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Comparative Analysis of Search Algorithms in AI

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29282.61123

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 Comparative Analysis of Search Algorithms in AI
Ayesha Shafique Fatima Sohail Shaukat Ayesha Islam Qadri
B. Sc Computer Engineering B. Sc Computer Engineering B. Sc Computer Engineering
Student At Student At Student At
University of Engineering University of Engineering University of Engineering
and Technology, Lahore and Technology, Lahore and Technology, Lahore
Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan

Abstract:

Solving a problem entail seeking the best solution among those available. In computer science and artificial
intelligence, finding a solution to a problem is prevalently thought of as a process of searching through space for
possible solutions. In Engineering and Mathematics, on the other hand, it is thought of as an optimization process,
determining the most effective or optimal solution to a problem. These narrow the search space and increase its
efficiency. It chooses which has the least futility at each step of the search. In this paper, we classify the various
AI search and optimization techniques based on their pros and cons. To make it easier to select a technique for a
specific problem.

Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, Complexity, Optimization, Searching, Informed Search, Uniformed

Search.

1. INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines
and the branch of computer sciences that aims to create
it. Many authors have different perceptions of AI like.
i. It is the science and engineering of making
intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer
programs. It is related to the similar task of using
computers to understand human intelligence, but AI
does not have to confine itself to methods that are
biologically observable [1].
Figure 1 Artificial Intelligence Trends
ii. The study and design of intelligence agents [2].
Where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives 1.1 Search and Artificial Intelligence:
its environment and takes action that maximizes its
chances of success [3]. The last 50 years of research witnessed the
iii. As a system that thinks like humans: - This is the development of a large number of AI tools for solving
exciting new effort to make computers think --- the most difficult problems in computer science and
machines with minds, in the full and literal sense. The engineering. These tools are; Search and optimization,
automation of activities that we associate with human Logic, Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning,
thinking, activities such as decision-making, problem- Classifiers and statistical learning methods, Neural
solving, and learning --- [4]. networks, Control theory, and, Languages.
iv. As a system that acts like a human: - This is the act Search algorithms are being used for a multitude of AI
of creating machines that perform functions that tasks, one of which is pathfinding. The field of search
require intelligence when performed by people. Also, in AI is closely connected to real-world problem-
it is the study of how to make computers do things at solving. AI has researched search methods for solving
which at the moment, people are better [5]. path-planning problems in large domains. After
v. As a system that thinks rationally: - this is the study formulating problems, we must solve them, which is
of mental faculties, through the use of computational accomplished by searching through the state space
models [6]. during this process.

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 2.2 AI-Powered Search:

Figure 1.1 Types of Nodes in Searching

The majority of research on search methods has

focused on how to solve one-shot path planning
problems. Since search is mostly a repetitive process,
many AI systems re-plan from scratch to solve the path
planning problem on their own. The engineers are
required to design new, better, more efficient, less
complex, and less expensive systems as well as to
devise plans and procedures for the improved
operation of existing systems in both industrial and the
scientific world. [5].

2. PLACE OF SEARCH IN AI Figure 2.1.2 AI-Powered Search Components

2.1 Definition Of Search in AI: 2.2 Classification Of Searching

Techniques:
This is a central concept in artificial intelligence. It is
inherent to artificial intelligence problem-solving
techniques. Fundamentally, artificial intelligence
problems are inherently complex. Attempting to solve
problems that humans handle by applying innate
cognitive abilities, pattern recognition, etc using
computers invariably must turn to considerations of
search [4].
Figure 2.2.1 Romania Map Problem with cost in km

All search techniques can be found to belong to one of

Figure 2.1.1 Cluster of Nodes
two categories of search methods which are:
2.2.1 Uniformed (Blind) Search Method:
An uninformed Search is a blind search or brute force
search which includes search techniques such as
Breadth First Search, Depth First Search, Depth-
limited search, Iterative Deepening, Uniform Cost
Search, and Bidirectional Search. An uninformed the
search does not contain any information about the
number of steps to reach the current state to the goal
state. The uninformed search will consider the path,

