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The Genus Citrus
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The Genus Citrus

Edited by

Manuel Talon
Marco Caruso
Fred G. Gmitter Jr.

An imprint of Elsevier
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Contents

Contributors xiii 2.3.5Early Pleistocene: Glacial

maxima and the diversification
1 The citrus genome of mandarins 27
2.4 A new evolutionary framework for the
Frederick G. Gmitter, Jr., Guohong Albert Wu,
genus Citrus 27
Daniel S. Rokhsar, Manuel Talon
Acknowledgments 28
1.1 Concept of genome 1 References 28
1.2 Citrus genomes 1
1.3 Genomes: Pure, admixed, and 3 Domestication and history
domesticated 2
Xiuxin Deng, Xiaoming Yang, Masashi
1.3.1 Inference of pure and admixed
Yamamoto, Manosh Kumar Biswas
genome regions 2
1.3.2 Identification of the ancient 3.1 The taxonomy, cultivars, and genetic
progenitor citrus species 4 origin of citrus 33
1.3.3 A whole-genome perspective of 3.1.1 The taxonomy and the true citrus
citrus hybrids and admixtures 5 group 33
1.3.4 Comparative analyses of citrus 3.1.2 The genetic origin of some
genomes: The example of hybrid citrus 36
evolution and domestication of 3.2 The cultivation history and distribution
mandarins 5 of citrus 38
References 8 3.2.1 Ancient Chinese citrus 38
Further reading 8 3.2.2 Ancient citrus in Japan 41
3.2.3 Ancient citrus in India 44
2 The origin of citrus 3.2.4 The origin, spread, and
introduction of citrus 46
Manuel Talon, Guohong Albert Wu,
3.2.5 The genetic diversity of Citrus 49
Frederick G. Gmitter, Jr., Daniel S. Rokhsar
References 51
2.1 The mythological origin of citrus 9
2.2 The origin of citrus 9 4 Citrus taxonomy
2.2.1 The concept of citrus 9
Patrick Ollitrault, Franck Curk, Robert Krueger
2.2.2 Phylogeny of citrus pure species 10
2.2.3 Genealogy of cultivated citrus 11 4.1 The genus Citrus definition 57
2.2.4 Paleontology of citrus 13 4.1.1 The botanical treatment of the
2.2.5 Chronology of citrus speciation 15 genus Citrus 57
2.2.6 Biogeography of citrus 16 4.1.2 Phenotypical traits of the true Citrus 57
2.2.7 The center of origin of citrus 18 4.1.3 Reproductive biology,
2.3 Citrus radiation and evolution 21 cytogenetics and molecular data,
2.3.1 Citrus radiation 21 and the definition of the
2.3.2 Late Miocene: Global cooling genus Citrus 60
and the Southeast Asian radiation 22 4.2 The genus Citrus classifications; an
2.3.3 Dispersal routes of ancestral citrus 24 historical, biological, genetic, and
2.3.4 Early Pliocene: Wallacea phylogenomic perspective 62
orogeny and the dispersal of 4.2.1 The history of citrus botanical
Australian limes 25 classifications 62

v
vi  Contents

4.2.2 1967–2017, from traditional 6 Citrus rootstocks

taxonomy to phylogenomy:
50 years to clarify the genetic Kim D. Bowman, Johan Joubert
organization of the genus Citrus 6.1 Introduction 105
and the origin of modern citrus 6.2 Reasons for a rootstock 105
varieties 64 6.3 Important rootstock attributes 106
4.2.3 The ancestral and admixture 6.4 Rootstock use by region 113
taxa 65 6.5 The major rootstocks 113
4.3 Phenotypic diversity structure strongly 6.6 Rootstock trends and future prospects 120
reflects evolutionary history 73 Acknowledgments 122
4.3.1 Reticulate evolution, apomixis, References 122
and the correlation between Further reading 127
the structures of genetic and
phenotypic diversities in the 7 Traditional breeding
Asian edible Citrus species 74
4.3.2 Traits of the four Asian ancestral Marco Caruso, Malcolm W. Smith, Yann Froelicher,
taxa of the edible Citrus 74 Giuseppe Russo, Frederick G. Gmitter, Jr.
4.3.3 Traits of some modern citrus taxa 7.1 Introduction 129
resulting from admixture 76 7.2 Scion breeding 130
4.4 Conclusion 77 7.2.1 Somatic mutations and chimeras 130
References 77 7.2.2 Nucellar selections 132
7.2.3 Hybridization 134
5 Commercial scion varieties 7.2.4 Mutation breeding 138
Graham H. Barry, Marco Caruso, 7.3 Rootstock breeding 141
Frederick G. Gmitter, Jr. 7.3.1 Objectives 141
7.3.2 Conventional methods to
5.1 Pummelos/shaddocks generate new rootstocks 141
(Citrus maxima) 83 7.3.3 Propagation 141
5.1.1 Principal commercial pummelo 7.3.4 Phenotyping methods for
varieties 83 diseases and abiotic stress
5.1.2 Pigmented pummelo resistance before field trials 142
varieties 84 7.3.5 Rootstock trials 143
5.1.3 Pummelo hybrids 85 7.4 Perspectives 143
5.2 Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) 86 References 144
5.2.1 Principal commercial varieties 87
5.3 Lemons (Citrus limon) 89 8 Genomic breeding
5.3.1 Principal commercial varieties 89
5.4 Limes (Citrus aurantiifolia and Tokurou Shimizu
Citrus latifolia) 92 8.1 Introduction 149
5.5 Oranges (Citrus sinensis) 93 8.2 DNA markers 153
5.5.1 Sugar or acidless orange varieties 94 8.2.1 Types of DNA markers 153
5.5.2 Blood or pigmented orange 8.2.2 SSR and indel markers 153
varieties 95 8.2.3 SNP markers 154
5.5.3 Navel oranges 96 8.2.4 RFLP and CAPS markers 154
5.5.4 Common orange varieties 96 8.2.5 NGS-based high-throughput
5.6 Mandarins (Citrus reticulata) 97 genotyping 154
5.6.1 Principal commercial mandarin 8.3 Linkage mapping analysis toward MAS 155
varieties 98 8.3.1 Linkage-map construction using
5.6.2 Other mandarin hybrids of transferrable DNA markers 155
current or potential commercial 8.3.2 DNA-marker development for
importance 102 monogenic traits 156
References 103 8.3.3 Polyembryony 156
Further reading 104 8.3.4 Fruit traits 156
 Contents  vii

8.3.5 Aroma 159 10.3.2 Secondary stem growth 204

8.3.6 Disease, stress resistance, and 10.3.3 Sprouting development 206
other traits 159 10.3.4 Factors affecting vegetative
8.4 MAS for complex traits 160 development 207
8.4.1 QTL analysis of complex traits 160 10.4 Leaf development 207
8.4.2 Linkage disequilibrium (LD) 10.4.1 Leaf abscission 209
analysis 160 10.5 Formation of the root system 211
8.4.3 Association mapping (AM) analysis 161 10.5.1 Development of the primary root 211
8.4.4 Genomic selection (GS) 161 10.5.2 Lateral root development 213
8.5 Future trends 163 10.5.3 Secondary root growth 213
References 163 10.5.4 Root distribution 214
10.5.5 Factors affecting root
9 Citrus biotechnology development 214
10.6 Trees of reduced size 215
Maria Antonietta Germanà, Pablo Aleza,
10.7 Control of vegetative development
Jude W. Grosser, Manjul Dutt, Nian Wang,
through the use of growth retardants 216
Jose Cuenca, Prabhjot Kaur
References 216
9.1 Introduction 171
9.2 Micropropagation 171 11 Flowering and fruit set
9.3 Organogenesis and rooting 172
Manuel Agustí, Eduardo Primo-Millo
9.4 Gametic embryogenesis 174
9.5 Somaclonal variation 176 11.1 The process of flowering 219
9.6 Allotetraploids via somatic hybridization 176 11.2 Type of inflorescences 220
9.7 Somatic cybridization 178 11.3 Control of flowering 220
9.8 Molecular marker development for 11.3.1 Environmental control 220
Alternaria brown spot disease 178 11.3.2 Other factors affecting
9.9 Reducing juvenility via viral vectors 180 flowering 221
9.10 Genetic transformation of citrus 181 11.3.3 Control of flowering 224
9.11 Direct DNA incorporation into 11.4 Pollination and fertilization 224
citrus 181 11.5 Fruit set 225
9.11.1 Protoplast transformation 181 11.6 Parthenocarpy 226
9.11.2 Particle bombardment/biolistics 182 11.7 Endogenous regulation of fruit set 226
9.11.3 Agrobacterium-mediated 11.7.1 Influence of hormone levels 227
transformation of citrus 182 11.7.2 Competition for
9.12 CRISPR gene editing 183 photoassimilates 229
9.13 Concluding remarks 184 11.7.3 Interactions between
References 184 hormones and photoassimilates 230
11.8 Factors affecting fruit set 231
10 Vegetative growth 11.8.1 Temperature 231
11.8.2 Irrigation 231
Eduardo Primo-Millo, Manuel Agustí
11.8.3 Nitrogen fertilization 231
10.1 Seed germination 193 11.8.4 Mineral deficiencies 232
10.1.1 Imbibition of water 193 11.8.5 Flowering intensity 232
10.1.2 Breathing 194 11.8.6 Position of the flower in
10.1.3 Protein synthesis 195 the tree 232
10.1.4 Mobilization of the reserves 11.9 Improvement of fruit set: Cultural
contained in cotyledons 195 practices 233
10.1.5 Seedling development 199 11.9.1 The application of GA3 233
10.1.6 Polyembryony 201 11.9.2 Girdling or ringing 233
10.1.7 Juvenile characters 201 11.9.3 Treatment with GA3
10.2 Dormancy and vegetative activity 201 combined with girdling 234
10.3 Development of the canopy 202 11.9.4 Other practices that favor
10.3.1 Stem growth 202 fruit set 234
viii  Contents

11.10 Fruit development 235 12.5 Color change during fruit

11.11 Factors affecting fruit development 236 development and ripening 255
11.11.1 Endogenous factors 236 12.5.1 Biochemical, molecular, and
11.11.2 Tree age 236 structural changes related to
11.11.3 Fruit position on the tree 236 chlorophylls and carotenoids 255
11.11.4 Foliar area 236 12.5.2 Environmental, nutritional,
11.11.5 Seed number 236 and hormonal cues affecting
11.11.6 Flowering intensity 236 chlorophylls and carotenoids 258
11.11.7 Competition among 12.5.3 General aspects of blood
developing fruits 236 oranges during fruit
11.11.8 Environmental factors 237 development and ripening 260
11.11.9 Cultural practices 237 12.6 Preharvest drop impacts on and
11.12 Techniques to improve fruit size 238 determines, respectively, citrus
11.12.1 Pruning 238 fruit production and harvesting
11.12.2 Manual thinning 238 time 262
11.12.3 Chemical thinning 239 12.7 Transcriptome evolution during
11.12.4 Girdling or ringing 240 ripening: A next-generation view 263
11.13 Seed development 240 12.8 Future perspective: Basic knowledge
References 241 and advanced techniques should
Further reading 244 result in improved products 264
Author contribution 264
12 Fruit growth and development References 264

