ELECTRICAL FIELD AND ELECTRIC FORCES

- Charge is quantized and the smallest charge is

-- the charge of a single proton or
a (-) single electron
- Symbol for this quantity of charge is e
- The charge of different particles is an integer
multiple of this value
- When two electrically charged A and B particles
in empty space interact, how does each one
know the other is there?
• Because of electric field -- Each charged
particle creates an electric field in the
space around it. This electric field extends
outward in all directions, and its strength
decreases with increasing distance from
the particle.
• When another charged particle is present,
it experiences a force due to the electric
field created by the first particle. This force
is given by the equation F = qE, where q is
the charge of the second particle, and E is
the electric field at the location of the
second particle.
• Similarly, the first particle experiences a
force due to the electric field created by the
second particle.
• In this way, each particle "knows" about the
presence of the other particle through the
electric fields they create, which exert
forces on each other.

QUANTIFYING ELECTRIC FIELD

Test Charge – a charged body placed at some - Electric field of a point charge (magnitude)
point to test whether there is an electric field at that
point USEFUL TERMS WHEN CHARGE IS
DISTRIBUTED ALONG A LINE, OVER A
SURFACE, OR THROUGH A VOLUME

• Linear charge density

-(λ) lambda
-Charge is distributed along a line
- If the test charge is positive, the force -C/m
experienced by the charge is the same • Surface charge density
direction as the electric field -(σ) sigma
- Electric field is a vector field -when charge is distributed over a surface
- An Electric field is a region or space where -C/m^2
charged particle experiences electrical force • Volume charge density
without contact -(ρ) rho
- Charged particle will accelerate to the direction -when charge is distributed through a volume
where there is an unbalanced force if it is free -C/m^3
to move
ELECTRIC FLUX
- the product of the magnitude of electric field
and the surface through which is passes (for an
electric field perpendicular to the surface,
parallel to the normal vector/line to the surface)
- Electric flux is a fundamental concept in
electromagnetism that describes the number of
electric field lines passing through a given
surface area. It is a measure of the strength
and distribution of the electric field over a
particular region in space.
GAUSS’S LAW
Gauss's law is a fundamental principle in
electromagnetism that relates the electric flux
through a closed surface to the total electric charge
enclosed within that surface. It is one of the four
fundamental equations of electromagnetism, along
with Faraday's law of induction, Ampère's circuit
law, and Maxwell's correction to Ampère's law.

Gauss's law states that the total electric flux ΦE

through any closed surface is equal to the total
enclosed charge qenc divided by the permittivity of
the medium ε0 (in vacuum or free space):

ΦE = ∫ E ⋅ dA = qenc / ε0

Where:
- ΦE is the total electric flux through the closed
WHAT IF WE TILT THE SURFACE AT AN ANGLE surface
WITH RESPECT TO THE ELECTRIC FIELD? - E is the electric field vector
- dA is a vector representing an infinitesimal area
- As the electric field increases in magnitude, the element of the closed surface
electric flux through a constant surface area - qenc is the total electric charge enclosed within
increases proportionally. the closed surface
- As the angle θ between the normal to the - ε0 is the permittivity of free space
surface and the electric field increases from 0° (approximately 8.854 × 10^-12 F/m)
to 90°, the electric flux decreases due to the
decreasing perpendicular component of the
electric field.
- The electric flux is maximum when θ = 0°
(electric field perpendicular to the surface).
- The electric flux is minimum (zero) when θ =
90° (electric field parallel to the surface).