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which is most promising at that moment, it will not
consider the optimum path to reach the goal.
2.2.2 Heuristic or Informed Search Method:
Informed search is the Heuristic search that uses a
heuristic function (To estimate how close a given state
is from the goal state) to solve a problem. The
informed search uses to generate and test the approach.
It includes hill climbing, A*, AO*, Best First Search,
and Greedy Best First Search algorithms. An informed
search is more efficient than an uninformed search. In
informed search heuristic function is used as a model
that will lead us to the goal state. The informed search
will not traverse the search tree blindly. It will
consider the next node to traverse based on some
evaluation function (Heuristic Function) to reach the
goal state from the current state.
Figure 2.2.2 Eight puzzle search tree fragment
2.3 Evaluation Criteria
Figure 2.3 Evaluation Criteria four Components
The uninformed and informed search strategies which
are considered in this research paper has evaluated
based on the following four criteria: completeness,
optimality, time complexity, and space complexity.
Completeness: This property intends to check
whether the algorithm guarantees to find the solution
to the problem if any exists.
Optimality: This property investigates whether or not
the strategy provides the optimal solution.
Time complexity: This property evaluates the time
required to find the solution to the problem.
Space complexity: This property evaluates the
memory, and space required to run the search
algorithm.
Key terms being used in evaluation and their
description are given below
 b -> branching factor
 d -> depth of the shallowest solution
 m -> max. depth of search tree
 l -> depth limit
 a -> complete if b is finite
 b -> complete if step cost >=E for E>0
 c -> optimal if step costs are same
 d -> if both directions use BFS
3. UNIFORMED SEARCH
ALGORITHMS
3.1 Breath First Search
Breadth-first search expands nodes in order of their
depth from the root, generating one level of the tree at
a time until a solution is found. It is most easily
implemented by maintaining a first-in-first-out queue
of nodes, initially containing just the root, and always
removing the node at the head of the queue, expanding
it, and adding its children to the tail of the queue. Since
it never generates a node in the tree until all the nodes
at shallower levels have been generated, breadth-first
search always finds the shortest path to a goal. Since
each node can be generated in constant time, the
amount of time used by the breadth-first search is
proportional to the number of nodes generated, which
is a function of the branching factor b and the solution
depth d. Since the number of nodes in a uniform tree
at level d is bd , the total number of nodes generated in
the worst case is b+b2+b3+· · ·+bd, which is O(bd), the
asymptotic time complexity of the breadth-first
search.
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3.1.1 Implementation 3.1.5 Evaluation of Algorithm
The breadth-first search has the following properties:

Figure 3.1.1 Graphical representation of breadth-first

search

3.1.2 Advantages
The breadth-first search always finds a solution to the
problem if any exists. If the problem has more than one
solution, then the algorithm finds the solutions in
ascending order of their costs which means that the
cheapest solution will be found first. Since this search
strategy is traversal, a situation where the algorithm Figure 3.1.2 Evaluation of Breath First Search
will explore a branch that is indefinitely deep can
never occur. 3.2 Depth First Search
3.1.3 Disadvantages Depth-first search removes the space limitation of
breadth-first and uniform-cost search by always
The main drawback of breadth-first search is its
generating next a child of the deepest unexpanded
memory requirement. Since each level of the tree must
be stored to generate the next level, and the amount of node. BFS and DFS - Both algorithms can be
memory is proportional to the number of nodes stored, implemented using a list of unexpanded nodes, with
the space complexity of the breadth-first search is also the difference that breadth-first search manages the list
O(bd). As a result, breadth-first search is severely as a first-in-first-out queue, whereas depth-first search
space-bound in practice and will exhaust the memory treats the list as a last-in-first-out stack. More
available on typical computers in a matter of minutes. commonly, depth-first search is implemented
recursively, with the recursion stack taking the place
3.1.4 Applications & Limitations
of an explicit node stack.
Breadth First Search is used for:
3.2.1 Implementation:
 For unweighted graph minimum spanning
tree and shortest path.
 Shared network.
 Social Networking Websites.
 Global Positioning System Navigation
systems.
 For testing whether the graph is bipartite or
not.

Breadth First Search is applicable when:

 You need to discover the solution to the

problem containing the least curves.
 Few solutions may exist, and at least one has
Figure 3.2.1 Graphical representation of depth-first search
a short path length.
 Memory is not an issue.

