(Semi-compact), but greater than
that specified under Class 2 (Compact), in Table 11 of BS5950
• Class 4 (Slender)
Cross-sections in which the elements buckle locally even before reaching yield stress. The width
to thickness ratio of plate elements shall be greater than that specified under Class 3 (Semi
compact).

Example 1.0: Classification of Sections

Determine the section classification of the sections indicated in (1) to (3), considering
the loading conditions given:
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATION (Cl. 2.2)
Loads
The loads acting on steel structures may be classified as
(a) Dead loads
(b) Imposed loads
(c) Wind loads;
(d) Earthquake loads;
(e) Erection loads;
• All loads required to be carried by the structure or any part of it due to storage or positioning of
construction material and erection equipment, including all loads due to operation of such
equipment shall be considered as erection loads. The structure as a whole and all parts of the
structure in conjunction with the temporary bracings shall be capable of sustaining these loads
during erection.
(f) Accidental loads such as those due to blast, impact of vehicles, etc;
(g) Secondary effects due to contraction or expansion resulting from temperature changes,
differential settlements of the structures a whole or of its components, eccentric connections,
rigidity of joints differing from design assumptions
LOAD FACTORS
The factor of safety is defined as the factor by which the yield stress of the material is divided to give
the working stress (permissible stress) in the material. A greater value of factor of safety results a
larger cross-section of the member had to be adopted in design. If the factor of safety is
comparatively small, results in appreciable saving in the material. Factors are applied both to the
loads and to the materials, to allow for the possibility that the loads may be greater than the
assumed values and that the materials may be weaker than the assumed values. The design
requirement is often expressed as:
Load Combinations
• Load combinations for design purposes shall be those that produce maximum forces and effects
and consequently maximum stresses and deformations. The following combination of loads with
appropriate partial safety factors as given in Table 2 may be considered. The table is reproduced
here as Table 2 for ready reference.
A different and more logical method of combining loads is used in the BS5950limit states design
method [8], which is based on statistical analyses of the loads and the structure capacities (see
section 1.7.3.4). Strength design is usually carried out for the most severe combination of in
which the negative sign indicates that the dead load acts in the opposite sense to the wind load.
1) (1.4×dead) +(1.6×imposed)
(2) (1.4×dead) +(1.4×wind)
(3) –(1.0×dead) +(1.4×wind)
(4) (1.2×dead) +(1.2×imposed) +(1.2×wind)
Design of Laterally Unrestrained Beams
The resistance of members against instability phenomena caused by a bending moment will be
presented in standard cross sectional shapes, such as I or H bent around the major axis (y axis),
the typical instability phenomenon is lateral-torsional buckling.
Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Lateral – torsional instability is normally associated with beams subject to vertical loading
buckling out of the plane of the applied loads by deflecting sideways and twisting.

Consider a member subject to bending about the strong axis of the cross section (y axis). Lateral-
torsional buckling is characterized by lateral deformation of the compressed part of the cross
section (the compressed flange in the case of I or H sections). This part behaves like a
compressed member, but one continuously restrained by the part of the section in tension, which
initially does not have any tendency to move laterally. As seen in the below Figures, where this
phenomenon is illustrated for a cantilever beam, the resulting deformation of the cross section
includes both lateral bending and torsion. This is why this phenomenon is called lateral-torsional
buckling.
The design of a beam taking into account lateral – torsional buckling consists essentially of
assessing the maximum moment that can safely be carried from acknowledge of the section’s
material and geometrical properties, the support conditions provided and the arrangement of the
applied loading. Codes of practice, such as BS 5400: Part 3, BS 5950: Parts 1 and 5, include
detailed guidance on the subject. Essentially the basic steps required to check a trial section
(using BS 5950: Part I
(1) assess the beam’s effective length LE from a knowledge of the support conditions
provided (clause 4.3.5)
(2) determine beam slenderness lLT using the geometrical parameters u (tabulated in Reference
2), LE/ry, v (Table 19 of BS 5950: Part 1) using values of x (tabulated in Reference 2).
(3) obtain corresponding bending strength pb (Table 16)

(4) calculate buckling resistance moment Mb = pb ￥ the appropriate section modulus, Sx (class

1 or 2), Zx (class 3), Zx,eff (class 4).

