ANTHROPOLOGY
• Scientific study of humankind
• The origin of the word Anthropology has come from the New Latin word “Anthropologia”,
which means “the study of humanity” but the root of this word has come from two (2)
Greek word “Anthropos” which mean “human being” and “Logia” means “study”.
• The study of human beings" it includes the past life, how people live, how people interact
to others and how people's life changes through time. In addition, Anthropology also
focused on the entire human experience and gave multiple perspectives on studying
what it is to be human.
• Field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology;
includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical anthropology.
(Lewis, B., et al., 2013)
• Father of modern anthropology – Franz Boas
SOCIOLOGY
• The study of human social relationships and institutions.
• The word sociology is combined from the Latin word “socious” which means “society” and
the Greek word “Logos" which is "science". As these two-origin word combined, we
define sociology as the science of society.
• The term ‘sociology’ was first used in 1780 by French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes
in his unpublished manuscript.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
• Is a social science discipline that deals with government systems and analyses political
activity and political behavior. According to Greek philosopher Aristotle, "Political Science
is the master of all sciences."
• The term “politics” derives from the Greek word “Politika," which means "affairs of the
cities.
• The concept of politics is rather complex as it includes:
The decision-making process aimed at creating and implementing laws and norms within a
country;
The act of governing a country or a community;
The act of controlling the country’s military apparatus;
The act of creating strategies aimed at improving the lives of all citizens; and
The act of managing the country’s economic resources.
Political theory: this subject focuses on the roots of governance and on the human aspects
that lead men to organize themselves into political groups;
Comparative politics: this subject compares different types of governance (i.e. democracy,
military regime, authoritarian regime, etc.) and analyzes their effects on the country's growth
and the population's welfare;
Methodology: this subfield aims at clarifying the philosophical and theoretical basis upon
which different political systems are based; and
International relations: this subcategory focuses on the relations among states, their
interactions, and the political strategies that countries use at an international level.
Physical Anthropology
It is also called biological anthropology.
It is the study of human biology within the milieu (a person’s social environment) of evolution.
This centers primarily on the human biological origins and variations in humans.
Subdisciplines of Physical Anthropology
Paleoanthropology – human evolution, earlier hominids
Genetics – gene structure, patterns of inheritance of traits
Primatology – nonhuman primates
Osteology – skeletal remains
Paleopathology – traces of disease and injury in human skeletal remains
Forensic Anthropology – analysis and identification of human remains
Cultural Anthropology
It involves the study and comparative analysis of literate societies, including all aspects of
human behavior
This includes religion, ritual, myth, technology, gender roles, kinship forms, economic and
political structures. It also includes music and folklore.
Another subdiscipline of Anthropology
Urban Anthropology – the issues of cities such as poverty, immigration, and social
stratification
Medical Anthropology – the relationship between culture and health or diseases
Economic Anthropology – the distribution of goods and resources within and between
cultures
Archaeology- It involves studying earlier cultures and ways of life by way of retrieving and
examining the material remains of previous human societies.
Linguistic Archaeology
▪ It is the study of human speech and language and various changes that have taken
place over time.
▪ This attempts to comprehend different processes in human communication and
language use.
Concept Ethnocentrism
• is the error of viewing one's own culture as superior and applying one's cultural
values in judging people from other cultures.
• It is also the belief that one's own culture is the primary standard by which other
cultures may be measured or understood. Ethnocentrism fails or refuses to see the
world and its aspects in a more comprehensive or encompassing perspective. It may
cause people to practice bias and intolerance (Sinangote, 2019).
Cultural Relativism- suggests that every culture is equal.
Importance of Cultural Relativism in Understanding Culture
Ethnocentric beliefs may provide a sense of belongingness with the members of your own
culture due to similar beliefs and worldviews. However, it is essential to employ cultural
relativism if one wishes to understand cultures outside of one's own fully. In cultural
relativism, neither one is civilized or primitive, only different but equal. Where ethnocentrism
ends, cultural relativism begins.
1. For us not to judge others’ way of life even though it differs from us.
2. To avoid judgment toward others’ beliefs.
3. For us, not immediately claim what right and wrong action is.
4. We can't judge others using our basis or culture.
5. We must treat people equally.
6. Material Culture
 MATERIAL CULTURE is defined as having an integral place within the construction of the
early societies, helping later generations understand the cognitive and symbolic aspects of
those societies. Material cultures are tangible objects significant to society. All things that are
touchable, such as technology, cities, good surplus, monumental buildings, money,
instrument in music, and writing, are significant to the society we call material culture. In
some aspect, material culture is also called tangible heritage (CourseHero, n.d.).