Francisco R. Tadeo, Javier Terol, María J. Rodrigo,

13 Citrus in changing environments
Concetta Licciardello, Avi Sadka
Christopher Vincent, Raphaël Morillon,
12.1 The long, complex, and intriguing
Vicent Arbona, Aurelio Gómez-Cadenas
journey from set fruitlets to ripe fruit 245
12.2 The fruit of citrus is a modified berry 13.1 Limitations to geographical expansion
called hesperidium 246 of citrus 271
12.2.1 The fruit rind or peel provides 13.2 Predicted climate in citrus growing
an interface of the fruit with regions 271
the external environment 246 13.2.1 Mediterranean climates 272
12.2.2 The fleshy pulp is composed of 13.2.2 Humid subtropics 272
segments, which contain the 13.2.3 Semiarid regions 272
juice vesicles 248 13.2.4 Overall climate trends in
12.2.3 Vascular system of the citrus fruit 249 citrus-producing regions 272
12.3 Citrus fruit dimensions are genetically 13.3 Citrus responses to climate-
determined but are influenced by influenced environmental factors 273
environmental and cultural practices 249 13.4 Soil moisture 273
12.4 Metabolism and accumulation of 13.4.1 Optimal water requirements in
carbohydrate and organic acids, citrus 273
determinants of fruit flavor quality 252 13.4.2 Flooding 275
12.4.1 The physiology and practical 13.4.3 Management of soil flooding
aspects of carbohydrate and in citrus orchards 275
organic acid accumulation 252 13.4.4 Water deficit—Effects on crop
12.4.2 The genetic basis of BRIX productivity 275
and TA 252 13.4.5 Irrigation to mitigate water deficit 276
12.4.3 The biochemistry of 13.5 Soil salinity 276
carbohydrate and organic acid 13.5.1 Salinity effect on vegetative
accumulation 252 and reproductive growth 277
12.4.4 Contribution of Omics 13.5.2 Salinity effects on mineral
techniques to the nutrition 277
understanding of sugar 13.5.3 Salinity effects on citrus
and acid metabolism and physiology 277
accumulation 254 13.5.4 Mitigation of salinity effects 278
 Contents  ix

13.6 Air moisture 279 14.6 Concluding remarks 303

13.7 Temperature 280 References 304
13.7.1 Heat 280
13.7.2 Mechanisms involved in heat 15 Soil and nutrition interactions
tolerance 280
Dirceu Mattos, Jr., Davie M. Kadyampakeni,
13.7.3 Management of high
Ana Quiñones Oliver, Rodrigo Marcelli Boaretto,
temperature and breeding
Kelly T. Morgan, Jose Antonio Quaggio
heat-tolerant varieties 280
13.7.4 Chilling and freezing 281 15.1 Introduction 311
13.7.5 Management of freezing 15.2 Soils of major citrus-producing
temperature in citrus orchards 281 regions in the world 311
13.7.6 Mechanisms involved in 15.2.1 Soils of tropical and
chilling and freezing tolerance 281 subtropical regions 312
13.7.7 Breeding cold-tolerant varieties 282 15.2.2 Soils of the Mediterranean and
13.8 Increased carbon dioxide 282 similar regions 313
13.8.1 Effects of CO2 on overall 15.3 The role of mineral nutrients in citrus
growth and photosynthesis 282 production 314
13.8.2 Effects on partitioning and 15.3.1 Nitrogen 314
growth habit 282 15.3.2 Phosphorus 315
13.8.3 Interactions with other abiotic 15.3.3 Potassium 316
stresses 283 15.3.4 Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur 316
13.8.4 Maximizing benefits of 15.3.5 Micronutrients 317
increased [CO2] 283 15.4 Monitoring soil fertility and plant
13.9 Conclusions 283 nutritional status 318
Acknowledgments 284 15.4.1 Soil analysis 318
References 284 15.4.2 Plant analysis 320
Further reading 289 15.5 Nutrient management strategies 322
15.5.1 Acidity and alkalinity 322
14 Salinity and water deficit 15.5.2 Fertilization with solubles and
solids 322
José M. Colmenero-Flores, Vicent Arbona,
15.5.3 Fertigation 323
Raphaël Morillon, Aurelio Gómez-Cadenas
15.5.4 Foliar fertilization 324
14.1 Introduction 291 15.5.5 Organic fertilization 325
14.2 Salinity 292 15.5.6 Fertilization and stress
14.2.1 Salinity components 292 alleviation 325
14.2.2 Salinity avoidance mechanisms 293 15.6 Concluding remarks 326
14.2.3 Citrus responses to salinity 297 References 326
14.3 Water deficit 298 Further reading 331
14.3.1 Resistance mechanisms and
differences among genotypes 298 16 Citrus pests in a global world
14.3.2 Citrus responses to water
Alberto Urbaneja, Tim G. Grout, Santin Gravena,
deficit 299
Fengnian Wu, Yijing Cen, Philip A. Stansly
14.4 Resistance and tolerance mechanisms
common to water deficit and salinity 301 16.1 Introduction 333
14.4.1 Osmotic adjustment and 16.2 Citrus pest management in Asia 334
synthesis of compatible 16.3 Citrus pest management in the
osmolytes 301 Mediterranean basin 336
14.4.2 Antioxidant defense 302 16.4 Citrus pest management in
14.4.3 Synthesis of protective proteins 302 North America 340
14.5 Agronomic and biotechnological 16.4.1 Florida 340
approaches to improve crop stress 16.4.2 California and Texas 341
resistance 302 16.5 Citrus pest management in
14.5.1 Agronomic and palliative South America 342
practices 302 16.6 Citrus pest management in Africa 344
14.5.2 Molecular approaches 303 16.6.1 Production pests 344
x  Contents

16.6.2 Cosmetic pests 345 17.6.4 Pathogenicity and virulence 360

16.6.3 Phytosanitary pests 345 17.6.5 Disease management 360
16.7 Epilogue 346 17.7 Citrus scab diseases caused
References 346 by Elsinoë 361
17.7.1 Introduction 361
17 Diseases caused by fungi and 17.7.2 Disease symptoms 361
oomycetes 17.7.3 Infection process 362
17.7.4 Pathogenicity and virulence 362
Ozgur Batuman, Mark Ritenour, Antonio Vicent, 17.7.5 Disease management 363
Hongye Li, Jae-Wook Hyun, Vittoria Catara, 17.8 Mal secco disease caused by
Haijie Ma, Liliana M. Cano Plenodomus tracheiphilus 363
17.1 Greasy spot disease of citrus caused 17.8.1 Introduction 363
by Zasmidium citri-griseum 349 17.8.2 Disease symptoms 363
17.1.1 Introduction 349 17.8.3 Infection process 363
17.1.2 Disease symptoms 349 17.8.4 Pathogenicity and virulence 364
17.1.3 Infection process 349 17.8.5 Disease management 365
17.1.4 Pathogenicity and virulence 350 References 365
17.1.5 Disease management 350
17.2 Root rot, foot rot, brown rot of fruits, 18 Bacterial pathogens of citrus: Citrus
canopy blight, and damping-off canker, citrus variegated chlorosis
diseases of citrus caused by and Huanglongbing
Phytophthora 350
Dean Gabriel, Timothy R. Gottwald,
17.2.1 Introduction 350
Silvio A. Lopes, Nelson A. Wulff
17.2.2 Disease symptoms 350
17.2.3 Infection process 351 18.1 Introduction 371
17.2.4 Pathogenicity and virulence 351 18.2 Citrus canker 372
17.2.5 Disease management 351 18.2.1 History and background 372
17.3 Melanose disease of citrus caused by 18.2.2 Symptoms and epidemiology
Diaporthe citri 352 of ACC 373
17.3.1 Introduction 352 18.2.3 ACC control through
17.3.2 Disease symptoms 352 eradication 374
17.3.3 Infection process 353 18.2.4 Endemic control/mitigation
17.3.4 Pathogenicity and virulence 353 of ACC 375
17.3.5 Disease management 353 18.2.5 Implications of citrus canker
17.4 Citrus black spot disease caused by quarantines and trade 375
Phyllosticta citricarpa 353 18.3 Citrus variegated chlorosis 375
17.4.1 Introduction 353 18.3.1 History and background 375
17.4.2 Disease symptoms 354 18.3.2 Disease management, control,
17.4.3 Infection process 355 and mitigation 376
17.4.4 Pathogenicity and virulence 355 18.3.3 Recent discoveries and
17.4.5 Disease management 355 advances 377
17.5 Brown spot, leaf spot and black 18.4 Huanglongbing 377
rot diseases of citrus caused by 18.4.1 History and background 377
Alternaria 356 18.4.2 Symptoms 379
17.5.1 Introduction 356 18.4.3 Etiology and diagnosis 380
17.5.2 Disease symptoms 356 18.4.4 Pathogen biology: Phloem
17.5.3 Infection process 357 restriction in citrus, systemic
17.5.4 Pathogenicity and infection in psyllid, and lack of
virulence 358 axenic culture 382
17.5.5 Disease management 358 18.4.5 Genomics and taxonomy 383
17.6 Postbloom fruit drop disease caused 18.4.6 Epidemiology: Latency and
by Colletotrichum 358 incubation 384
17.6.1 Introduction 358 18.4.7 Control/management 384
17.6.2 Disease symptoms 359 References 384
17.6.3 Infection process 359 Further reading 389
 Contents  xi