Effective Length
The provision of lateral and torsional restraints to a beam introduces the concept of effective
length. The effective length of a compression flange is the equivalent length between restraints
over which a pin-ended beam would fail by lateral torsional buckling. The values to be used in
assessing this are given in Tables 13 and 14 for beams and cantilevers respectively. The values
adopted depend on three factors relating to the degree of lateral and torsional restraint at the
position of the intermittent restraints. They are:
(a) the existence of torsional restraints,
(b) the degree of lateral restraint of the compression flange,
(c) the type of loading.

In the case of beams (Table 13) factors (a) and (b) give rise to seven possible conditions.
(a) When nominal torsional restraint exists, as indicated in Clause 4.2.2, and the compression
flange is fully restrained:
(i) both the compression and tension flanges are fully restrained against rotation on plan,
(ii) the compression flange is fully restrained against rotation on plan,
(iii) both flanges are partially restrained against rotation on plan, or
(iv) the compression flange is partially restrained against rotation on plan,
(v) both flanges are free to rotate on plan.
(b) When both flanges are free to rotate on plan and the compression flange is unrestrained:
(i) partial torsional restraint against rotation about the longitudinal axis provided by the
connection of the bottom flange to the supports,
(ii) partial torsional restraint against rotation about the longitudinal axis is provided only by
pressure of the bottom flange onto supports. Similar conditions exist in Table 14 for cantilevers.
Guidance is given in Clause 4.3.3 to assist designers in assessing the degree of torsional restraint
which exists.
(c) Type of loading:
A beam load is considered normal unless both the beam and the load are free to deflect laterally
and so induce lateral torsional buckling by virtue of the combined freedom; in this case the load
is a destabilizing load. In an efficiently designed braced structural system, destabilizing loads
should not normally arise. In some instances, the existence of such a load is unavoidable e.g. the
side sway induced in crane-gantry girders by the horizontal surge loads (see Figure 6.32).
Design of steel beams and joists

Structural design of steel beams and joists primarily involves predicting the strength of the
member. This requires the designer to imagine all the ways in which the member may fail during
its design life. It would be useful at this point, therefore, to discuss some of the more common
modes of failure associated with beams and joists.
MODES OF FAILURE

Bending
Vertical loading gives rise to bending of the beam and this results in longitudinal stresses being
set up in the beam. These stresses are tensile in one half of the beam and compressive in the
other. As the bending moment increases, more and more of the steel reaches its yield stress.
Eventually, all the steel yields in tension and/or compression across the entire cross section of the
beam. At this point the beam cross-section has become plastic and it fails by formation of a
plastic hinge at the point of maximum moment induced by the loading.
Local buckling
During the bending process, if the compression flange or the part of the web subject to
compression is too thin, the plate may actually fail by buckling or rippling before the full plastic
moment is reached.
Shear
Excessive shear forces usually adjacent to supports, may cause beam to fail in shear. The beam
web, which resists shear forces, as steel yields in tension and compression in the shaded zones.
The formation of plastic hinges in the flanges accompanies this process.
Shear buckling
During the shearing process described above, if the web is too thin it will fail by buckling or
rippling in the shear zone
Web bearing and buckling
Due to high vertical stresses directly over a support or under a concentrated load, the beam web
may actually crush, or buckle as a result of these stresses.
Lateral - torsional buckling
When the beam has a higher bending stiffness in the vertical plane compared to the horizontal
plane, the beam can twist sideways under the load. This is illustrated where a beam is not
prevented from moving sideways, by a floor, for instance, or the beam is not nominally
torsionally restrained at supports, it is necessary to check that it is laterally stable under load.
Nominal torsional restraint may be assumed to exist if web cleats, partial depth end plates or fin
plates, for example, are present.
Deflection
Although a beam cannot fail as a result of excessive deflection alone, it is necessary to ensure
that deflections are not excessive under unfactored imposed loading. Excessive deflections are
those resulting in severe cracking in finishes which would render the building unserviceable.