Classical school:

Although the rather simple prescriptions of classical theorists still inform much activity

today, a number of changes have been identified which encourage the questioning of these

injunctions, including:

• recognition that context, that is, the size of the organisation, its products or services, the

level of technology employed, its cultural environment and other factors, can and do

influence both the most efficient and most effective way of organising and managing;

•recognition that the workforce has become a more critical factor in determining organi-

sational success; the need to attract, retain and motivate a skilled workforce is para-

mount in most organisations (refer to the ‘Human relations school’ section later in this

chapter);

• the dynamism of the business environment and the complexity of the marketplace and

the global economy require organisations to be flexible and innovative;

• it is widely believed that bureaucratic organisations, built on the principles of the classi-

cal school, are ill equipped to embrace change and are more suited to repetitive activi-

ties; and

• changes in social expectations and the political and legal environment have ensured that

many of the excesses of the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century

Taylor suggested that his fundamental principles could, and should, be applied to any

organisation: a claim that they were of universal applicability. This remains a hotly dis-

puted contention. A whole host of intervening factors can and do influence ‘the one best

way’ of managing and organising work. These are further explored later in this chapter.

Practical and effective problems encountered with Taylorism include:

• significant resistance in the early twentieth century from management who saw his work

as critical of their efforts, and from the US government which questioned the implica-

tions of his approach and its consequences for worker morale and alienation;

• decline in worker morale, not least because of the highly boring and repetitive nature
of their work and widespread, often violent, opposition from workers (refer to Mini-

case 2.3);

• it progressively led to a decline in the level and breadth of skills required for workers,

reduced flexibility through lack of multiskilling and ensured that, after initial pay rises,

these narrowly designed low skilled jobs would always remain low paid by comparison

to others in the economy; and

• adoption of scientific approaches was not uniform even across the United States let alone in
Europe and elsewhere.

These problems arose due to:

• a failure to recognise the emotional and social needs of workers; workers were viewed as

individual units of production, in much the same way as a machine;

• a failure to recognise the great diversity and diverging tendencies of different national

and cultural contexts (refer to Chapter 1 and later in this chapter);

• the assumption that pay was a sufficiently powerful source of motivation to elicit coop-

eration: although Taylor, rather like classical economists, assumed that workers were

rational economic thinkers who would respond to financial incentives, there are many

other variables affecting motivation in practice (see Chapter 4); and

• the approach clearly represented an overt exercise of management control over working

people: it removed any decision making right from workers.

Subsequent research demonstrated that the social needs of workers are significant.

These include the need to form relationships, to experience meaningfulness or achievement

at work, to have some job satisfaction and task variation and to enjoy a sense of responsi-

bility. These aspects were largely ignored by scientific management theorists who under-

played the significance of the work group and the breadth of capabilities workers possess.

These techniques aimed to reduce difference or individualism, characteristics which, in many

situations, are of value.

Human Relations School:

Chester Barnard (1938) proposed the first new theory of organisations, arguing that
they were cooperative social systems as opposed to machine-like technical structures.

Hence, he noted the existence of the informal organisation, of natural, as opposed to man-

agerially instigated, groups in organisations, of complex information flows, of authority

from below; for example, the power of individual teams to either under- or overachieve

against targets. His work immediately preceded the publication of the now-famous

Hawthorne studies.

Hofstede (2001) defines national culture as ‘the collective programming of the mind, which
distinguishes the members of one human group from

another’; a more familiar definition is the set of values, beliefs, norms and behaviors

commonly found within a population or nation.

Management:

Henri Fayol, a mining engineer who rose to become MD of a large French mining
company, is credited with being the father of management as he
defined management as a separate activity and defined its constituent parts. His
focus, whilst devised separately from the work of Taylor, shared many similarities.
He identified six managerial actions that supported the operation of every
organisation, forecasting, planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and c
ontrolling.