19 Citrus viruses and viroids 19.28 Conclusion 402

Acknowledgment 403
Changyong Zhou, John V. da Graça, Juliana Freitas- References 403
Astúa, Georgios Vidalakis, Nuria Duran-Vila,
Irene Lavagi
20 Horticultural practices
19.1 Introduction 391
Fernando Alferez
19.2 Citrus tristeza virus (Closterovirus,
Closteroviridae) 391 20.1 Grove planning and tree spacing 411
19.3 Satsuma dwarf virus (Sadwavirus, 20.1.1 Site selection 411
Secoviridae) 392 20.1.2 Variety and rootstock selection 411
19.4 Citrus leprosis viruses 392 20.1.3 Tree spacing 412
19.5 Citrus psorosis virus (Ophiovirus, 20.2 Irrigation and water management
Aspiviridae) 394 planning 412
19.6 Citrus tatter leaf virus (Apple 20.2.1 Water management 413
stem grooving virus) (Capillovirus, 20.3 Canopy management and tree size
Betaflexiviridae) 394 control 413
19.7 Citrus variegation virus/Citrus leaf 20.3.1 Mechanical pruning cuts 413
rugose virus (Ilarvirus, Bromoviridae) 395 20.3.2 Manual pruning 415
19.8 Citrus leaf blotch virus (Citrivirus, 20.3.3 Effects of pruning on tree
Betaflexiviridae) 395 physiology 416
19.9 Citrus vein enation virus (Enamovirus, 20.3.4 Other considerations 416
Luteoviridae) 395 20.4 Crop load management 416
19.10 Citrus yellow mosaic virus References 417
(Badnavirus, Caulimoviridae) 396
19.11 Indian citrus ringspot virus 21 Postharvest technology of citrus fruits
(Mandarivirus, Alphaflexivirdae) 396
Lorenzo Zacarias, Paul J.R. Cronje, Lluís Palou
19.12 Citrus yellow vein clearing virus
(Mandarivirus, Alphaflexivirdae) 396 21.1 Introduction 421
19.13 Citrus chlorotic dwarf-associated 21.2 Postharvest Physiology 421
virus (Geminiviridae) 396 21.2.1 Responses of citrus fruits to
19.14 Citrus concave gum-associated postharvest stress conditions 421
virus and Citrus virus A (tentative 21.2.2 Postharvest physiological
Coguvirus, Bunyavirales) 397 disorders 424
19.15 Diseases of unknown etiology 397 21.3 Postharvest pathology 427
19.16 Citrus sudden death-associated virus 21.3.1 Main postharvest diseases 427
(Marafivirus, Tymoviridae) 397 21.3.2 Preharvest and postharvest
19.17 Miscellaneous viruses 398 factors affecting disease incidence 429
19.18 Citrus exocortis viroid (Pospiviroid, 21.3.3 Disease management strategies 431
Pospiviroidae) 398 21.4 Postharvest handling and storage 434
19.19 Hop stunt viroid (Hostuviroid, 21.4.1 Harvesting and orchard practices 434
Pospiviroidae) 398 21.4.2 Packinghouse practices 435
19.20 Citrus bent leaf viroid (Apscaviroid, 21.4.3 Transport and international
Pospiviroidae) 399 shipment procedures 440
19.21 Citrus dwarfing viroid (Apscaviroid, 21.4.4 Postharvest quarantine
Pospiviroidae) 400 treatments for citrus exports 442
19.22 Citrus viroid V (Apscaviroid, References 442
Pospiviroidae) 401
19.23 Citrus viroid VI (Apscaviroid, 22 Chemistry of citrus flavor
Pospiviroidae) 401
Yu Wang, Siyu Wang, Simona Fabroni, Shi Feng,
19.24 Citrus viroid VII (tentative
Paolo Rapisarda, Russell Rouseff
Apscaviroid, Pospiviroidae) 401
19.25 Citrus bark cracking viroid 22.1 Introduction 447
(Cocadviroid, Pospiviroidae) 401 22.2 Lemon 447
19.26 Diagnosis 402 22.2.1 Seasonal changes 450
19.27 Control 402 22.2.2 Lemon oil extraction 451
xii  Contents

22.2.3 Aroma volatiles 451 23.5 Lemons and limes 484

22.2.4 Aldehydes 453 23.6 Price Determination for citrus 485
22.2.5 Esters 456 23.7 Trade agreements and citrus 490
22.2.6 Terpenoid hydrocarbon 456 23.8 Marketing and promotion of citrus 491
22.2.7 Alcohols, ketones, and oxygen 23.9 By-products from citrus processing 493
heterocycles 457 References 493
22.2.8 Lemon oil sulfur compounds 458 Further reading 493
22.3 Orange and mandarin 458
22.3.1 Aldehydes 459 24 Citrus and health
22.3.2 Esters 460
Gang Ma, Lancui Zhang, Minoru Sugiura,
22.3.3 Terpenoid hydrocarbons 461
Masaya Kato
22.3.4 Alcohols, ketones, acids, and
oxygen heterocycles 461 24.1 Introduction 495
22.3.5 Sulfur- and nitrogen- 24.2 Carotenoid in citrus fruits 495
containing compounds 463 24.2.1 Carotenoid accumulation in
22.3.6 Differences between orange citrus fruits 495
and mandarin 463 24.2.2 The metabolism of β-
22.4 Grapefruit 464 cryptoxanthin in citrus fruits 497
22.5 Conclusion 466 24.2.3 The role of β-cryptoxanthin in
References 466 human health 498
Further reading 470 24.3 Flavonoid in citrus fruits 500
24.3.1 Flavonoid composition in
23 Global economics and marketing citrus fruits 500
of citrus products 24.3.2 Heath benefits of citrus
flavonoids 501
Thomas H. Spreen, Zhifeng Gao, 24.3.3 The biosynthesis of flavonoids
Waldir Fernandes, Jr., Marisa L. Zansler in citrus fruits 503
23.1 Introduction 471 24.4 Ascorbic acid in citrus fruits 504
23.2 Sweet oranges 471 24.4.1 The roles of ascorbic acid in
23.2.1 Sweet orange industry human health 504
organization in Brazil 474 24.4.2 The accumulation of AsA in
23.2.2 Sweet orange industry citrus fruits 505
organization in Florida 475 24.4.3 The metabolism of AsA in
23.2.3 Trade of fresh sweet oranges 475 citrus fruits 506
23.3 Grapefruit and pummelos 478 24.4.4 The regulation of AsA in citrus
23.4 Mandarins/tangerines 479 fruits 507
23.4.1 Production and consumption 24.5 Conclusion 508
by country 479 References 508
23.4.2 Exports and imports by country 479
23.4.3 Mandarins/tangerines used for
processing by country 483 Index513
Contributors
Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’
­contributions begin.
Manuel Agustí (193, 219), Mediterranean Agroforestry
Institute, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Valencia,
Spain
Pablo Aleza (171), Centro de Citricultura y Producción
Vegetal, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones
Agrarias (IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Fernando Alferez (411), University of Florida, Institute
of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Southwest Florida
Research and Education Center, Immokalee, FL, United
States
Vicent Arbona (271, 291), Ecophysiology and
Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural and
Environmental Sciences, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló
de la Plana, Spain
Graham H. Barry (83), XLnT Citrus Company, Cape
Town, South Africa
Ozgur Batuman (349), Department of Plant Pathology,
Southwest Florida Research and Education Center,
University of Florida, Immokalee, FL, United States
Manosh Kumar Biswas (33), Key Laboratory of
Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education),
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
Rodrigo Marcelli Boaretto (311), Sylvio Moreira
Citrus Research Center, Instituto Agronômico (IAC),
Cordeirópolis, Brazil
Kim D. Bowman (105), U.S. Horticultural Research
Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Fort Pierce, FL, United
States
Liliana M. Cano (349), Department of Plant Pathology,
Indian River Research and Education Center, University
of Florida, Fort Pierce, FL, United States
Marco Caruso (83, 129), CREA Research Centre for
Olive, Citrus and Tree Fruit, Acireale, Italy
Vittoria Catara (349), Department of Agriculture, Food
and Environment, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
Yijing Cen (333), South China Agricultural University,
Guangzhou, China
José M. Colmenero-Flores (291), Institute of Natural
Resources and Agrobiology, Spanish National Research
Council (CSIC), Seville, Spain
Paul J.R. Cronje (421), Citrus Research International,
Department of Horticultural Sciences, Stellenbosch
University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
Jose Cuenca (171), Centro de Citricultura y Producción
Vegetal, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones
Agrarias (IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Franck Curk (57), French National Institute for
Agricultural Research (INRA), AGAP Research Unit,
San Giuliano, France
John V. da Graça (391), Citrus Center, Texas A&M
University-Kingsville, Weslaco, TX, United States
Xiuxin Deng (33), Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant
Biology (Ministry of Education), Huazhong Agricultural
University, Wuhan, China
Nuria Duran-Vila (391), Centro de Protección Vegetal y
Biotecnología, Valencian Institute of Agrarian Research
(IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Manjul Dutt (171), Citrus Research and Education Center,
Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of
Florida, Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Simona Fabroni (447), CREA, Research Center for Olive,
Citrus and Tree Fruit, Acireale, Italy
Shi Feng (447), Citrus Research and Education Center,
Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Waldir Fernandes, Jr. (471), Economics, Business
Administration and Education Department, São Paulo
State University, Jaboticabal; College of Technology,
State Center of Technological Education, São Jose do
Rio Preto, Brazil
Juliana Freitas-Astúa (391), Embrapa Cassava and Fruits,
Cruz das Almas, Brazil
Yann Froelicher (129), Unité Mixte de Recherche
Amélioration Génétique et Adaptation des Plantes
(UMR Agap), Centre de Coopération Internationale
en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement
(CIRAD), San Giuliano, France
xiii
xiv  Contributors
Dean Gabriel (371), Plant Pathology Department,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Zhifeng Gao (471), Food and Resource Economics
Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL,
United States
Maria Antonietta Germanà (171), Department of
Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences (SAAF),
University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Frederick G. Gmitter, Jr. (1, 9, 83, 129), Citrus Research
and Education Center (CREC), Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida,
Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Aurelio Gómez-Cadenas (271, 291), Ecophysiology
and Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural and
Environmental Sciences, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló
de la Plana, Spain
Timothy R. Gottwald (371), US Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Fort Pierce, FL, United
States
Santin Gravena (333), Paulista State University (UNESP,
Retired) and Member of GCONCI-Consultant Citrus
Group, Jaboticabal, Brazil
Jude W. Grosser (171), Citrus Research and Education
Center, Department of Horticultural Sciences, University
of Florida, Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Tim G. Grout (333), Citrus Research International,
Nelspruit, South Africa
Jae-Wook Hyun (349), Citrus Research Institute, National
Institute of Horticultural and Herbal Science, Jeju,
South Korea
Johan Joubert (105), Citrus Research International,
Nelspruit, South Africa
Davie M. Kadyampakeni (311), Citrus Research and
Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred,
FL, United States
Masaya Kato (495), Department of Bioresource Sciences,
Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka,
Japan
Prabhjot Kaur (171), Citrus Research and Education
Center, Department of Horticultural Sciences, University
of Florida, Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Robert Krueger (57), United States Department of
Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service National
Clonal Germplasm Repository for Citrus and Dates,
Riverside, CA, United States
Irene Lavagi (391), University of California, Riverside,
CA, United States
Hongye Li (349), Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang
University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
Concetta Licciardello (245), CREA Research Centre for
Olive, Citrus and Tree Fruit, Acireale, Italy
Silvio A. Lopes (371), Research and Development
Department, Fundecitrus, Araraquara, Brazil
Gang Ma (495), Department of Bioresource Sciences,
Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka,
Japan
Haijie Ma (349), Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang
University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China;
Department of Horticultural Science, Citrus Research
and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake
Alfred, FL, United States
Dirceu Mattos, Jr. (311), Sylvio Moreira Citrus Research
Center, Instituto Agronômico (IAC), Cordeirópolis, Brazil
Kelly T. Morgan (311), Southwest Florida Research &
Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee,
FL, United States
Raphaël Morillon (271, 291), Equipe “Amélioration des
Plantes à Multiplication Végétative”, UMR AGAP,
Département BIOS, CIRAD, Guadeloupe, France
Ana Quiñones Oliver (311), Centro de Desarrollo
de Agricultura Sostenible, Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Patrick Ollitrault (57), French Agricultural Research
Centre for International Development (CIRAD), AGAP
Research Unit, San Giuliano, France
Lluís Palou (421), Centre de Tecnologia Postcollita, Institut
Valencià d’Investigacions Agràries (IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Eduardo Primo-Millo (193, 219), Centro de Citricultura
y Producción Vegetal, Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones agrarias (IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Jose Antonio Quaggio (311), Center of Soils and
Environmental Resources, Instituto Agronômico (IAC),
Campinas, Brazil
Paolo Rapisarda (447), CREA, Research Center for Olive,
Citrus and Tree Fruit, Acireale, Italy
Mark Ritenour (349), Department of Horticultural
Science, Indian River Research and Education Center,
University of Florida, Fort Pierce, FL, United States
María J. Rodrigo (245), Instituto de Agroquímica y
Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)—Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
Daniel S. Rokhsar (1, 9), US Department of Energy
Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek; Department of
Molecular and Cell Biology and Center for Integrative
Genomics, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley,
CA, United States; Molecular Genetics Unit, Okinawa
Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University,
Onna, Japan