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3.2.2 Advantages:
The advantage of depth-first search is that its space
requirement is only linear in the maximum search
depth, as opposed to exponential for breadth-first
search. The reason is that the algorithm only needs to
store a stack of nodes on the path from the root to the
current node. The time complexity of a depth-first
search to depth d is O(bd) since it generates the same
set of nodes as a breadth-first search, but simply in a
different order. Thus, as a practical matter, depth-first
search is time-limited rather than space-limited.
3.2.3 Disadvantage:
The primary disadvantage of the depth-first search is
that it may not terminate on an infinite tree, but simply
go down the left-most path forever. For example, even
though there are a finite number of states in the eight-
game puzzle, the tree fragment shown in Figure 2.1
can be infinitely extended down any path, generating
an infinite number of duplicate nodes representing the Figure 3.2.2 Evaluation of Depth First Search
same states. The usual solution to this problem is to
impose a cutoff depth on the search. Although the
3.3 Depth Limited Search
ideal cutoff is the solution depth d, this value is rarely Depth-first search removes the space limitation of
known in advance of actually solving the problem. If breadth-first and uniform-cost search by always
the chosen cutoff depth is less than d, the algorithm generating next a child of the deepest unexpanded
will fail to find a solution, whereas if the cutoff depth node. Both algorithms can be implemented using a list
is greater than d, a large price is paid in execution time, of unexpanded nodes, with the difference that breadth-
and the first solution found may not be an optimal one. first search manages the list as a first-in-first-out
queue, whereas depth-first search treats the list as a
3.2.4 Applications & Limitations last-in-first-out stack. More commonly, depth-first
search is implemented recursively, with the recursion
Depth First Search is used for: stack taking the place of an explicit node stack.
 Identifying loops in a graph. 3.3.1 Implementation
 Identifying components that are strongly
connected in a graph.
 Finding the solution to the puzzle in which
only one solution exists.

Depth First Search is applicable when:

 Memory is limited.
 The order of the neighbors of a node added to
the stack can be tuned so that solutions are
found on the first attempt.
 It is a poor technique when it is conceivable
to get captured in endless ways, this happens
when the graph is endless or at the point when
there are cycles in the graph.

3.2.5 Evaluation of Algorithm: Figure 3.3.1 Graphical representation of depth-limited

search.
Depth-first search has the following properties:

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3.3.2 Advantages 3.2 Iterative Deepening Search
Depth-limited search is more efficient than Depth First This search method is also known as iterative
search, using less time and memory. If a solution deepening depth-first search. The method is a
exists, the Depth First search guarantees that it will be combination of two search techniques: the breadth-
found in a finite amount of time. To address the first search and the depth-first search. The limit of the
drawbacks of the Depth First search, we set a depth depth is changed iteratively to best fit the problem
limit and run our search technique repeatedly through definition and the goal sought.
the search tree.
3.4.1 Implementation:
3.3.3 Disadvantages
For this method to work, it must have a depth limit. If
the target node does not exist inside the chosen depth
limit, the user will be forced to iterate again, increasing
execution time. If the goal node does not exist within
the specified limit, it will not be discovered.

3.3.4 Applications & Limitation

Depth-limited search is used for

 When you choose d as the depth limit and you

know that the solution lies within that depth
limit.
 Game theory.

Depth-limited search can be terminated with two

Conditions of failure:

 Standard failure value: It indicates that the

problem does not have any solution.
 Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for
the problem within a given depth limit.

3.3.5 Evaluation of Algorithm

Depth-limited search has the following properties:

Figure 3.4.1 Graphical representation of iterative

deepening search

3.4.2 Advantages
When the solutions are found at the lower depths say
n, then the algorithm proves to be efficient and in time.
The great advantage of iterative deepening depth-first
search is found in-game tree searching where the
iterative deepening depth-first search operation tries to
improve the depth definition, heuristics, and scores of
searching nodes so as to enable efficiency in the search
algorithm. Another major advantage of the iterative
deepening depth-first search is its quick
responsiveness.

3.4.3 Disadvantages

Figure 3.3.2 Evaluation of Depth Limited Search The time taken is exponential to reach the goal node.
The main problem with iterative deepening depth-first