Guass
- Prince of Mathematics --- w/ significant
contributions to number theory
- Invented --- magnetometer and heliotrope
- Braunschweig, Germany, 1777
- Lion City: By Henry the Lion (Founder)
ELECTRIC CHARGES & COULOMB’S LAW
Electromagnetism
Electric Charge – an attribute of matter that is
fundamental as Mass
Two types of Electrical Charges:
- Positive;
- Negative Charges
3 ways of Charging:
- Charging by Friction;
- Contact;
- And Induction
Charged by friction – materials that are rubbed to
another one. The material that loses an electron
and the other material that gains electrons are both
charged. The number of lost and gained electrons
are adequate to one another.
Charged by contact or conduction – if a negatively
charged material passes electrons by touching a
neutral sphere.
Charged by Induction – if an object induces charge
with the other object without contact
Conductors
- Electrical conductors are materials or
substances which have free electrons.
- Free electrons can move freely throughout
these materials
- A small region of a good conductor when
charged can distribute itself over an entire
surface area
- E.g copper, silver, and iron.
Insulators
- Materials or substances in which all of its
electrons are bound to atoms or don’t have free
electrons.
- E.g rubber, plastic, and wood
Semiconductors
- Properties are in between those of insulators
and conductors
- E.g silicon and tellurium
COULOMB’S LAW
- The magnitude of the electric force between
two-point charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them
Coulomb's law is a fundamental principle in
electrostatics that describes the electrostatic force
between two stationary charged particles. It was
first formulated by the French physicist Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb in 1785.
The mathematical expression of Coulomb's law
states that the electrostatic force (F) between two
point charges (q1 and q2) is directly proportional to
the product of their charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (r)
between them. The force is attractive for charges
of opposite signs and repulsive for charges of the
same sign.
The equation for Coulomb's law is:
F = k (q1 * q2) / r^2
Where:
- F is the electrostatic force in newtons (N)
- q1 and q2 are the charges in coulombs (C)
- r is the distance between the charges in meters
(m)
- k is the Coulomb constant (k = 8.988 × 10^9 Electric Potential
N⋅m^2/C^2 in vacuum) - Electric potential is the potential energy per unit
charge. It is a scalar quantity with units of volts
Electric force VS. Gravitation force (1V = 1J/C).
- Both forces obey the inverse square law - The electric field can be expressed in V/m
- Charge “q” plays the same role in the (1N/C = 1V/m).
coulomb’s law that “m” mass plays in the - Potential is purely location dependent within an
newton’s law of gravitation electric field.
Electric force: - A test charge with twice the quantity of charge
Depend on electric charges possesses twice the potential energy but has
Either be repulsive/attractive the same electric potential at a given location.
Bigger constant - A positive test charge has a high potential near
Stronger a positive source charge and lower potential
Gravitation Force: farther away.
Depends on mass
Always attractive (no negative mass)
Smaller constant
Weaker

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
- when a number of charges are interacting, the
total force on a given charge is the vector sum
of forces exerted on it by all other charges.

Electric Potential Energy

- Electric potential energy depends on the
amount of charge on an object experiencing an
electric field and the object's location within the
field.
- Like gravitational potential energy, it depends
on 1) the electric charge - a property of the
object, and 2) the distance from the source CAPACITANCE
charge creating the field.
- If a positive charge is pushed towards another
positive charge, the electrical potential energy
of the system increases.
- If the charges are allowed to move naturally,
the overall potential energy decreases as like
charges repel each other.
- In a uniform electric field, the potential energy
U = q0Ed, where q0 is the test charge, E is the
electric field strength, and d is the distance.
- U increases if the test charge moves opposite
to the electric force and decreases if it moves
in the same direction.
- U is the amount of energy needed to move
charge q from a reference point to location d.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND RESISTIVITY 6. Resistivity:
- Resistivity (ρ) of a material is the ratio of the
1. Electric Circuit: magnitudes of the electric field (E) and the current
- An electric circuit is a conducting path that forms density (J): ρ = E/J.
a closed loop in which charges are in motion from - Conductors have low resistivity, while insulators
one region to another. have very high resistivity.
- In an electrostatic situation (no current), the - For the same electric field, a material with higher
electric field inside a conductor is zero, and there resistivity will have lower current density.
is no net flow of charge, although electrons move - The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity.
randomly within the conductor. 7. Resistivity and Temperature:
2. Current: - The resistivity of metallic conductors generally
- Current is any motion of charge from one region increases with increasing temperature.
to another. - The resistivity of graphite (a non-metal)
- When a constant electric field is established decreases with increasing temperature, as more
inside a conductor, charges (electrons in metals) electrons become mobile.
experience a steady acceleration in the direction of - Some materials like metallic alloys and oxides
the electric force. exhibit superconductivity (zero resistivity) at very
- The charges undergo frequent collisions with the low temperatures.
nearly stationary ions of the material, resulting in a
very slow net motion (drift velocity) of the charges
in the direction of the electric force.
3. Effects of Electric Field on Charges in a
Conductor:
- The electric field causes random motion (fast) of
the charged particles within the conductor and a
very slow net motion (drift) of the moving charged
particles as a group in the direction of the electric
force.
- The electric field does work on the charges, and
this energy transfer increases the average
vibrational energy of the ions, leading to an
increase in the temperature of the material
(heating effect).
4. Drift Velocity:
- Drift velocity is the average velocity attained by
charged particles in a material due to an electric
field.
- It describes the net motion of moving charged
particles as a group in the direction of the electric
force.
- The drift velocity is very slow compared to the
random motion, typically in the order of 0.0001
m/s.
5. Current and Current Density:
- Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge, measured
in amperes (A), where 1 A = 1 C/s.
- Current is a scalar quantity.
- Current density (J) is the current per unit cross-
sectional area, and it is a vector quantity that
describes the flow of charges at a particular point.