Russell Rouseff (447), Citrus Research Institute of
China, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences,
Southwest University, Chongqing, People’s Republic
of China
Giuseppe Russo (129), CREA Research Centre for Olive,
Citrus and Tree Fruit, Acireale, Italy
Avi Sadka (245), Department of Fruit Tree Sciences,
Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani
Center, Rishon Le’zion, Israel
Tokurou Shimizu (149), Division of Citrus Research,
Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, National
Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Shizuoka,
Japan
Malcolm W. Smith (129), Department of Agriculture and
Fisheries, Bundaberg Research Station, Bundaberg,
QLD, Australia
Thomas H. Spreen (471), Food and Resource Economics
Department, University of Florida; Economic and
Marketing Research Department, Florida Department of
Citrus, Gainesville, FL, United States
Philip A. Stansly (333), University of Florida—IFAS,
Southwest Florida Research & Education Center,
Immokalee, FL, United States
Minoru Sugiura (495), Department of Food Science and
Nutrition, Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts,
Kyoto, Japan
Francisco R. Tadeo (245), Centro de Genómica, Instituto
Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA),
Valencia, Spain
Manuel Talon (1, 9), Centro de Genómica, Instituto
Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA),
Valencia, Spain
Javier Terol (245), Centro de Genómica, Instituto
Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA),
Valencia, Spain
Alberto Urbaneja (333), Centro de Protección Vegetal y
Biotecnología, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones
Agrarias (IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Contributors  xv
Antonio Vicent (349), Centro de Protección Vegetal y
Biotecnología, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones
Agrarias (IVIA), Valencia, Spain
Georgios Vidalakis (391), University of California,
Riverside, CA, United States
Christopher Vincent (271), University of Florida Citrus
Research and Education Center, Lake Alfred, FL,
United States
Nian Wang (171), Citrus Research and Education Center,
Department of Microbiology, University of Florida,
Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Siyu Wang (447), Citrus Research and Education Center,
Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Yu Wang (447), Citrus Research and Education Center,
Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Fengnian Wu (333), South China Agricultural University,
Guangzhou, China
Guohong Albert Wu (1, 9), US Department of Energy Joint
Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States
Nelson A. Wulff (371), Research and Development
Department, Fundecitrus, Araraquara, Brazil
Masashi Yamamoto (33), Faculty of Agriculture,
Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
Xiaoming Yang (33), Key Laboratory of Horticultural
Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), Huazhong
Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
Lorenzo Zacarias (421), Instituto de Agroquímica
y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
Marisa L. Zansler (471), Economic and Marketing
Research Department, Florida Department of Citrus,
Gainesville, FL, United States
Lancui Zhang (495), Department of Bioresource Sciences,
Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka,
Japan
Changyong Zhou (391), Southwest University, Chongqing,
People’s Republic of China
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Chapter 1

The citrus genome

Frederick G. Gmitter, Jr.a, Guohong Albert Wub, Daniel S. Rokhsarb,c,d, Manuel Talone
a
Citrus Research and Education Center (CREC), Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of Florida, Lake Alfred, FL, United
States, bUS Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States, cDepartment of Molecular and Cell Biology and Center
for Integrative Genomics, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States, dMolecular Genetics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and
Technology Graduate University, Onna, Japan, eCentro de Genómica, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA), Valencia, Spain

1.1 Concept of genome

The genome of any living organism is indeed the foundation upon which every aspect of that organism’s life is built. The
organism’s shape, size, color, mode of acquisition, and requirements for nutrients, interactions within the environment
where the organism may be found, the timely and appropriate regulation of expression of fundamental coding information
leading to form and function of the organism and its distinctive organs and tissues, and even the mechanisms by which the
genome sequence content is passed forward to future generations—all these and many other fundamental aspects of the life
of any organism are determined by the information content of the genome. The genome is the fundamental basis of all living
things. Plants of the genus Citrus are certainly no exception. In this sense, the genome underlies or influences every aspect
of citrus trees and fruits, and therefore certainly the next few chapters, and nearly every chapter topic that follows in this
book, may best be understood when viewed through the lens of genomic comprehension. From this perspective, the editors
have chosen to open the book with an introductory chapter recognizing and describing something of the foundational role
of the citrus genome.
DNA sequencing and analysis seems ubiquitous in contemporary biology; however, it is worth recognizing that this
technology arose in the last 25 years of the previous century. The first method of DNA sequencing, based on primers for
extension that were location specific and coupled with nucleotide-specific labeling, were reported first in the early 1970s
(Wu, 1972; Padmanabhan et al., 1974). These reports were followed by the classic work of Sanger et al. (1977), which
remained the gold standard for genome sequencing through the first decade of the current century. The earlier methods
were applied to viruses, bacteriophage, and soon to a bacterium Haemophilus influenzae, using a whole-genome shotgun
(WGS) approach (Fleischmann et al., 1995). Perhaps one of the most significant developments in the earliest days of the
new millennium, the first draft sequence of the human genome was published (Venter et al., 2001). Since then, sequencing
technology experienced exponential growth in capacity and quality that continues unabated until today (summarized in
Goodwin et al., 2016). It is as a consequence of this technological revolution that agricultural scientists, and citrus research-
ers specifically, have been able to make the progress and lead to incredible new insights to objectively address biological
and evolutionary questions.

1.2 Citrus genomes

Within the context of the rapid evolution of genomic science and associated bioinformatics tools, the global citrus com-
munity came together in Valencia, Spain in 2003 to establish a framework for international collaboration, referred to as the
International Citrus Genome Consortium (ICGC). The historical background of the ICGC as well as the fundamental prin-
ciples, objectives, and goals were described previously (Talon and Gmitter, 2008; Gmitter et al., 2012). Initially, the ICGC
estimated the cost of producing “the citrus genome” to be about US$16 million, and so individual research groups went
to their home industries and countries to seek support for the ambitious international project. Finally, researchers from the
United States, France, Italy, Spain, and Brazil acquired financial resources and engaged primarily with the US Department
of Energy-Joint Genome Institute (USDOE-JGI), Genoscope in France, and Istituto Genomica Applicata (IGA) in Italy to
work together for producing and making publicly available through the USDOE-JGI web portal Phytozome in January 2011,
the first ever reference citrus genome sequence of a haploid clone derived from Clementine mandarin (Aleza et al., 2009;

The Genus Citrus. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812163-4.00001-2

© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 The genus citrus

Germana et al., 2013). This was accomplished by Sanger sequencing technologies in the three institutes, coupled with a
reference genetic linkage map (Ollitrault et al., 2012), community EST resources, and contributions from other entities
(see Wu et al., 2014 for full details of the work, and a complete listing and description of the contributions of collaborating
individuals and organizations). In parallel, a different approach using what then was the new pyrosequencing methodology
of Roche 454 was applied to sequence the diploid sweet orange Ridge Pineapple, which had originally been selected by
the ICGC for the global sequencing project. Though substantially more fragmented, this diploid orange assembly covered
much of the same predicted gene space as the haploid. It was made available at the same time as the haploid Clementine
through Phytozome in January 2011 to the global research community (Wu et al., 2014).
In 2012, a draft assembly of the Valencia sweet orange genome was published (Xu et al., 2013). A dihaploid line derived
from anther culture was sequenced using a WGS paired-end strategy with Illumina GAII (genome analyzer II) technology.
Then, shotgun Illumina sequence reads from the diploid source Valencia tree were generated and mapped to the de novo
haploid reference assembly to provide more complete sequence information. The shotgun sequencing approach was applied
to three additional presumed accessions of mandarin (Citrus reticulata) and three pummelo accessions (Citrus maxima);
it was concluded that sweet orange arose as a simple backcross hybrid of (mandarin × pummelo) × mandarin, though this
conclusion was subsequently challenged by Wu et al. (2014).
As sequencing technology advanced, citrus genome sequence studies followed suit. Relatively expensive Sanger
sequencing technology was followed by pyrosequencing, which was less expensive but yielded technological challenges
resulting in lower-quality assemblies. Illumina-based sequencing came next and allowed for greater depth of coverage
for less cost, but again there were compromises in terms of final quality of the genome assemblies. The advent of long
read single molecule sequencing approaches such as PacBio addressed some of these challenges and led to assemblies
with better quality indicated by increased contig and scaffold N50 and N90 values compared with previous citrus ge-
nome assemblies. Two research groups, one in China and the other in Japan, adopted new sequencing technology and
published in 2017 the pummelo and Satsuma mandarin reference genomes, respectively (Wang et al., 2017; Shimizu
et al., 2017). The former research group used a haploid clone of pummelo (C. maxima) to produce the first de novo se-
quence assembly of this species based on the single-molecule sequencing approach provided by the PacBio RS II system
(Wang et al., 2017). They first used 56.8× coverage of long reads to assemble and followed this with 307.3× coverage
of Illumina short reads to correct errors and fill in the gaps. They have also used a similar approach to produce de novo
sequence assemblies of three other citrus species representing wide variation within the genus, including Citrus ichan-
gensis (Ichang papeda), Citrus medica (citron), and a Rutaceous relative Atalantia buxifolia (the Chinese box orange)
The Satsuma draft genome was produced from the widely grown commercial diploid cultivar, Miyagawa Wase, also
by a hybrid sequencing and assembly approach. In this case, sequencing consisted of Illumina-based short reads, three
mate-pair libraries, long read PacBio sequences, and a hybrid assembly approach. Pseudomolecules were constructed
following alignment to three SSR (simple sequence repeat)- and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism)-based genetic
linkage maps from Satsuma hybrid families. Very recently the de novo sequence of Fortunella hindsii was constructed
from a plant produced by three generations of selfing (Zhu et al., 2019). A summary of these various de novo assemblies
is illustrated in Table 1.1.
As sequencing and assembly technologies continue to evolve and improve, better assemblies of important citrus ge-
nomes will be produced in the near future. Improved sequencing technologies also will impact the quality of associated
transcriptome information, leading to better annotations as well. But the availability of rapid and inexpensive WGS and the
consequent generation of deep sequence coverage of many genomes have enabled the exploration of important questions
relating to the phylogeny and evolution of the very broad range of phenotypes found among citrus accessions and commer-
cial cultivar groups, as described below.