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search is the time and wasted calculations that take
place at each depth. The situation is not as bad as we
may think of especially when the branching factor is
found to be high. When we are to find multiple
answers from the iterative deepening depth-first
search, it gives back the success nodes and its path
once even if it needs to be found again after multiple
iterations. To stop the depth bound is not increased
further.
3.4.4 Applications & Limitation
Iterative Deepening Search is used for:
 Artificial Intelligence and Data Science-
analyzing network
 Puzzle-solving with a unique solution
(example: sudoku)
 Detecting cycle in a graph.
 Sorting Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)
 N- Queens problem
Iterative deepening search is applicable when:
 BFS is valid
3.4.5 Evaluation of Algorithm
Iterative deepening search has the following
properties:
Figure 3.4.2 Evaluation of Iterative Deepening Search
3.5 Uniform Cost Search
If all edges do not have the same cost, then the breadth-
first search generalizes to a uniform-cost search.
Instead of expanding nodes in order of their depth
from the root, uniform-cost search expands nodes in
order of their cost from the root. At each step, the next
node n to be expanded is one whose cost g(n) is lowest,
where g(n) is the sum of the edge costs from the root
to node n. The nodes are stored in a priority queue.
This algorithm is similar to Dijkstra’s single-source
shortest-path algorithm.
3.5.1 Difference in UCS & Dijkstra
The main difference is that uniform-cost search runs
until a goal node is chosen for expansion, while
Dijkstra’s algorithm runs until every node in a finite
graph is chosen for expansion. Whenever a node is
chosen for expansion by uniform-cost search, the
lowest-cost path to that node has been found. The
worst-case time complexity of the uniform-cost search
is O(bc/e), where c is the cost of an optimal solution,
and e is the minimum edge cost. Unfortunately, it also
suffers the same memory limitation as breadth-first
search.
3.5.2 Implementation:
Figure 3.5.1 Graphical Representation of Uniform Cost
search
The uniform cost search steps are used as follows:
Initial step: {[𝑁1, 0]};
Step 1: {[𝑁1 𝑁2, 3], [𝑁1 𝑁5, 14]};
Step 2: {[𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3, 8], [𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁4, 6],
[𝑁1 𝑁5, 14]};
Step 3: {[𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁5, 13], [𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑁4 𝑁5, 10], [𝑁1 𝑁5, 14]};
Step 4 (Final result): The shortest path from node 𝑁1
to node 𝑁5 is defined as
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁4 𝑁5
3.5.3 Advantages
It will help you find the path with the most reduced
cumulative cost in a weighted graph having a different
cost associated with each of its edges from the start
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node to the end node. Due to the least path being
followed at each state, It is considered an optimal
solution.
3.5.4 Disadvantages
You are required to keep the empty list sorted as
priorities in the priority queue need to be protected.
The storage requirement is hilariously large. You are
to stop it from going on an infinite loop as it considers
every possible path going from the start node to the
end node.
3.5.5 Applications & Limitations
Uniform Cost Search is used for:
 Solving Maze problem.
 Pathfinding.
Uniform Cost Search is applicable when:
 Space requirement is less.
 Intelligence is not required or when
evaluation function (Heuristic function) is
not required.
3.5.6 Evaluation of Algorithm
Uniform Cost Search Algorithm has the following
properties:
Figure 3.5.2 Evaluation of Uniform Cost Search
3.6 Bidirectional Search
Figure 3.6 Semantic View of Bidirectional
Search
In this method, the search has a running technique in
two directions. Indeed, two searches run
simultaneously. One of them is done in a forward
direction from the initial state, and another one is done
backward from the goal state. The aim is that these
two searches should join midway. The motivation for
implementing such a search method is the following:
if a search algorithm requires a complexity of “bd” to
reach the goal, splitting it into two sub-algorithms will
require “bd/2 + bd/2” of complexity which is
significantly less than “bd”, especially when the values
of b and d increase. The goal is used as the starting
state of the backward search. Therefore, the goal test
is replaced by a flag with the rule to check whether two
searches have expanded up to their intersection point.
Although the bidirectional search seems to be good in
terms of complexity, difficulties occur in
implementing the backward search.
3.6.1 Implementation
Figure 3.6.1 Graphical representation of bidirectional
search
3.6.2 Advantages
For instance, for the branching factor b = 8 and depth
d = 4, the breadth-first search needs time which is
proportional to 84 = 4096 whereas the bidirectional
search is more effective because of time which is
proportional to 2*82 = 128 to reach the goal.
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3.6.3 Disadvantages to be chosen should have lowest value of the heuristic
function f (n) .
It is also to note that a bidirectional search is not
practical for use if the value of d is large. 4.1.1 Implementation
3.6.4 Evaluation of Algorithm
Bidirectional search has the following properties:

Figure 3.6.2 Evaluation of Bidirectional Search

4. INFORMED SEARCH Figure 4.1.1 Graphical representation of best first search

ALGORITHMS
4.1 Best First Search
4.1.2 Advantages
The best first search is a searching algorithm which
works on the set of defined rules. It uses the concept Best-first search allows us to take the advantages of
of a priority queue and evaluation function. In artificial both algorithms, bfd and dfs. With the help of best-
intelligence, the best first search algorithm is used for first search, at each step we can choose the most
finding the shortest path from a given starting node to promising node.
a goal node in a graph. The algorithm works by 4.1.3 Disadvantages
expanding the nodes of the graph in order of increasing
the distance from the starting node until the goal node There are chances of getting stuck in a loop.
is reached. Sometimes, it covers more distance than our
consideration (worst case scenario). It should be also
Best-first search is created by combining breadth-first noted that the heuristic function can sometimes lead to
and depth-first search techniques. Because of this the costly path.
reason the best-first search gets the advantages of both
breadth-first and depth-first search techniques. The 4.1.4 Applications & Limitation
best-first search does not consider all the possible
Best First Search is used in:
paths in graph, and this strategy finds the path which
has no loop. In best-first search the evaluation  Games.
function f (n) is used for each node to find out the  Web crawlers.
desirability of a node; so the most promising and
desirable unexpanded node is expanded. So the node Best First Search is not reliable as:

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  It can behave as an unguided depth-first
search in the worst-case scenario.
 This algorithm is not optimal.
4.1.5 Evaluation of Algorithm
Best First Search algorithm has the following
properties:
Figure 4.1.2 Evaluation of Best First Search
4.2 Greedy Best First Search
Greedy Best First Search is a special case of Best First
Search algorithm. In comparison with the best-first
search where the evaluation function f (n) is used, the
greedy best-first search uses the heuristic function h(n)
and heuristic values to try to obtain the best solution
of the problem. It targets the goal by trying to expand
the closest node to the goal.
4.2.5 Implementation
Figure 4.2.1 Graphical representation of greedy best first
search
Figure 4.2.2 Steps of nodes’ expansion in digraph for the
greedy best-first search
4.2.2 Advantages
It always takes the path which appears best at the
moment. It is useful only for the best case.
4.2.3 Disadvantages
It is a recursive algorithm hence; it can get stuck in an
infinite loop if it’s not implemented carefully. The
problem with greedy best-first search is that it’s short-
sighted. Greedy best-first search only maximizes the
short-term advantage which may not be the best in
long-term.
4.2.4 Applications & Limitations
Best First Search is used:
 If the search space is finite, then, similar to
DFS, greedy best-first search can
be complete.
Best First Search is not reliable as:
 In worst case, the time complexity of greedy
best-first search is , same to DFS
 Not Optimal
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4.2.5 Evaluation of Algorithm 4.3.2 Advantages
It potentially reduces the computation and hence, the
time of search. The memory consumption of beam
search is far less than other search algorithms.

4.3.3 Disadvantages
The search may not result in an optimal goal and may
not result in a goal at all. It’s biggest disadvantage is
that it has potential to be incomplete.

4.3.4 Applications & limitations

Beam Search is used as below:

 A beam search is most often used to maintain

tractability in large systems with insufficient
memory to store the entire search tree. For
example.
 It has been used in many machine
translation systems.

Beam Search has following drawbacks:

 The search may not result in an optimal goal

and may not even reach a goal at all after
Figure 4.2.3 Evaluation of Greedy Best First Search given unlimited time and memory when there
is a path from the start node to the goal node.
4.3 Beam Search
4.3.5 Evaluation of Algorithm
Beam search is a heuristic search algorithm that
explores a graph by expanding the most optimistic
node in a limited set. It progresses level by level and
moves downwards only from the best nodes at each
level. Beam search uses breadth-first search to build
its search tree.

4.3.1 Implementation

Figure 4.3.2 Evaluation of Beam Search

4.4 Dijkstra’s Algorithm

Dijkstra's algorithm is an algorithm that finds the
Figure 4.3.1 Graphical Representation of Beam Search shortest path between two nodes in undirected graph
with non-negative edge weights. This algorithm uses

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the weights of the edges to find the path that minimizes 4.4.5 Evaluation of Algorithm
the total distance (weight) between the source node
and all other nodes. It expands outwards from the
starting point until it reaches the goal.