Heritage-refers to anything that is being passed down from one generation to another. Part of
our culture is acquiring the belonging of parents or relatives who passed away. This
inheritance can be the change of your social status or gain properties if you are in the
marginalized way of life. They always the proper nurturing and education are their inheritance
that no one can steal. Property or values/belief is a kind of heritage consisting of culture or
way of life passed down to us new generation (CourseHero, n.d.).
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), "is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society
that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the
benefit of future generations". Cultural heritage represents a particular group's way of living
that is passed down from one generation to another. Everything that was received from a
culture's ancestors that are still present in the culture's current form can be considered part of
its cultural heritage. Cultural heritage can be broken down into tangible and intangible
heritage (CourseHero, n.d.).
Tangible Heritage
The material culture of a group is mostly what constitutes the tangible heritage of a specific
culture.
Tangible heritage, as the word suggests, are material forms of cultural heritage. This
includes artifacts, historical places, monuments, buildings, or any vital object for the culture.
Tangible Heritage is composed of both movable and immovable cultural heritage. When we
say movable, it can be transferred to another place. Examples of these were paintings,
sculpture, musical instruments, clothing, and any tools for livelihood. The movable cultural
heritage is easy to transport from one place to another. While when we say immovable
heritage, it includes monument, buildings or even the whole town or city. An example of this is
Vigan City. The best example of immovable cultural heritage represents the past way of life of
Filipinos.
Natural Heritage- A unique form of heritage that could also be considered as part of tangible
heritage is natural heritage. In this picture is the Iguazu Falls that runs from Argentina and
Brazil. It is one example of the world's extraordinary natural heritage. And the question is, did
the Philippines have a natural heritage?
Intangible heritage represents the non-material aspect of cultural heritage. This includes oral
tradition, performing arts, rituals, festivities, knowledge about nature, or producing traditional
crafts.
These are the threats to our cultural heritage:
- Pollution
- Deterioration from a natural calamity
- Damage from foreign and local visitors
- Illegal trafficking of cultural property
- War
- Thefts
The Heritage Cycle, developed by Simon Thurley, might aid in the preservation of one's
cultural heritage. By following the cycle, one can pass the heritage of past generations to
future generations to come. The cycle starts from enjoying a cultural heritage, understanding
it, eventually valuing it, and caring for it.
Socialization
• It simply means the process of learning how to become part of a culture.
• It is the same as interacting, mingling, and being with other people or groups.
• It helps individuals learn the culture's language, their role in life, and what is expected
from them.
Agents of socialization
Family – most of the habits, manners, beliefs, and how we think are developed.
School – a youth interact with different individuals in school, which provides many
experiences for an individual.
Peer – with peer groups, a person may share the same interest.
social media – this agent of socialization influence a person's way of life intensively, thus
sharing a large part in his/her personal development.
Enculturation is how people learn the requirements of their surrounding culture and acquire
values and behaviors appropriate or necessary in that culture.
Nature human personality and identity is inborn and inherited.
The nurture principle emphasizes that our personalities are shaped from birth onwards
by social forces that we interact with.
Socialization
• is the lifelong process by which, through social interaction, we learn our culture, develop
our sense of self, and become functioning members of society.
• t is an interactive process by which individuals learn the basic skills, values, beliefs, and
behavior patterns of a society. From birth until adulthood, we interact with others. This
concept justifies the saying, "No man is an island" we are social beings that need others
to survive. And through someone, we mold our own identity, our culture.
Norms- are cultural standards or guidelines that enable individuals to distinguish between
appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a given society.
For every society, norms are essential factors in keeping peace and order. They set the
standards of what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior within the group.
Types of Norms
Mores - these are norms that are widely observed in society and pose heavy moral
significance. Individuals are encouraged to conform to social norms every single day. As
such, different ways of social adaptation and behaviors have emerged. Remember that
mores are norms that deal with moral issues or issues involving social taboos or deviance. It
is more concerned with identifying right actions from wrong ones. For example, joking about
the possession of explosives in public transport is not acceptable because it poses threats to
security and safety. When caught, the person responsible for the behavior is sanctioned
through imprisonment and community service.