1.3 Genomes: Pure, admixed, and domesticated

1.3.1 Inference of pure and admixed genome regions
Significant insight has been gained in our understanding of the origin and evolution of the genus Citrus based on the
analysis of WGS sequencing of a wide collection of citrus species, hybrids, and admixed varieties (Wu et al., 2018). The
phylogenomic analysis, in combination with biogeographic data and the use of citrus leaf fossil calibration, revealed that
citrus diversified during the late Miocene through a rapid Southeast Asian radiation, giving rise to at least seven progeni-
tor species. This was followed by a second radiation in the early Pliocene of Oceania resulting in several Australian citrus
species (Wu et al., 2018). Please refer to Chapter 2 for a detailed treatment of citrus evolution and dispersal, including a
chronogram of citrus speciation.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
speak disrespectfully of Sophocles, for whom, as in duty bound, we
entertain a most sincere veneration; but he certainly must rank beneath Mr.
Farley as a manager of the ἀπροσδόκητον. One of the most striking
examples in the present day, which we can recommend to those who wish
to apply this figure to the purposes of actual life, is (may we say it without
being accused of a political allusion?) her Majesty Queen Caroline. That
illustrious personage in one beautiful passage (we mean her passage from
Calais to Dover) has certainly proved herself a perfect mistress of the
ἀπροσδόκητον.
Of this figure the Bathos must be considered a most elegant species.
Again, for the benefit of our fair readers, we will observe, that the usual
signification of the Bathos is—the Art of Sinking in Poetry; but what we
here propose to discuss is “the Art of Sinking in Life”—an art of which it
may be truly said that those who practise it skilfully only stoop to conquer.
It must be evident to every person who is at all conversant with the
motives and origin of human opinions, that man is accustomed to regard
with a feeling of animosity those who are pre-eminent in any science or
virtue—

Urit enim fulgore suo qui prægravat artes

Infra se positas.

But this invidious and hostile feeling vanishes at once, when we behold the
object of it sinking suddenly from the dazzling sphere he originally
occupied, and reducing himself to a level with ordinary mortals. The divine
and incomparable Clarissa would never have been considered divine and
incomparable, had she never been betrayed into a faux pas; and I question
whether Bonaparte was ever looked upon with so favourable an eye as
when he afforded a specimen of the Bathos, in his descent from “the
Emperor of France” to “the Captive of St. Helena.”
But the strongest argument that can be used in recommendation of this
science is, that we are by Nature herself compelled to make use of it.
Whatever riches we may amass, whatever age we may attain, whatever
honours we may enjoy, we are continually looking forward to one certain
and universal Bathos, “Death.” From learning, from wealth, from power,
our descent is swift and inevitable. We look upon the graves of our kindred,
and say with Hamlet, “To this must we come at last.”
 This doctrine is so beautifully illustrated by a passage in Holy Writ, that
we cannot refrain from laying it before our readers:—
“Alexander, son of Philip the Macedonian, made many wars, and won
many strongholds, and slew the kings of the earth. And he gathered a
mighty strong host, and ruled over countries and nations and kings, who
became tributaries to him. And after these things he fell sick, and perceived
that he should—die.”[1]
A more beautiful instance of this figure cannot be imagined. It needs no
comment. But we fear we are growing too serious, and shall therefore
pursue this branch of our dissertation no further.
We hope our readers are by this time thoroughly convinced of the beauty
and utility of this figure; we will proceed to exhort them most earnestly to
apply themselves immediately to the study of “the Art of Sinking in Life.”
The art may be divided into a great number of species; but all, we
believe, may be comprehended under two heads—the Bathos Gradual and
the Bathos Precipitate. We will offer a few concise remarks upon both,
without pretending to decide between the various merits of each. Indeed,
the opinion of the world appears pretty much divided between them; as
there are some bathers, who stand for a time shivering on the brink, and at
last totter into the stream with a tardy and reluctant step, while there are
others who boldly plunge into the tide with a hasty and impetuous leap.
The Bathos Gradual is principally practised by poets and by coquettes.
Of its use by the former we have frequent examples in our own day. A
gentleman publishes a book: it is bought, read, and admired. He publishes
another, and his career of sinking immediately commences. First he sinks
into a book-maker; next he sinks into absurdity; next he sinks into
mediocrity; next he sinks into oblivion; and, as it is impossible for him to
sink much lower, he may then begin to think of rising to a garret.
The life of Chloe affords an admirable instance of the effect with which
this species of the art may be exercised by coquettes. At twenty-four, Chloe
was a fashionable beauty; at twenty-six she began to paint; at twenty-eight
she was—not what she had been; and at thirty she was voted a maiden lady!
Or, to use the slang of the loungers of the day: at twenty-four she was bang-
up; at twenty-six she was a made-up thing; at twenty-eight was done up;
and at thirty it was—all up with her.
 The Bathos Precipitate is adapted to the capacities of great generals,
substantial merchants, dashing bloods, and young ladies who are in haste to
be married.[2] For examples of it in the first we must refer you to Juvenal’s
Tenth Satire, as this part of our subject is hackneyed, and we despair of
saying anything new upon it.
For examples of the Bathos Precipitate in trade, you must make inquiries
among the Dulls and Bears on the Stock Exchange; they can instruct you
much better than ourselves by what method you may be a good man at
twelve o’clock, and a bankrupt at one.
Upon referring to our memoranda, we find some inimitable examples of
this species of the Bathos among the two latter classes of its practitioners.
Some of these we will extract for the amusement of our readers:—
Sir Edmund Gulley.—Became possessed of a handsome property by the death of his uncle,
February 7, 1818. Sat down 10 Rouge et Noir, February 14, 1818, 12 o’clock P.Μ. Shot
himself through the head, February 15, 1818, 2 o’clock A.M.
Lord F. Maple.—Acquired great éclat in an affair of honour, March 2, 1818. Horsewhipped
for a scoundrel at the Second Newmarket Meeting, 1818.
Mr. G. Bungay.—September 1819—Four-in-hand, blood horses, shag coat, pearl buttons.
October 1819—Plain chaise and pair.
Miss Lydia Dormer.—May 1820—Great beauty, manifold accomplishments, £4000 a-year.
June 1820—Chère amie of Sir J. Falkland.
The Hon. Miss Amelia Tempest.—(From a daily paper of July 1820.)—“Marriage in High
Life.—The beautiful Miss Amelia Tempest will shortly be led to the hymeneal altar by
the Marquis of Looney.”
(From the same paper of August 1820.)—“Elopement in High Life.—Last week the Hon.
Miss Am-l-a T-mp-st eloped with her father’s footman.”

Reader,—When we inform you that we ourselves had long entertained a

sneaking kindness for the amiable Amelia, you will image to yourself the
emotion with which we read the above paragraph. We jumped from the
table in a paroxysm of indignation, and committed to the flames the
obnoxious chronicler of our disappointment; but the next moment
composed our feelings with a truly stoic firmness, and, with a steady hand,
we wrote down the name of the Hon. Miss Amelia Tempest as an admirable
proficient in the Bathos Precipitate.
 NICKNAMES.

“Lusco qui possit dicere ‘lusce.’”