Action Description
Forecasting Predicting what might happen in the future.
Planning Devising a course of action to meet future expectations.
Organising Allocating tasks to individuals, departments or business units.
Commandin Providing direction to employees (more commonly known now as
g directing, leading or motivating).
Coordinating Making sure that specific tasks and individuals are aligned and integrated.
Controlling Monitoring progress against plans.
Chapter 2:

we will define personality as: specific characteristics of individuals which may be open or hidden
and which may determine either commonality or differences in behavior in an organization. The
nomothetic approach strongly supports the view that personalities are fixed and determined by
heredity and cannot be significantly influenced by environmental factors.; while the idiographic
approach takes the opposite perspective and, while recognizing that individuals do have unique
innate characteristics, also suggests that personality can be moulded and that both personality
and behaviour are influenced by specific environmental experiences.

Table 3.1 Variables affecting individual behaviour

Innate factors Environmental factors

Personality Organisation/work factors

Perception Family

Values Peer-group pressures

Abilities Personal life experiences

Trait theory of personality is consistent with the nomothetic approach, suggesting that people
have certain inherent traits which determine their personality

These theories have been popular since the days of Hippocrates, who identified four main types
of personality –phlegmatic, sanguine, melancholic and choleric

Bodily humour Type Behaviours

Blood Sanguine Confident, optimistic, active
Phlegm Phlegmatic Slow moving, apathetic
Black bile Melancholic Depressed, sad, fearful
Yellow bile Choleric Aggressive, excitable, irritable
Eysenck (1973) identified a range of personality characteristics along scales from extrovert to
introvert and neurotic to stable. Thus, phlegmatic could be seen as stable introvert,

sanguine as stable neurotic, melancholic as neurotic introvert and choleric as neurotic

extrovert.

Cattell and Kline (1977) developed sixteen features of personality with a scoring range

from zero to 10 representing a low to high personality characteristic. For example, they

scored individual’s personality along a continuum from ‘reserved’ to ‘outgoing’ and from

‘affected by feelings’ to ‘emotionally stable’.

Humanistic approach

The humanistic approach, developed by Rogers (1970), also focuses on the individual

and is nomothetic in parts. A central part of the Rogers view is that individuals experience a
need for personal growth and fulfilment, or ‘self-actualisation’. This principle is incorporated
into various ‘needs theories’ in motivation alongside the argument

that people may be motivated to achieve these higher-order self-actualisation needs

(refer to Chapter 4). This approach is not only focused on the development of the

individual but also explores the concept of ‘self’ and the self-concept – that is, how

people perceive themselves. The potential fulfilment for the individual will depend on

the self-concept as much as, if not more than, on any objective measures of fulfilment

or development.

Psychodynamic theory

Psychodynamic theory relates to the work of Freud and certainly possesses an idiographic

(environmental) perspective in that Freud saw personality as being developed by a number

of environmental factors, most notably parental relationships and the effects of various

types of trauma. One significant aspect of Freud’s work in the present context is the theory

that behaviour can be driven by unconscious or hidden personality factors and that these
influences can sometimes be used to explain various types of irrational behaviour. For

Freud, behaviour and personality were determined by a constant battle between the id (the

basic drive in the personality which can often act irrationally and on impulse), the superego
(which imposes a whole range of environmental influences such as parental and societal

factors on to the mind or conscience) and the ego (which seeks to balance the often-

conflicting directions of the id and superego).

Jung’s personality theory

The personality theory developed by Carl Jung is not only linked to some aspects of

psychodynamic theory but also has more practicable implications in that it has led to

the design of different types of personality testing. He categorised people into eight
personality types depending on three preferences

Idiographic in nature, Jung’s theory

looked at four dimensions of personality. He started from personality types also iden-

tified by Eysenck, namely ‘extrovert’ or ‘introvert’, and then went on to pick out two

types of perception, which he called ‘sensing’ and ‘intuiting’ and which referred to the

way in which people get their information. The third dimension of this theory

concerned judgement, which he differentiated into two types called ‘thinking’ and

‘feeling’, terms which also refer to decision-making styles. The fourth dimension is

that of judging or perceiving, which reflects how we relate to the environment. The

significance of Jung’s analysis, apart from its place in the development of psychology

as a discipline, was that his concepts were used by Myers (1987) to develop the Myers–

Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which can be seen in Table 3.2 and again is a basis for

personality testing.