Folkways - these are norms that are observed in casual or routine encounters and
are considered less significant.Are norms that are more focused on cultural standards. These
norms are less sanctioned by law but also pose negative judgment from witnesses. For
example, a person wearing a t-shirt and jeans to a formal occasion could be construed as
rude because he did not follow the correct dress code; despite this, that person will not be
jailed or sanctioned by law for doing so.
Taboos - are the forbidden act set by society. Taboos exist in various contexts, some of them
being known in most societies and others being more context-specific. For example, there are
cultural taboos, dietary taboos, and religious taboos, only to name a few (Keturi & Lehmonen,
2011).Taboos are primarily backward-oriented, for, by being essentially forbidding and
prohibiting, they tend to preserve the past and control the impingement of the future on the
present. Of course, not all taboos are old. New ones constantly appear, taking various
shapes and forms as the substance of the culture evolves, but they all serve the same goal –
preservation of the status quo (Keturi & Lehmonen, 2012).
NORMS Summary description
Folkways Social Preference
Mores Social Requirement
Taboo Forbidden
Values are culturally defined standards that people see as good, acceptable, and desirable
those serve as broad guidelines of living. Values are developed through
socialization. Through social interactions, individuals learn to embrace certain qualities and
behaviors necessary to become acceptable social beings.
Like culture, values also change over time. This is dependent on cultural and social factors
that make up society and shape the course of the socialization process. Values also vary
from culture to culture.
What is a Group?
• A group comprises two or more persons interacting with each other and guided by a set
of norms. It is also defined as a specified number of individuals where each recognizes
members as distinct from non-members (Angelo, n.d.).
Basic Classifications of Social Groups
1. Primary Groups
• Primary groups are marked by a concern for one another, shared activities and culture,
and long periods spent together. They are influential in developing an individual's identity.
The goal of primary groups is the relationships themselves rather than achieving some
other purpose. Examples of a primary group but not limited to be your family and
childhood and close friends.
• Sample Groups: Family, Playgroup, Village/Neighborhood, Work-team
• (Angelo, n.d.)
2. Secondary Groups
• Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one
another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don't aim to maintain and
develop the relationships themselves. These groups are based on usual or habitual
interests or affairs. It includes groups in which one exchanges explicit commodities, such
as labor for wages, services for payments, and such.
• Sample Groups: Nation, Church Hierarchy, Professional Association, Corporation,
University classes, Athletic teams, and groups of coworkers. (Angelo, n.d.)
3. In-group
• Belonging to the same Group as others who share the same common bond and interests
who are more likely to understand each other refers to an in-group. Sample Groups:
Sports team, Unions, and Sororities.
• The best example of an "in-group" is something like a club or a church. Anyone outside of
these formal groups might be considered an out-group.
• For example, if I were part of my College's Statistics Club, I would be part of the Statistics
in Group. Anyone who is not part of this club (ex. most of my friends) would be
considered part of the "out-group" as far as the club's standards go. A more exclusive or
complete "in-group" might be a formal church. Anyone outside of the church is an
"outsider" to the church, so most people in the church don't consider them part of their
"in-group." Therefore, those members are part of an out-group.(Burhans, 2020)
4. Out-group
• Those who do not belong to the in-group are part of the out-group, which exists in the
perceptions of the in-group members and takes on social reality due to behavior by in-
group members who use the out-group as an opposing point of view reference.
(CourseHero, n.d.)
5. Reference Groups
• A reference group is a collection of people we use as a standard of comparison
regardless of whether we are part of that Group. We rely on reference groups to
understand social norms, shaping our values, ideas, behavior, and appearance. This
means that we also use them to evaluate the relative worth, desirability, or
appropriateness of these things (CourseHero, n.d.).
• Positive reference groups are those groups of which one aspires to be part.
• Negative reference groups are groups with which people do not want to identify with.
6. Network- a collection of people tied together by a specific pattern of connections. The
number of people involved can characterize them, as in the dyad (by twos) and triad (by
threes), but also in terms of their structures (who is connected to whom) and functions (what
flows across ties). Networks indeed can do more things and different things than individuals
acting on their own could. Networks have this effect, regardless of the content of the
connections or persons involved (CourseHero, n.d.).