The invention and appropriation of Nicknames are studies which, from

want of proper cultivation, have of late years very much decayed. Since
these arts contribute so much to the well-being and satisfaction of our
Etonian witlings—since the younger part of our community could hardly
exist if they were denied the pleasure of affixing a ludicrous addition to the
names of their seniors—we hope that the consideration of this art in all its
branches and bearings will be to many an amusing, and to some an
improving, disquisition.
The different species of nicknames may be divided and subdivided into
an endless variety. There is the nickname direct, the nickname oblique, the
nickname κατ’ ἐξόχὴν, the nickname κατ’ ἀντιφράσιν, and a multitude of
others, which it is unnecessary here to particularize. We shall attempt a few
remarks upon these four principal classes.
The nickname direct, as might be expected, is by far more ancient than
any other we have enumerated. Much has been argued upon the elegance or
inelegance of Homer’s perpetually repeated epithets; for our part we
imagine Homer thought very little upon the elegance or inelegance of the
expressions to which we allude, since we cannot but regard his Ξανθὸς
Μενέλαος—πόδας ὠκὺς Αχιλλεὺς—ἄναξ ανδρών Αγαμέμνων, and other
passages of the same kind, not even excepting the thundering cognomen
which is tacked on to his Jupiter, Ζεὺς ὑψιβρεμέτης, as so many ancient and
therefore inimitable specimens of the nickname direct. This class is with
propriety divided into two smaller descriptions; the nickname personal and
the nickname descriptive. The first of these is derived from some bodily
defect in its object; the latter from some excellence or infirmity of the mind.
The nicknames which were applied to our early British kings generally
fell under one of these denominations. William Rufus and Edward
Longshanks are examples of the first, while Henry Beauclerc and Richard
Cœur de Lion afford us instances of the second. We cannot depart from this
part of our subject without adverting to the extreme liberty which the
French have been accustomed to take with the names of their kings. With
that volatile nation, “the Cruel,” “the Bald,” and “the Fat” seem as
constantly the insignia of royalty as the sceptre and the crown. We must
confess that, were it not for the venerable antiquity of the species, we
should be glad to see the nickname personal totally discontinued, as in our
opinion the most able proficient in this branch of the science evinces a great
portion of ill-nature, and very little ingenuity.
The merit of the nickname oblique consists principally in its
incomprehensibility. It is frequently derived, like the former, from some real
or imaginary personal defect; but the illusion is generally so twisted and
distorted in its formation, that even the object to whom it is applied is
unable to trace its origin or to be offended by its use. The discovery of the
actual fountain from whence so many ingenious windings and intricacies
proceed is really a puzzling study for one who wishes to make himself
acquainted with the elementary principles of things. In short, the nickname
oblique resembles the great river, the Nile: its meanders are equally
extensive, its source is equally concealed. We have a specimen of this
species in the appellation of our worthy secretary. Mr. Golightly made a
pleasant, though a sufficiently obvious hit, when he addressed Mr. Richard
Hodgson by the familiar abbreviation of Pam. We should recommend to the
professors of the nickname oblique, two material, though much neglected,
requisites—simplicity and perspicuity; for, in spite of the long and attentive
study which we have devoted to this branch of the art, we ourselves have
been frequently puzzled by unauthorized corruptions both of sound and
sense, and lost amidst the circuitous labyrinth of a far-fetched prænomen.
We were much embarrassed by hearing our good friend, Mr. Peter Snaggs,
addressed by the style of “Fried Soles,” until we remembered that his
grandfather had figured as a violent Methodist declaimer in the metropolis:
nor could we conceive by what means our old associate, Mr. Matthew
Dunstan, had obtained his classical title of “Forceps,” until we recollected
the miraculous attack made by the tongs of his prototype upon the nasal
orifices of his Satanic antagonist.
The third species is derived from an implied excellence in any one
specified study. It is known by the sign “The.” Thus, “The Whistler,” in
“Tales of My Landlord,” is so called from his having excelled all others in
the polished and fashionable art of whistling. When we call Mr. Ouzel “the
blockhead,” we are far from asserting that he is the only blockhead among
our well-beloved companions, but merely that he holds that title from
undisputed superlative merit; and, when we distinguish Sampson Noll by
the honourable designation of “The Nose,” we mean not to allege that Mr.
Noll is the only person who challenges admiration, from the extraordinary
dimensions of that feature, but simply, that Sampson’s nose exceeds, by
several degrees of longitude, the noses of his less distinguished competitors.
We know not, however, whether the species which we are discussing is
not rather to be considered a ramification of the first, than a separate class
in itself; for it unavoidably happens that the two kinds are frequently
confused, and that we know not under which head to arrange a name which
is of an ambiguous nature, and may be referred with equal propriety to
either definition.
The fourth and last kind is promiscuously derived from sources similar
to those of the three preceding; but in its formation it entirely reverses their
provisions. We all know that a grove was called by the Latins “lucus;” a
non lucendo, that the Præses of the Lower House of Parliament is called by
us, “Speaker,” because he is not allowed to speak. Such is the system of the
nickname which is at present under consideration; it is applied to its object,
not from the qualities which he possesses, but from those which he does
not; not from the actions which he has performed, but from those which he
has not: in short, contrariety is its distinguishing character, and absurdity its
principal merit. Antiquity will supply us with several admirable specimens.
Ptolemy murdered his brother, and was called “Philadelphus.” The Furies,
to say the best of them, were spiteful old maids, and they were nicknamed
“The Benevolent.” In our times it is certainly in more general use than any
other class; nor is this to be wondered at, when we consider the
extraordinary neatness of irony which is with great facility couched under
it. It has been well observed by some French author, whose name has
escaped our memory, that if you call Vice by her own name, she laughs at
you; but if you address her by the name of Virtue, she blushes. To give a
plainer illustration: if you say to Ouzel “Blockhead,” it is an unregarded
truth; if you cry out to him, “Genius,” it is a biting sarcasm. Nothing,
indeed, can be imagined more malignantly severe than this weapon of irony,
exercised with skill, and pointed with malevolence; no satire is more easy to
the assailant, and more painful to the assailed, than that which gives to
deformity the praise of beauty, and designates absurdity by the title of
absolute wisdom.
 We lately had the honour of reckoning among our nearest and dearest
friends Dr. Simon Colley, a gentleman who was as estimable for the
excellent qualities of his mind as he was ridiculous from the whimsical
proportions of his body. Must we give a description of our much lamented
friend? If the reader will collect together the various personal defects of all
his acquaintance—if he will add the lameness of one to the diminutive
stature of another—if he will unite the cast of the eye which designates a
third to the departure from the rectilineal line which beautifies the back of a
fourth, he will then have some faint idea of the bodily perfections of Dr.
Simon Colley. The Doctor was perfectly conscious of his peculiarities, and
was frequently in the habit of choosing his corporal appearance as the
theme of a hearty laugh or the subject of jocular lamentation; yet the sound
sense and cultivated philosophy of our respected friend was not proof
against the unexpected vociferation of a well-applied nickname; and,
although his favourite topic of conversation was the personal resemblance
he bore to the renowned Æsop, he flew into the most violent paroxysms of
rage when he was pointed at by some little impertinents as the Apollo
Belvidere.
But this sort of nickname is not used merely as the instrument of wit or
the weapon of ill-nature: it assumes occasionally a more serious garb, and
becomes the language of flattery or the adulation of hypocrisy. In this form
it is of great service in dedicatory epistles and professions of love. When
Vapid entreats Lord—— to prefix his name to a list of subscribers, he
whines out the praises of his “Mæcenas” with all the mournful earnestness
with which a criminal exalts the clemency of his judge; but the manner in
which he chuckles at the munificence of his patron over a beefsteak at the
Crown and Cushion proves very evidently that Vapid is a hypocrite, and
that “Mæcenas” is a nickname. And when Miss Pimpkinson, a maiden lady
with £40,000, smiles upon the adoration of Sir Horace Conway, a
fashionable without a farthing, she little dreams that “Venus,” which is her
title in the boudoir, is only her nickname at the club.
Having now presented our friends with a cursory sketch of these four
principal classes, we shall sum up the whole by offering to the reader a
specimen in which we lately heard the four kinds admirably blended
together. “Toup,” cried “All the Talents,” “tell ‘Swab’ that I have a
thrashing in store for ‘The Poet.’” “Toup” is the nickname oblique, borne by
its possessor in consequence of some supposed relation between the
longitude of his physiognomy and the Longinus of the erudite Toupius;
“Swab” is the nickname direct, applied to a rotund gentleman; “The Poet” is
κατ’ ἐξοχὴν—“the poet,” because he is super-eminently poetical; and “All
the Talents” is κατ’ ἀντιφράσιν—“All the Talents,” because he is the veriest
blockhead upon the face of our Etonian hemisphere.
It will be needless to enumerate the many minor classes of this important
subject; it will be needless to dwell upon the nickname classical, the
nickname clerical, the nickname military, and the nickname bargee; as we
believe that no specimen of these is to be found which may not be ranked
under one of the preceding descriptions. There is, however, one great and
extensive species remaining, to which we shall here give only a brief notice,
as we may possibly, at some future period, devote a leading article to its
consideration—we mean the nickname general. This last-mentioned class
claims our attention, from the comprehensive range of its operation. It is not
applied to the mental foibles or personal defects of a single object, it does
not attack the failings of a solitary individual, it wastes not the lash of
censure on an isolated instance of absurdity; but it inflicts a wound upon
thousands in a moment, and stamps the mark of ridicule upon numberless
victims. The Quizzes, the Prigs, the Marines, the Chaises are, amongst our
alumni, well-known examples of the nickname general.
But we have too long lost sight of the main object of our present
lucubration, which was the recommendation of this art to our fellow-
citizens, as a commendable, though much neglected, study. When we say
much neglected, we mean not that nicknames have ceased to be the rage,
and are falling into disuse (for certainly there never was an age in which
they spread more luxuriantly); but we allude to the lamentable decay of
imagination and ingenuity in their formation. If we look back to ancient
times, we shall find that, in those days, nicknames were derived from the
same sources as in the present age; they had their origin from natural
defects, from personal deformities; yet how amazingly do the cognomina of
antiquity exceed in elegance and taste the nicknames of more modern date.
How wonderfully are the “Chicken,” the “Shanks,” the “Nosey,” of Etonian
celebrity surpassed by the “Pullus,” the “Scaurus,” the “Cicero,” of Roman
literature. It is a disgrace upon the genius of our generation, that, at a time
when other arts have arrived at such a high perfection that our age may
almost be considered the Augustan age of the world, the art of nicknames
should have totally lost the classical polish for which it was in the olden
time so eminently remarkable, until it has sunk into the vehicle of vulgar
abuse, neither adorned by wit nor chastened by urbanity.
These considerations have induced us to give our most serious attention
to the advancement and improvement of the art. We are confident that our
researches in this line of literature have not been misapplied; and our
readers will surely agree with us, when they reflect on the manifold utility
of the study, when properly cultivated. There is so little variety in English
Christian names, that, where friends are in the habit of using them, great
mistakes must naturally take place. A surname, as Charles Surface
observes, “is too formal to be registered in Love’s calendar.” A nickname
avoids alike the ambiguity of one, and the stiffness of the other; it unites all
the familiarity of the first with all the utility of the second. Besides this, the
nickname is a brief description of its object: it saves a million of questions,
and an hour of explanation: it is in itself a species of biography. Homer,
when he gives to his Juno the nickname of “Bull-eyed,” expresses in a word
what a modern rhymer would dilate into a canto.
For the rescuing of nicknames from the obloquy into which they have
fallen, we have collected a large assortment of them, which we are ready to
dispose of to applicants at a very low price. We have in our stock
appellations of every descriptions—the Classical, the Familiar, the
Theatrical, the Absurd, the Complimentary, the Abusive, and the
Composite. By an application at our publisher’s, new nicknames may be
had at a moment’s notice. The wit and the blockhead, the sap and the idler,
shall be fitted with denominations which shall be alike appropriate and
flattering, so that they shall neither outrage propriety nor offend self-
conceit. The dandy shall be suited with a name which shall bear no allusion
to stays, and the coquette with one which shall in no way reflect upon
rouge. In short, we have a collection of novelties adapted to both sexes, and
proper for all ages. In one thing only is our stock deficient; and that, we are
confident, will be supplied previous to the appearance of our second
number. We have no doubt that some obligingly sarcastic associate will
favour us with a new and an ingenious nickname for the Etonian.
 YES AND NO.

“We came into the world like brother and brother,

And now let’s go hand in hand, not one before another.”

Shakespeare.

MR. LOZELL’S TREATISE ON THE ART OF SAYING “YES.”

“He humbly answered ‘Yea! Bob.’”

Anon.

Our opinion is very much strengthened by the belief that many of our
friends will assent to it, when we assert that no art requires in a greater
degree the attention of a young man, on his entrance into life, than that of
saying “Yes.” A man who deigns not to use this little word is a bulldog in
society; he studies his own gratification rather than that of his friends, and
of course accomplishes neither: in short, he deserves not to be called a
civilized being, and is totally unworthy of the place which he holds in the
creation.
Is not it right to believe the possible fallacy of one’s own opinion?—Yes.
Is not it proper to have a due consideration for the opinion of others?—Yes!
Is not it truly praiseworthy to sacrifice our conviction, our argument, our
obstinacy upon the shrine of politeness?—Again and again we answer—
Yes! yes! yes!