Goleman (2004) developed an Emotional Competence Inventory which seeks to test an

individual’s emotional intelligence through evaluating areas such as:

• self-awareness

• emotional resilience

• motivation/drivers

• empathy/sensitivity

• influence/rapport

• intuition
• conscientiousness

Intelligence: intelligence is the ability to:

 Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of

knowledge is an important component of intelligence.
 Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be
able to identify possible problems in the environment that need
to be addressed.
 Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they
have learned to come up with a useful solution to a problem they
have noticed in the world around them.1

 Brief History of Intelligence

 The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first coined in the
early 20th century by a German psychologist named William
Stern. Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first
intelligence tests to help the French government identify
schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance. Binet was
the first to introduce the concept of mental age or a set of
abilities that children of a certain age possess.2
 Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely
used tool that has led to developing many other tests of skill and
aptitude. However, it continues to spur debate and controversy
over the use of such testing, cultural biases that may be
involved, influences on intelligence, and even the very way we
define intelligence.

Theories of Intelligence
General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a
concept he referred to as general intelligence or the g factor. After
using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental
aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were
remarkably similar.
Primary Mental Abilities
Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory
of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general
ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different primary mental
abilities.4
  Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall
 Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
 Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities
among objects
 Reasoning: The ability to find rules
 Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
 Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
 Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of
multiple intelligences. Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of
intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and accurately depict a
person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different
intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different
cultures:5

 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body

movements and to handle objects skillfully
 Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond
appropriately to the moods, motivations, and desires of others
 Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in
tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes
 Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually
and abstractly, and the capacity to discern logically or numerical
patterns
 Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm,
pitch, and timbre
 Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize
animals, plants, and other objects in nature
 Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and
sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words
 Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and
pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly

What Kind of Intelligence Do You Have?

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity
directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of
real-world environments relevant to one's life."
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a
single, general ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of
intelligence are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg
proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which
involves three different factors:6

 Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and

solve problems
 Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
 Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing
environment

Emotional Intelligence:

Theory of Mind (ToM). ToM is the ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs and
emotions, to oneself and others; or, put another way, the ability to think about our own
and other people’s thinking. ToM is thought to be an ability with which we are born that
develops and matures over time, although not everyone reaches the same level of
maturity.

While a number of definitions of EI have been proposed, there is no single

accepted definition. However, EI is generally considered to comprise four main
components.

1. Perceiving emotions The ability to identify one’s own emotions, those of

others and to be able to distinguish among different emotions.
2. Using emotions The ability to use emotions to facilitate various cognitive
activities, such as thinking, and problem-solving.
3. Understanding emotions The ability to understand the causes and
consequences of particular emotions, and the interrelationships among
different emotions.
4. Managing emotions The ability to monitor and reflect on one’s own
emotions, and to regulate emotions in both others, and ourselves, in order
to achieve intended goals.

Attitude & Values:

An individual’s attitude may result from a number of factors acting together:

• an emotional element, reflecting feelings or moods about an individual or an event;

• a cognitive component, based more on beliefs, opinions and knowledge held by an indi-

vidual; and/or
• a behavioural aspect, based on an individual’s behavioural pattern.

cognitive dissonance. This results from a conflict between the behavioural and cognitive aspects
of attitude: a situation where we may hold a belief but find our (or others’) behaviours are not
consistent with that espoused belief.

Values: which are the fundamental or guiding principles or standards which we hold and
internalise and which guide our lives and impact our attitudes, beliefs and quite possibly
behaviours.