4.4.1 Implementation

Figure 4.4.1 Graphical Representation of Dijkstra's

Algorithm for the shortest path

4.4.2 Advantages Figure 4.4.2 Evaluation of Dijkstra Algorithm

The main advantage of Dijkstra's algorithm is its
considerably low complexity, which is almost linear.
It has an order of n2 so it is efficient enough to use for
relatively large problems.
4.4.3 Disadvantages
It does a blind search there by consuming a lot of time
waste of necessary resources. Another disadvantage is
that it cannot handle negative edges. This leads to
acyclic graphs and most often cannot obtain the right
shortest route.
4.4.4 Applications & Limitations
Dijkstra’s Algorithm is used in:
 It is used in finding Shortest Path.
 It is used in geographical Maps.
 To find locations of Map which refers to
vertices of graph.
 Distance between the location refers to edges.
 It is used in IP routing to find Open shortest
Path First.
4.5 Hill Climbing Algorithm
Hill climbing is a mathematical optimization
technique in computer science that belongs to the local
search family. The Hill climbing algorithm is a local
search algorithm that moves in the direction of
increasing elevation/value to find the mountain's peak
or the best solution to the problem. It ends when it
reaches a maximum value for which no neighbor has
a higher value. A node in a hill climbing algorithm has
two components: state and value. When a good
heuristic is available, hill climbing is commonly used.
We don't need to maintain and handle the search tree
or graph in this algorithm because it only keeps a
single current state. It does not retrace the search space
because it does not remember previous states.
Heuristic Function

It’s not reliable in some as:

 It can't give proper result for the graphs
having negative weighed edges.
 This leads to acyclic graphs and most often
cannot obtain the right shortest path.
Figure 4.5 Heuristic Function
A heuristic function is one that ranks all possible
alternatives based on the available information at any
branching step in the search algorithm. It assists the

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algorithm in selecting the best route from among those
available.
4.5.1 Implementation
State space Diagram:
The state-space diagram depicts the set of states that
our search algorithm can reach in relation to the value
of our objective function (the function which we wish
to maximize).
The X-axis represents the state space, or the possible
states or configurations for our algorithm.
The Y-axis represents the values of the objective
function that correspond to a specific state.
Figure 4.5.1 Graphical Representation of Hill Climbing
Algorithm
Local maximum: It is a state that is better than its
neighboring state, but there is another state that is
better than it (global maximum). This state is
preferable because the objective function's value is
higher here than in its neighbors.
Global Maxima: The best possible state in the state
space diagram is called the global maximum. This is
because the objective function has the highest value at
this stage.
Local maximum plateau/flat: It is a flat region of
state space in which adjacent states have the same
value.
Ridge: A region that is higher than its neighbors but
has a slope to it. It is a particular type of local
maximum.
4.5.2 Advantages
Hill climbing can be used in both continuous and
domain contexts. This method is extremely useful in
job shop scheduling, automatic programming, circuit
design, and vehicle routing. It is also useful in solving
pure optimization problems in which the goal is to find
the best state given the objective function.
4.5.3 Disadvantages
If hill climbing enters any of the following regions, it
will be unable to reach the optimal/best state (global
maximum).
Local Maxima
At a local maximum, all neighboring states have
values that are lower than the current state. Because
hill-climbing is greedy, it will not progress to the worst
state and terminate itself. Even if a better solution
exists, the process will come to an end.
Use the backtracking technique to solve the local
maximum problem. Keep track of the states you've
visited. If the search reaches an unfavorable point, it
can revert to the previous configuration and try again.
Plateau
All neighbors on the plateau have the same value. As
a result, choosing the best direction is impossible.
To break through a plateau, take a big leap. Choose a
state that is far from the current state at random. We
are likely to land in a non-plateau region.
Ridge
Because movement is downward in all directions, any
point on a ridge can appear to be a peak. As a result,
the algorithm terminates when it reaches this state.
To overcome Ridge, use two or more rules before
testing. It implies moving in several directions at the
same time.
4.5.4 Applications
Hill Climbing Algorithm is used in:
 Hill climbing is commonly used in robotics
to assist their systems in working as a team
and maintaining coordination.
 The algorithm can be useful in team
management in various marketing domains
where hill climbing can be used to find an
optimal solution. This algorithm can be used
to optimise a sales member's travel time or
the places he visits per day.
4.6 A* Algorithm
The A* Search algorithm is one of the most effective
and widely used techniques in pathfinding and graph
traversal. Informally, unlike other traversal
techniques, A* Search algorithms have "brains." It is
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a smart algorithm, which distinguishes it from other
conventional algorithms. It is also worth noting that
many games and web-based maps use this algorithm
to efficiently find the shortest path. This makes A*
intelligent and puts it far ahead of traditional
algorithms. The most well-known type of best-first
search is A* search. It employs the heuristic function
h(n) and the cost to reach the node n from the initial
state g(n).
It combines UCS and greedy best-first search features
to efficiently solve the problem. The heuristic function
is used by the A* search algorithm to find the shortest
path through the search space. This search algorithm
expands fewer search trees and returns optimal results
more quickly. The A* algorithm is similar to the UCS
algorithm except that it uses g(n)+h(n) instead of g(n),
and the sum of these two numbers is known as the
fitness number.
4.6.1 Implementation
We can use any data structure to implement open list
and closed list but for best performance, we use a set
data structure of C++ STL (implemented as Red-Black
Tree) and a Boolean hash table for a closed list. The
implementations are similar to Dijkstra’s algorithm
except we add in a heuristic. If we use a Fibonacci
heap to implement the open list instead of a binary
heap/self-balancing tree, then the performance will
become better (as Fibonacci heap takes O (1) average
time to insert into open list and to decrease key).
Figure 4.6.1 Graphical Representation of A* Algorithm for
the shortest path between
4.6.2 Advantages
The A* search algorithm outperforms all other search
algorithms. The search algorithm A* is both optimal
and complete. This algorithm can resolve extremely
complex problems.
4.6.3 Disadvantages
If the branching factor is finite and every action has a
fixed cost, this algorithm is complete. The speed with
which A* search is executed is highly dependent on
the accuracy of the heuristic algorithm used to
compute h(n). It does not always find the shortest path
because it relies heavily on heuristics and
approximation. There are some complexity issues with
the A* search algorithm. The main disadvantage of A*
is its memory requirement, as it keeps all generated
nodes in memory, making it unsuitable for a variety of
large-scale problems.
4.6.4 Applications & Limitations
A* Algorithm is used in:
 It is used to determine the shortest path. You
can use this to find a path to the goal for each
enemy. One example is the extremely
popular game Warcraft III.
 It can be used in map-based applications as a
path-finding algorithm.
 This can also be used by string searching
applications to determine the goal state. NLP
uses this to check for parsing errors.
It’s not reliable in some as:
 Despite being the best path finding algorithm
available, A* Search Algorithm does not
always produce the shortest path because it
heavily relies on heuristics / approximations
to calculate - h
4.6.5 Evaluation of Algorithm
Figure 4.6.2 Evaluation of A* Algorithm
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4.6.1 8 Puzzle Game & A* The game principle is described as follows: there are 8
sliding tiles which are numbered by digits from 1 to 8
A* search technique is also used to solve the 8-puzzle
to be located in an array with three rows and three
game. This game was invented by Loyd in 1870. The
columns; the number 0 represents the empty cell
8-puzzle game is a well-known game used for the
(blank space), and any numbered tile can slide into an
evaluation and showcase of the power of Artificial
empty sell. It means that the digit 0 can simply be
Intelligence in general and search methods in
replaced by the void. The initial state is made by a
particular.
random positioning of the digits and the goal state is
usually defined in a way that the numbers from 1 to 8
can be read in ascending or descending order,
following a unique direction. The number of different
possible configurations the 8-puzzle game is equal to
9!=362880. The number of accessible state
configurations in 8-puzzle game is just half of 9!; in
other words 9!/2 is the number of solvable (reachable)
configurations in 8-puzzle sliding game.