Nothing indeed is to us more gratifying than to behold a man modestly

diffident of the powers which Nature has bestowed upon him, and
assenting, with a proper sense of his own fallibility, to the opinions of those
who kindly endeavour to remedy his faults or to supply his deficiencies.
Nothing is to us more gratifying than to hear from the lips of such a man
that true test of a complying disposition—that sure prevention of all
animosity—that immediate stop to all quarrels—that sweet, civil,
complacent, inoffensive monosyllable—Yes!
 Yet, alas! how many do we find who, from an affectation of singularity,
or a foolish love of argument, do as it were expunge this admirable
expression from their vocabularies. How many do we see around us, who
are in the daily habit of losing the most advantageous offers, of quarrelling
with strangers, and of offending their best friends, solely because they
obstinately refuse to call to their assistance the infallible remedy for all
these evils, which is to be found in the three letters upon which we are
offering a brief comment.
We are sure we are only chiming in with the opinion of other people,
when we lament the manifold and appalling evils which are the sure
consequences of this disinclination to affirmatives. To us it is really
melancholy to look upon the disposition to contradiction by which some of
our friends are characterized, to observe the manifest pride of some, the
unreasonable pertinacity of others. Of a surety, if we are doomed at any
future season to put on the yoke of wedlock, Mrs. L. and all the Masters and
Misses L. shall be early instructed in the art of saying “Yes.”
Look into the pages of history! You will find there innumerable
examples in support of our opinion. When the Greeks begged Achilles to
pocket his affronts and make an end of Hector, he refused. Very well, we
have no doubt he did all for the best; but we are morally sure that Patroclus
would not have been slain if Achilles had known how to say “Yes.” We all
know how he cried about it when it was too late. To draw another
illustration from the same epoch, how disastrous was the ignorance which
Priam displayed of this art when a treaty was on foot for the restoration of
Helen. Nothing was easier than to finish all disputes, to step out of all
difficulties, by one civil, obliging, gentlemanly “Yes.” But he refused—and
Troy was burned. What glorious results would a contrary conduct have
produced! It would have prevented a peck of troubles both to the Greeks
and the Etonians. It would have saved the Ancients ten years, and the
Moderns twelve books, of bloodshed. It is almost unnecessary to allude to
the imprudent, the luckless Hippolytus: he never would have been murdered
by a marine monster if he could but have said “Yes;” but the word stuck in
his throat, and he certainly paid rather dear for his ignorance.
“Yes,” cries a critic, “I agree with all this, but it’s all so old.” We assent
to your opinion, my good friend, and will endeavour to benefit by your
suggestion. Come, then, we will look for illustrations among the characters
of our own age.
 There’s Lord Duretête, the misanthrope. He has a tolerable fortune,
tolerable talents, and tolerable person. He plays a tolerable accompaniment
on the flute, and a tolerable hand at whist. Yet, with all these tolerable
qualifications, he is considered a most intolerable man. What is the reason
of this seemingly anomalous circumstance? The reason is obvious—His
Lordship can’t say “Yes.” This abominable ignorance of our favourite art
interferes in the most trivial incidents of life; it renders him alike miserable
and disagreable. “Will your Lordship allow me to prefix your name to a
dedication?” says Bill Attic, the satirist. “I must go mad first,” says his
Lordship. “Duretête! lend me a couple of hundreds!” says Sir Harry. “Can’t,
’pon honour!” says his Lordship. “You dear creature, you’ll open my ball
this evening!” says Lady Germain. “I’ll be d—d if I do!” says his Lordship.
See the catastrophe. Bill Attic lampoons him, Sir Harry spits in his face, and
Lady Germain votes him a bore. How unlucky that he cannot say “Yes!”

Look at young Eustace, the man of honour! He came up to town last year
with a good dress, a good address, and letters of introduction to half a dozen
great men. He made his bow to each of them, spent a week with each of
them, offended each of them, and is now starving in a garret upon
independence and cold mutton. What is the meaning of all this? Eustace
never learned how to say “Yes!” “Virtus post nummos! Eh! young man?”
says old Discount, the usurer. “I can’t say I think so,” said Eustace. “Here!
Eustace, boy,” says Lord Fanny, “read over these scenes, and let me have
your opinion! Fit for the boards, I think! Eh?” “You’ll excuse me if I don’t
think they are,” says Eustace. “Well! my young friend,” cries Mr. Pliant,
“we must have you in Parliament I suppose; make an orator of you! You’re
on the right side, I hope?” “I should vote with my conscience, Sir,” says
Eustace. See the finale. Eustace is enlisted for life in the Grub Street Corps,
where he learns by sad experience how dangerous it is to say “No” to the
avarice of a usurer, the vanity of a rhymer, or the party spirit of a politician.
How unlucky that he cannot say “Yes.”
Godfrey is a lover, and he has every qualification for the office except
one. He cannot say “Yes.” Nobody, without this talent, should presume to
be in love. “Mr. Godfrey,” says Chloe, “don’t you think this feather pretty?”
“Absurd!” says Godfrey. “Mr. Godfrey!” says the lady, “don’t you think this
necklace becoming?” “Never saw anything less so!” says Godfrey. “Mr.
Godfrey,” says the coquette, “don’t you think I’m divine to-night?” “You
never looked worse, by Jove!” says the gentleman. Godfrey is a man of
fashion, a man of fortune, and a man of talent, but he will die a bachelor.
What a pity! We can never look on such a man without a smile for his
caprice and a tear for its consequences. How unlucky that he cannot say
“Yes!”
In the position we are next going to advance we know everybody will
agree with us, and this consideration very much strengthens our opinion.
Nothing is so becoming to a female mouth as a civil and flattering “Yes.” It
is impossible, indeed, but that our fellow-citizens should here agree with us,
when they reflect that they never can be husbands until their inamorata shall
have learnt the art of saying “Yes.” For the most part, indeed, civility and
good-nature are the characteristics of our British fair, and this natural
inclination to the affirmative renders it unnecessary for us to point out to
our fair countrywomen the beauties and advantages of a word which they
love as dearly as they do flattery. While we are on the subject of flattery, let
us obiter advise all Etonians to say nothing but “Yes” to a lady. But as a
thoughtless coquette or a haughty prude does occasionally forget the
necessity and the beauty of the word we are discussing, we cannot but
recommend to our fair readers to consider attentively the evils which this
forgetfulness infallibly entails. Laurelia would never have been cut by her
twenty-first adorer; Charlotte, with £4000 a year at fifteen, would never
have been an old maid at fifty; Lucy, with a good face and not a farthing,
would never have refused a carriage, white liveries, and a peerage, if these
unfortunate victims had studied in early youth the art of saying “Yes.”

Sweet—light—gay—quaint monosyllable! Tender, obliging, inoffensive,

affectionate “Yes!” How we delight in thy delicate sound! We love to hear
the enamoured swain petitioning for his mistress’s picture, till the lady, or
overcome by affection, or wearied by importunity, changes the “No” of coy
reluctance for the “Yes” of final approbation. We love to hear the belle of
Holborn Hill supplicating for Greenwich and the one-horse shay, till her
surly parent alters the shake of unconvinced obduracy for the nod of
unwilling consent. We love to see the hen-pecked husband humbly kneeling
for his Sunday coat and the “Star and Garter,” till Madam, conscious that
the Captain is secreted in the closet, transmutes the “No” of authoritative
detention into the “Yes” of immediate dismission. We love—but it is time to
bring our treatise to a conclusion, and we will merely observe, that
whenever we see Beauty without a husband or Talent without a place;
whenever we hear a lady considered an old maid, or a gentleman voted a
bore, we turn from the sight in melancholy mood, and whisper to ourselves:
“This comes of not being able to say ‘Yes.’”
MR. OAKLEY’S TREATISE ON THE ART OF SAYING “NO.”

“My son—learn betimes to say No.”

Miss Edgeworth.

Our opinion is not a jot weakened by the probability that many of our
friends will dissent from it, when we assert that no art requires in a greater
degree the attention of a young man, on his entrance into life, than that of
saying “No.” A man who is afraid to use this little word is a spaniel in
society; he studies to please others rather than to benefit himself, and of
course fails in both objects: in short, he deserves not to be called a man, and
is totally unworthy of the place which he holds in the creation.
Is he a rational being who has not an opinion of his own?—No. Is he in
the possession of his five senses who sees with the eyes, who hears with the
ears, of other men?—No! Does he act upon principle who sacrifices truth,
honour, and independence, on the shrine of servility?—Again and again we
reply—No! no! no!
Nothing indeed is to us more gratifying than to behold a man relying
boldly on the powers which Nature has bestowed upon him, and spurning,
with a proper consciousness of independence, the suggestions of those who
would reduce him from the rank he holds as a reasonable creature to the
level of a courtier and a time-server. Nothing is to us more gratifying than
to hear from the lips of such a man that decided test of a free spirit—that
finisher to all dispute—that knock-down blow in all arguments—that
strong, forcible, expressive, incontrovertible monosyllable—No!
Yet, alas! how many do we find who are either unable or unwilling to
pronounce this most useful, most necessary response! How many do we see
around us, who are in the daily habit of professing to know things of which
they are altogether ignorant, of making promises which it is impossible for
them to perform, of saying (to use for once α soft expression) the thing
which is not, solely because they will not call to their assistance the
infallible remedy for all these evils, which is to be found in the two letters
upon which we are offering a brief comment.
It is dreadful to reflect upon the evils which this neglect must infallibly
produce. It is dreadful to look round upon the friends and relatives whom
we see suffering the most appalling calamities from no other misconduct
than a blind aversion to negatives. It is disgusting to observe the flexible
indecision of some, the cringing servility of others. Forgive us, reader, but
we cannot help soliloquizing: “God save the King of Clubs, and may the
Princes of the Blood Royal be early instructed in the art of saying ‘No.’”

Look into the pages of history! You will find there innumerable
examples in support of our opinion. Pompey was importuned to give battle
to Cæsar: he complied. Poor devil! He would never have been licked at
Pharsalia if he had learned from us the art of saying “No.” Look at the
conduct of his rival and conqueror, Cæsar! You remember the words of
Casca, “I saw Mark Antony offer him a crown and he put it by once; but for
all that, to my thinking, he would fain have had it!” Now this placid
“putting by” was not the thing for the Romans: we are confident Julius
Cæsar would never have died by cold steel in the Senate if he had given
them a good decisive insuperable “No!” Whatever epoch we examine, we
find the same reluctance to say “No” to the allurements of pleasure and the
mandates of ambition, and alas! we find it productive of the same
consequences. Juvenal tells us of an unfortunate young man, one Caius
Silius, who was unlucky enough to be smiled upon by the Empress
Messalina. The poor boy knew the danger he ran—he saw the death which
awaited him; but an Empress sued, and he had not the heart to say “No!” He
lost his heart first, and his head shortly afterwards.

“Dam’me,” says a blood, “all that happened a hundred years ago.” An

Etonian has occasionally great difficulty in carrying his ideas a hundred
years back. Well, then, we will go example-hunting nearer home.