Preception

Perception is the way in which something is regarded, understood and

interpreted or, more simply, how we view and interpret the events and situations in the

world about us.

one must be aware of a number of factors that can distort this whole process.

One of the most common of these is perceptual stereotyping, which is where generalisa-

tions are made about certain groups of people, sometimes a whole gender or perceived

racial group.

Selective perception, a further development of stereotyping, is a situation where the per-

ceivers may already be conditioned as to how they view the perceived.

On the other hand, the halo effect may apply, where the perceivers pick upon a particu-

lar, usually positive, attribute of the perceived, and it is this which determines their overall,

often lasting, perception.

Another possible distortion can arise from self-fulfilling prophecies. A self-fulfilling

prophecy is the expectation that others will act in certain ways no matter what they

actually say or intend to do, which can, in turn, lead them to take that predicted course

of action.

Hodgkinson (2003) studied key factors affecting managers’ perceptions and found they

were conditioned by their experience, level of training and interpersonal skills, the nature
of the organisational culture and the individual’s position in the hierarchy, although they

did note that managers may bias information in order to improve their own position.

An interesting extension of the importance of perception at the organisational level is

the growth of employment branding, which is where organisations purposefully seek to

develop strong, positive perceptions in the minds of would-be employees to encourage

them to apply to the company for work, thereby attracting a large field and improving their

chances of recruiting the brightest and the best.

self-perception theorists suggest that we determine our attitudes by interpreting our own
behaviour in different situations, just as we interpret others.

Attribution theory suggests that people, in their attempts to understand the behaviour

of others, attribute intentions, feelings or beliefs to them which may be false.

The second distortion can come from a self-serving bias, which is where any successes

we have we attribute to our internal factors (intelligence, skill and so forth), and any prob-

lems or lack of success that we encounter we attribute to external factors.

The perceptual set can be regarded as a ready-made framework that enable us to

impose order on our world.
Perceptual bias and misinterpretation
perceptual biases are errors that distort the perceptual process. For example, selective
attention (stage 1) might result in us discarding important sensory information, which
then does not go on to be processed further. Stereotyping, which occurs during
perceptual organisation (stage 2), can result in the development of stereotypes that no
longer reflect reality. Perceptual bias results in misinterpretation, and because we act on
the basis of our perceptions, this can be problematic, as it can result in erroneous
actions, judgements and decision-making.

According to Buchanan and Huczynski (2017), the main sources of errors we

make in our perceptions include:

 Not collecting enough information

 Basing our judgements on irrelevant information
 Seeing what we expect, or want to see
 Allowing early information to colour our judgement and disregarding later
information
 Allowing our own personality traits to influence our judgements
 Attempting to decode non-verbal information without considering the context
 Making attributions based on limited information

A simple approach to avoid making perceptual errors is to take time and avoid making
snap judgements, actively collect more information, and develop self-awareness to help
us understand how our personal perceptual biases affect our perceptions of others.

Neurodiversity is concerned with the natural variation in human brain functioning. It

encompasses people who are ‘neurotypical’ and ‘neurodivergent’. A neurotypical
individual’s brain functioning falls within societal standards of what would be considered
‘normal’, while a neurodivergent individual’s brain functioning diverges from this ‘norm’.
In particular, neurodivergent individuals, think, learn and process information in different
ways. Some might have been assessed as having one or more specific neurological
conditions, such as, dyslexia, dyspraxia, or autistic spectrum disorder.
Managing Diversity

According to the Chartered Management Institute (CMI)

'The management of diversity involves developing and implementing inclusive

strategies through which a network of varied individuals are integrated into a
dynamic workforce.' (CMI, 2014)

Diversity training has become increasingly popular in organizations seeking to

promote the value of individual differences. Most diversity courses focus on:

 Increasing awareness of the value of diversity

 Understanding the differing cultures and values of a diverse workforce (an
understanding of cultural differences was discussed in Module 1)
 How to communicate effectively with all employees, as well as customers and
suppliers
 Developing managerial skill in managing diversity
 Addressing unconscious biases, prejudices and stereotypes.