The following assumptions, notations and operators

are used: Opr(Row, Column, Direction) with Row &
Column = {1,2,3}; Direction = {U,D,L,R}, where U,
D, L, and R represent Up, Down, Left, and Right,
respectively. Explicitly Opr stands for operator. The
row and column index values range from 1 to 3 (from
the set {1,2,3}). The following are the possible
directions: u = upper; d = down; l = left; r = right. As
summary, the operator ‘Opr(Row, Column,
Direction)’ has three parameters which are the row
index, the column index and the direction toward
which the located element is moved.

4.7 AO* Algorithm

The AO* algorithm performs best-first search. The
AND-OR graph concept is used by the AO*
algorithm to decompose any complex problem given
into a smaller set of problems that are then solved.
AND-OR graphs are specialized graphs that are used
in problems that can be broken down into
subproblems, where the AND side of the graph
represents a set of tasks that must be completed in
order to achieve the main goal, and the or side of the
graph represents the various ways in which tasks can
be completed in order to achieve the same main goal.

4.7.1 Implementation

Figure 4.6.3 Optimal solution of the 8-puzzle game for the

given initial and goal states Figure 4.7.1 Graphical Representation of AO* Algorithm

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4.7.2 Advantages 4.8.1 Implementation
It is the best algorithm. If you traverse according to the To be honest, it doesn't really matter in terms of data
node ordering. It can be applied to both the OR and structures because the cost of managing the tree is
AND graphs. It is an easy-to-understand step-by-step negligible in comparison to the cost of everything else
representation of a solution to a given problem. An in a branch-and-bound algorithm, particularly in C++.
algorithm follows a specific procedure. It is not Only when solving 1-2 variable problems will you
dependent on any programming language, making it notice the cost of sorting or inserting nodes, and even
simple to understand even for those with no then, it will be very small.
programming experience. Each step in an algorithm
has its own logical sequence, making debugging
simple. Because the problem is broken down into
smaller pieces or steps by using an algorithm, it is
easier for a programmer to convert it into an actual
programme.