There’s Sir Philip Plausible, the Parliament man. He can make a speech
of nine hours and a calculation of nine pages; nobody is a better hand at
getting up a majority, or palavering a refractory Oppositionist; he proffers
an argument and a bribe with equal dexterity, and converts by place and
pension when he is unable to convince by alliteration and antithesis. What a
pity it is he can’t say “No!” “Sir Philip,” says an envoy, “you’ll remember
my little business at the Foreign Office!” “Depend upon my friendship,”
says the Minister. “Sir Philip!” says a fat citizen, with two votes and two
dozen children, “you will remember Billy’s place in the Customs!” “Rely
on my promise!” says the Minister. “Sir Philip!” says a lady of rank,
“Ensign Roebuck is an officer most deserving promotion!” “He shall be a
colonel! I swear by Venus!” says the Minister. Exitus ergo quis est? He has
outraged his friendship, he has forgotten his promise, he has falsified his
oath. Had he ever an idea of performing what he spoke? Quite the reverse!
How unlucky that he cannot say “No!”
Look at Bob Lily! There lives no finer poet! Epic, elegiac, satiric,
Pindaric—it is all one to him! He is patronized by all the first people in
town. Everybody compliments him, everybody asks him to dinner. Nay!
there are a few who read him. He excels alike in tragedy and farce, and is
without a rival in amphibious dramas, which may be called either the one or
the other; but he is a sad bungler in negatives. “Mr. Lily,” says the Duchess,
his patroness, “you will be sure to bring that dear epithalamium to my
conversazione this evening!” “There is no denying your Grace,” says the
poet. “I say, Lily,” says the Duke, his patron, “you will dine with us at
seven?” “Your Grace does me honour,” says the poet. “Bob,” says the
young Marquis, “you are for Brookes’s to-night?” “Dam’me! to be sure,”
says the poet. Mark the result. He is gone to eat tripe with his tyrannical
bookseller; he has disappointed his patroness, he has offended his patron, he
has cut the Club! How unlucky that he cannot say “No.”

Jack Shuttle was a dashing young fellow, who, to use his own
expression, was “above denying a thing;” in plainer terms, he could not say
“No.” “Sir!” says an enraged Tory, “you are the author of this pamphlet!”
Jack never saw the work, but he was “above denying a thing,” and was
horsewhipped for a libeller. “Sir!” says an unfortunate pigeon, “you hid the
king in your sleeve last night!” Jack never saw the pigeon before, but he
was “above denying a thing,” and was cut for a blackleg. “Sir!” says a hot
Hibernian, “you insulted my sister in the Park!” Jack never saw the lady or
her champion before, but he was “above denying a thing,” and was shot
through the head the next morning. Poor fellow! How unlucky that he could
not say “No!”
 In the position we are next going to advance we know everybody will
differ from us; but this only strengthens our opinion. Nothing is so
becoming to a female mouth as the power—ay, and the inclination—to say
“No.” So firmly, indeed, are we attached to this doctrine, that we never will
marry a woman who cannot say “No.” For the most part, indeed, the sex are
pretty tolerably actuated by what the world calls a spirit of contradiction,
but what we should rather designate as a spirit of independence. This
natural inclination to negatives renders it unnecessary for us to point out to
our fair countrywomen the beauties and advantages of a word which they
use as constantly as their looking-glass. Nevertheless, they do occasionally
forget the love of opposition, which is the distinguishing ornament of their
sex; and alas! they too frequently render themselves miserable by
neglecting our conclusive monosyllable. We most earnestly entreat those
belles who honour with their notice the humble efforts of the Etonian, to
derive a timely warning from the examples of those ladies who have lived
to regret a hasty and unthinking assent. Anna would never have been the
mistress of a colonel; Martha would never have been the wife of a cornet;
Lydia would never have been tied to age, ugliness, and gout, if these
unfortunate victims had studied in early youth the art of saying “No.”
Short—strong—sharp—quaint monosyllable! Forcible, convincing,
argumentative, indisputable “No!” How we delight in thy expressive sound!
We love to hear the Miss of fifteen plaguing her uncle for her Christmas
ball, till Squaretoes, finding vain the excuses of affection, finishes the
negotiation with the “No” of authority. We love to hear the enamoured
swain pouring forth his raptures at the feet of an inexorable mistress, till the
lady changes her key from the quiet hint of indifference to the decided “No”
of aversion. We love to hear the schoolboy supplicating a remission of his
sentence, until his sable judge alters the “I can’t” of sorrowful necessity, to
the “No” of inflexible indignation. We love—but it is time for us to bring
our treatise to a conclusion, and we will merely observe, that whenever we
see a man engaged in a duel against his will or in a debauch against his
conscience; whenever we see a patriot accepting of a place, or a beauty
united to a blockhead, we turn from the sight in disgust, and mutter to
ourselves: “This comes of not being able to say ‘No.’”
 THOUGHTS ON THE WORDS “TURN OUT.”

“We all, in our turns, turn out.”—Song.

Turn Out! There are in the English language no two words which act so
forcibly in exciting sympathy and compassion. There is in them a
melancholy cadence, beautifully corresponding with the sadness of the idea
which they express: they awaken in a moment the tenderest recollections
and the most anxious forebodings: there is in them a talismanic charm
which influences alike all ages and all dispositions; the Church, the Bar, and
the Senate are all comprised in the range of its operation: indeed, we
believe that in no profession, in no rank of life, we shall find the man who
can meditate, without an inward feeling of mental depression, on the
simple, the unstudied, the unaffected pathos of the words “Turn out.”
Is it not extraordinary, that when the idea is in itself so tragic, and gives
birth to such sombre sensations, Melpomene should have altogether
neglected the illustration of it? Is it not still more extraordinary that her
sportive sister Thalia should have dared indecorously to jest with a subject
so entirely unsuited to her pen? To take our meaning from its veil of
metaphor, is it not extraordinary that Mr. Kenney should have written a
farce on the words “Turn Out?” We regard Mr. Kenney’s farce as a
sacrilege, a profanation, a burlesque of the best feelings of our nature; and
in spite of the ingenuity of the writer, and the talents of the performers,
humanity and its attendant prejudices revolt in disgust from the scene which
endeavours to raise a laugh by a parody of so melancholy a topic.
It is not difficult to account for the pensive feelings which are excited by
these words: they recall forcibly to our mind the uncertainty of all human
concerns; they bid us think on the sad truth, that from power, from
affluence, from happiness, we may be “turned out” at a minute’s warning;
they whisper to us that the lease of life is held on a precarious tenure,
subject to the will of a Providence which we can neither control nor foresee;
they oblige us to look forward to that undiscovered country, from whose
dark limits we would fain avert our eyes; they convince us of the truth of
the desponding expression of the Psalmist, “Man is but a thing of nought,
his time passeth away like a shadow.”
Are not these the reflections of every thinking mind? If they are not, we
must entreat the indulgence of our readers for the melancholy pleasure we
take in the discussion of the subject. The words may indeed be more than
ordinarily affecting to us, inasmuch as they remind us of a friend who in his
life was “turned out” from every thing that life can bestow, but who in his
death shall never be “turned out” from that consolatory tribute to his Manes
—the recollection of a sincere friend. Poor Gilbert! The occurrences of his
eventful existence would indeed furnish materials for the poet or the
moralist, for a tragedy of five acts, or a homily of fifty heads. His father
always prophesied he would turn out a great man; and yet the poor fellow
did nothing but turn out, and never became a great man. At fourteen he
turned out with a bargeman, and lost an eye; at seventeen he was turned out
from Eton, and lost King’s; at three-and-twenty he was turned out of his
father’s will, and lost a thousand a-year; at four-and-twenty he was turned
out of a tandem, and lost the long odds; at five-and-twenty he was turned
out of a place, and lost all patience; at six-and-twenty he was turned out of
the affections of his mistress, and lost his last hope; at seven-and-twenty he
was turned out of a gaming-house, where he lost his last farthing. Gilbert
died about a year ago, after existing for some time in a miserable state of
dependence upon a rich uncle. To the last he was fond of narrating to his
friends the vicissitudes of his life, which he constantly concluded in the
following manner:—“So, gentlemen, I have been turning out during my
whole life; you now see me on the brink of the grave, and I don’t care how
soon I turn in.”
We had not heard from him for a considerable space of time, and were
beginning to wonder at his protracted silence, when a friend who was
studying the Morning Post apprised us of his decease by the following
exclamation:—“My God! Old Gilbert’s dead! Here’s a quaint turn out!”
Alas! how often does it happen that we are not aware of the value of the
blessings we enjoy until chance or destiny has taken them from us. This has
been the case in our acquaintance with our lamented companion. How
bitterly do we now regret that we did not, while his life was spared, make
use of his inestimable experience to collect some instructions on the art of
turning out, both in the active and the neuter signification of the words. For
surely no two things are more difficult than the giving or receiving of a
dismissal. To go through the one with civility, and the other with firmness,
is indeed a rare talent, which every man of the world should study to attain.
When we consider the various chances and vicissitudes which await the
citizens of our little commonwealth in their progress through life; when we
recollect that some of them will enter into political life, in order to be turned
out of their places; others will enjoy the titular distinction of M.P., that they
may be turned out of their seats the next election; while others again, by an
attachment to Chancery expedition, will endeavour to get turned out of their
estates;—it is surely worth while to bestow a little attention upon the most
proper mode of behaving under these unfortunate circumstances.
Mr. Monxton receives a turn out better than any political man of our
acquaintance. It was of him that Sir Andrew Freeman, a Hertfordshire
Independent, who, to do him justice, would be witty if he could, broached
the celebrated remark—“He has turned out so often, that I should think he’s
turned wrong side out by this time.” Mr. Monxton is indeed a phenomenon
in his way. The smile he wears on coming into office differs in no respect
from that which he assumes on resigning all his employments. He departs
from the enjoyment of place and power, not with the gravity of a
disappointed Minister, but with the self-satisfied air of a successful courtier.
The tact with which he conceals the inward vexation of spirit beneath an
outward serenity of countenance is to us a matter of astonishment. When we
have heard him discussing his resignation with a simper on his face, and a
jest on his lip, we have often fancied that Mr. Kemble would appear to us in
the same light were he to deliver Wolsey’s soliloquy with the attitudes and
the gestures of a harlequin in a pantomime. Juvenile politicians cannot
propose to themselves, in this line of their profession, a better model than
Mr. Monxton.
Nor is this art less worthy the attention of the fair sex. There are very
few ladies who have the talent of dismissing a lover in proper style. There
are many who reject with so authoritative a demeanour, that they lose him,
as an acquaintance, whom they only wish to cast off as a dangler; there are
many again who study civility to such an extent that we know not whether
they reject or receive, and have no small difficulty in distinguishing their
smile from their frown. The deep and sincere interest which we feel in all
matters relating to the advantage or improvement of the fair sex induces us
to suggest that an academy, or a seminary, or an establishment should be
forthwith instituted for the instruction of young ladies not exceeding thirty