Module 3: Motivation & Engagement

What is motivation?

In broad terms, motivation comprises an individual’s effort and persistence and the direction of
that effort. In simpler terms, motivation is the will to perform.

Main motivation theories can be categorized in to 2 types:

 Content theories that focus on explaining what needs or drives people

and motivates their behavior. (What motivates individuals)
  Process theories that focus on the cognitive processes involved in making
a conscious decision to be motivated.(How they are motivated)

Content Theories Process Theories

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Expectancy Theory
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory Goal Theory
McClelland's Socially Acquired Needs Theory Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory: The best theory on task level

Intrinsic reward: which are intangible and imbedded in the job itself, eg.
Achievement ,advancement etc.

Extrinsic reward: more tangible and external to the work itself, related to pay, work condition

Expectancy Instrumentality Yes

Effort Perform Reward
No

Valence

Expectancy is when an employee believes their effort will lead to a first level outcome, such as
performance. This is where the employee asks, can I do the job? Instrumentality is when an
employee believes that a first level outcome will lead to a second level outcome, known as
reward. Will the promise of the reward come true? Valence is the employee's personal
preference for various outcomes. Here, the employee asks, what's in it for me? Here, an
employee will ask, is the outcome personally attractive to me? And does it match my own goals?

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: (Needs Theory)

American psychologist Abraham Maslow argued that people's behaviour is motivated by five
different needs. And that these needs are in a hierarchy in terms of how much they influence
our behaviour. The most influential is our basic need for survival, what Maslow describes as our
physiological needs. These are our needs for food, water, and shelter. The next most influential
need is our need for safety, and this is about both our physical and our mental security. Once
our physiological and safety needs have been met, our behaviour is then motivated by other
things, such as our need for love and belonging. We like to belong to groups, to societies, and
we like to spend time with family and friends. The next need is esteem. This is our need for self-
respect, for status, and for being recognised for what we contribute. The final need in Maslow's
hierarchy is our need for self-actualisation. This is about having the ability to fulfil our potential.

Herzberg’s two factor theory

Hygiene + Motivators = motivation

What is outside or around you, as an employee and your work, are called hygiene factors. These
provide our extrinsic job context. Hygiene factors are taken for granted. And they alone don't
motivate us. We also need motivators or intrinsic job content factors. When the right motivators
are present and the hygiene factors are acceptable, we have a chance to create a work
environment that motivates people and offers job satisfaction.

The two factor suggests that the prospects of receiving intrinsic rewards will be more likely to
motivate individuals than the receipt of extrinsic reward.

The extrinsic factors equates the basic level in Maslow’s theory (psychological needs, security
and belonging), while the intrinsic factors equates the higher level(Self esteem and self
actualization)

Goal Theory and Self-Motivation: (Locke – 1968)

Purpose that both motivation and performance will be high if individuals are set specific goals
which are challenging but accepted, and where feedback is given on performance. Locke argued
that there are 4 ways in which goals influence behavior.

 Direct attention
 Mobilise effort
 Encourage persistence
 Facilitate strategy development

Ingratiation is the process whereby people manipulate their superiors’ opinion of them, to
improve their chances of being awarded desired rewards.

Emotional Need theory: (Nohria, Groysberg, and Lee, 2008)

The authors argue that there are four emotional drives that employees need to fulfil, and that
these needs are evolutionary, are hard-wired into our brains, and drive our behaviour. These
drives are the need to:

 Acquire: this might be physical goods, money, entertainment or social status.

 Bond: a need to form connections with other people.
 Comprehend: satisfy our curiosity, be challenged and stretched, and achieve mastery.
 Defend: protect ourselves against threats and promote justice.