4.7.3 Disadvantages
Algorithms take time to develop. It is difficult to
demonstrate Branching and Looping in Algorithms.
Algorithms struggle to handle large tasks. It can't
always find the best path for unsolvable nodes. Its
complexity is greater than that of other algorithms.

4.7.4 Applications & Limitations

AO* Algorithm is used in:

 To my knowledge, AO* has rarely been used

in practical applications. It is useful for
searching game trees, problem solving, and
so on, but more domain specific search
algorithms (e.g., alpha-beta pruning for game
trees, general or domain specific planning
algorithms) are typically used instead.

It’s not reliable in some as:

 It can't always find the best path for

unsolvable nodes. Its complexity is greater Figure 4.8.1 Flowchart for Branch and Bound
than that of other algorithms.

4.8 Branch and Bound Technique

The branch and bound technique is one of the
problem-solving techniques. It is similar to
backtracking in that it uses the state space tree (A state
space tree is a tree in which the solution is built by
adding elements one by one, beginning at the root). It
is worth noting that the root contains no elements).
This method works best for combinatorial problems
with exponential time complexity because it provides
a more efficient solution. It is used to solve
optimization and minimization problems. If we are
given a maximization problem, we can convert it using
the Branch and bound technique by simply changing Figure 4.8.2 Graphical Representation of branch and
the problem to a maximization problem. bound technique

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4.8.2 Advantages
In a branch and bound algorithm, we do not explore all
of the nodes in the tree. As a result, the time
complexity of the branch and bound algorithm is lower
when compared to other algorithms. The branch and
bound algorithm seeks the shortest path to the best
solution for a given problem. It does not repeat nodes
while traversing the tree. Finds the best solution (if the
problem is of limited size and enumeration can be
done in reasonable time). Because it finds the shortest
path rather than the shortest successor, there should be
no repetition.
4.8.3 Disadvantages
The branch and bound algorithm take a long time to
complete. The number of nodes in the tree may be too
large in the worst-case scenario, depending on the size
of the given problem. Parallelization of the Branch and
Bound algorithm is difficult due to the load balancing
aspects.
4.8.4 Applications & Limitations
Branch and Bound Algorithm is used in:
 Applied computing. Enterprise computing.
 Computing methodologies. Artificial
intelligence. Search methodologies.
Heuristic function construction.
 Theory of computation. Design and analysis
of algorithms. Approximation algorithms
analysis.
 The branch and bound approach is based on
the idea that the total set of feasible solutions
can be divided into smaller subsets. These
smaller subsets can then be systematically
evaluated until the best solution is
discovered.
It’s not reliable in some as:
 The Branch and Bound algorithm is only
applicable to small networks. In the case of
large networks, where the solution search
space grows exponentially with network size,
the approach becomes prohibitively
expensive.
5. COMMON TERMS USED
* State: It provides all the information about the
environment.
* Goal State: The desired resulting condition in a
given problem and the kind of search algorithm we are
looking for.
* Goal Test: The test to determine whether a
particular state is a goal state.
* Path/Step Cost: These are integers that represent
the cost to move from one node to another node.
* Space Complexity: A function describing the
amount of space(memory) an algorithm takes in terms
of input to the algorithm.
* Time Complexity: A function describing the
amount of time the algorithm takes in terms of input to
the algorithm.
* Optimal: Extent of preference of the algorithm
* ‘b‘ – maximum branching factor in a tree.
* ‘d‘ – the depth of the least-cost solution.
* ‘m‘ – maximum depth state space(maybe infinity)
6. REFERENCES
[1] P. H. Winston, Artificial Intelligence. Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1984.
[2] D. Poole, A. Mackworth and R. Goebel, Randy,
Computational Intelligence: A logical Approach New
York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
[3] P. McCorduck, Machines Who Think, (2nd ed)
Natick, MA: A.K. Peters Ltd, 2004.
[4]. Ashwani chandel,Manu Sood,” Searching and
Optimization Techniques in Artificial Intelligence: A
Comparative Study & Complexity
Analysis”,International Journal of Advanced Research
in Computer Engineering & Technology (IJARCET)
Volume 3 Issue 3, March 2014.
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_Comparative_Analysis_of_Search_Algorithms
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