There are several potential overlaps between this theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

Emotional Need Theory Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Needs

Theory)
Acquire Psychological needs, Belonging
Bond Belonging
Comprehend Self-esteem , Self-actualization
Defend Safety

Four key Lever

Based on their research, Nohria, Groysberg and Lee propose that there are four key levers that
organizations can use to create more motivating environments:

Lever Actions
Rewards  Pay fairly and comparably to competitors
 Link rewards to performance

Culture  Value collaboration and teamwork

 Foster friendships and good working relationships

Job design  Design jobs that make a contribution to the organisation

 Design jobs that are meaningful and allow for mastery

Performance  Provide clear goals that allow people to make progress

management  Introduce a fair, transparent process of allocating work and
reviewing performance

Reward & Motivation

1. Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Reward

Intrinsic rewards stem from your job. For example, having varied and interesting work,
having responsibility and status, or the potential for personal development. Or are you
 motivated by extrinsic rewards? Extrinsic rewards include financial rewards, such as
salary and bonus, or non-financial rewards, like a company car

Job Design

Understanding motivation theories can be useful to enable managers to design more rewarding
jobs that enable people to meet their needs for achievement, belonging and self
actualisation (needs theories). Well-designed jobs should also provide clear expectations (goal
theory) and a line of sight to the potential outcome of high-levels of performance (expectancy
theory). Perceived fairness in terms of workload, levels of responsibilities and reward should
also feature in job design (equity theory).

Early theorists identified three key approaches to designing jobs to be more motivating.

 Job rotation: developing skills by moving between different roles;

 Job enlargement: increasing the size of the role by adding more tasks; and
 Job enrichment: increasing the level of responsibility and allowing greater scope for
advancement and achievement.

1. Herzberg’s Vertical Loading Factors

Vertical Loading Factors Potential Managerial actions

Increase Individual accountability
Remove Control
Special assignments
Add new tasks
Create natural work units
Grant additional authority
Provide Feedback

2. Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model.

Drew heavily on Hazerberg and McClelland theory , there are five job characteristics:
 Skill variety
 Task Identity
 Task Significance
 Scope for autonomy
 Provision for feedback
The model consider the intrinsic aspects of motivation in addition to job characteristics
and individual differences.
Job Crafting:
Within formally designed jobs, individuals often try to ‘craft’ the job to meet their
personal needs, values and preferences. Job crafting describes the ways in which we can
take proactive steps to redesign our jobs. This entails us changing the tasks we do by
offering to take on additional responsibilities or volunteering for projects, seeking
opportunities to work with new people, or changing our perceptions of the value of our
job. The main reason for job crafting is to enable us to stay in our existing role, while
making it more meaningful, rewarding and enjoyable. Therefore, our experience of work
will be influenced by both the formal ‘top-down’ job design and the informal ‘bottom
up’ job crafting.
Performance Management

A systematic and continuous process for improving organizational performance by developing

the performance of individuals and teams' (Armstrong, 2018)
As a management tool, a well-designed PM process:
• aligns individual objectives to the team/departmental/organisational goals
• provides clarity for people on where they should focus their efforts
• holds people to account for their own performance
• provides a mechanism for getting feedback on their performance
• offers support for developing the skills and knowledge required to perform well
• links to financial rewards and non-financial rewards such as promotions

Engagement:
Talking about people being 'engaged at work' has become increasingly fashionable since the
turn of the century. David Guest (2014), Professor of Organizational Psychology, suggested that
there were several reasons for this rise in interest.

 The growing individualisation of work and the consequent decline of collective activity.
 The growth among work and organisational psychologists in positive psychology and the
links with happiness and well-being.
 Increasing moves towards a resource-based view of strategy where human resources
are seen as key to competitive advantage.
 Consultants have effectively ‘marketed’ the concept by highlighting links to
organisational performance and drawing attention to the ‘engagement deficit’ to create
anxiety.

Define Engagement:

The history of ‘engagement’ as an academic subject can be traced back to William Kahn
(1990) who argued that individuals can become personally engaged in their work and that
‘people bring in or leave out their personal selves during work-role performances’ (p. 702).
Kahn developed a behavioral model of engagement that proposed that work engagement
occurs when three criteria are met.
1. Meaningfulness: the individual finds their work meaningful enough to warrant bringing
their full self to it.
2. Safety: the individual feels safe to bring their full self to work.
3. Availability: the individual feels mentally and physically able to harness their full self at
this particular moment.
He argued that engagement was not stable and could change over time.
Defining work engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004)

A positive, fulfilling work-related state of mind characterised by:

Vigour
• At my work, I feel bursting with energy
• At my job, I feel strong and vigorous
Dedication
• To me, my job is challenging
• I am enthusiastic about my job
Absorption
• When I am working, I forget everything else around me
• I am completely immersed in my work

Motivation VS Engagement:

Motivation to my view is something broader. It has to do with a process that stimulate people to
undertake action to fulfil their goals, which as you can imagine or as you can hear, is very broad.
Whereas work engagement is much more specific. In terms of what it refers to. It refers to work.
It refers to the content of work, and the work and activities that people do. And it is maybe
more an experience than a process that the motivation is referring to. difference is work
engagement is very specific, work related, work activity related. Motivation is broader process.
Drive to achieve your goals, and actions to achieve your goals

Job Demand Resource Model;

Based on their initial findings, Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner and Schaufeli (2001) proposed
the Job Demands-Resources model of work engagement.

They defined Job Demands as those aspects of the job that require sustained mental or physical
effort, the 'bad things' that drain our energy at work. These include having too much work to do,
conflict with colleagues or perceived job insecurity. Job Resources are the 'good things' that help
us to achieve our work, reduce job demands or stimulate personal growth. Examples include:
getting support from others, constructive feedback, or being given greater autonomy to do our
work.
Improving work engagement (Bakker, 2017)

• Strategic human resource management

• Daily leadership
• Self-management
• Job crafting
• Strengths use
• Mobilising ego resources

Arnold Bakker (2017) proposes six strategies for improving work engagement, two ‘top-down’
(organisational) and four ‘bottom-up’ (individual) approaches.

 Strategic human resource management Embedding engagement into key HR practices

such as selection (ensuring good fit with organisation and role), socialisation (helping
new starts to feel part of organisation and build relationships), performance
management (goal setting) and learning and development (develop resources).
 Daily leadership Encouraging the use of transformational and empowering leadership
within an organisation.
 Self-management Manage one's own behaviours through setting personal goals and
rewarding self for high performance.
 Job crafting Change aspects of a job to reduce job demands and increase resources.
 Strengths use Understand one's own strengths and use these rather than weaknesses.
 Mobilising ego resources Use one's own personal resources to improve well-being and
performance. Examples include getting sufficient sleep, meditation or taking exercise.

The focus should be on helping employees build their personal and job resources

Employee Engagement:

CIPD Definition: Being focused in what you do (thinking), feeling good about yourself in your
role and the organisation (feeling), and acting in a way that demonstrates commitment to
the organisational values and objectives (acting).'

MacLeod and Clarke, 2009, p. 9)defined employee engagement as a workplace approach

designed to ensure that employees are committed to their organisation’s goals and values,
motivated to contribute to organisational success, and are able at the same time to enhance
their own sense of well-being.

four enablers of engagement were identified:

 Strategic narrative. Visible empowering leadership that provides a clear strategic

narrative about the organisation, where it's come from and where it's going.
 Engaging managers. Managers who focus their people and give them scope, who treat
their people as individuals, and coach and develop them.
 Employee voice. Employees are seen, not as a problem, but as central to the solution, to
be involved, listened to, and invited to contribute their experience, ideas and expertise.
 Integrity. Values stated are reflected in day-to-day behaviours, there is no gap between
what is said and what is done.