Fluid Mechanic Lab Manual. 2023 (3)

School of Civil Engineering &
Management
International University (IU)
CE206IU
FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
Pham Ngoc, PhD.

Laboratory Instructors
School of Civil Engineering & Management

Room 506, International University – Viet Nam National University HCMC
Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Phone: 848-37244270. Ext 3425 Fax: 848-37244271

www.hcmiu.edu.vn
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
HOW TO USE THE HYDRAULIC BENCH...........................................4

FM01: DISCHARGE OVER A NOTCH................................................8
FM02: REYNOLDS NUMBER AND TRANSITIONAL FLOW..............19
FM03: FLOW MEASUREMENT APPARATUS..................................27
FM04: JET TRAJECTORY AND FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE........37
FM05: FLUID FRICTION APPARATUS............................................46
2
3
HOW TO USE THE HYDRAULIC BENCH
1. Description
The hydraulic bench consists of the following parts:
Figure 1. Gravimetric Hydraulic Bench
Figure 2. Inside View of the Hydraulic Bench
4
Figure 3. The Weigh Beam Tank Stop
Figure 4. On/off Switch, Fill Level, the Stack Pipe and the Flow Control Valve
Figure 5. How the Gravimetric Hydraulic Bench Works
Table 1. Technical Details
5
Item Details
Net: 1200 mm long x 760 mm wide x 1100 mm high and
Net dimension and weight
80 kg (including weight set)
Sump Tank Capacity Approximately 160 Liters
2 kg per second (flow is too turbulent for accurate
Maximum accurate measuring rate
measuring above this value)
Electric Submersible
Pump
Approximately 60 L/minute maximum flow as fitted
Weight Set 1 set = 2kg; in total, 6 x 2 kg = 12 kg
Water treatment See datasheet (supplied)
240 VAC 50 Hz 1 A (200 W) or
Electrical Supply 110 VAC 60 Hz 2 A (200 W)
Specified on order – other voltages available
Current overload, short circuit protection and under
Circuit protection
voltage trip build into on/off switch. Not user serviceable
2. How to use the Hydraulic Bench
1) Find a suitable stopwatch or timer.
2) Check for the correct water level in the sump.
3) Connect the supply pipe to your experiment.
4) Direct the outlet of your experiment to the hole in the top of the Hydraulic Bench.
5) Lift the Weigh Beam and slide the Weigh Beam Stop under the Weigh Beam (see Figure 6, Step 1).
6) Switch on the pump.
7) Use the Flow Control Valve to adjust the flow rate for your experiment. Note the flow rate.
8) Slide the Weigh Beam Stop to the right and allow the Weigh Beam to drop. Now slide the Weigh
Beam Stop back to the left (see Figure 6, Step 2).
9) The Weigh Tank will now fill enough water to balance the Weight Hanger until the Weigh Beam
becomes horizontal and touches the underneath of the Weigh Beam Stop. Start your timer as soon
as the Weigh Beam touches the Weigh Beam Stop, then add your weights to the hanger. (There is
already one 2 kg Weight on the Weight Hanger). (See Figure 6, Step 3-4).
10) Stop your timer when the Weigh Beam becomes horizontal again and touches the Weigh Beam
Stop (see Figure 6, Step 5).
11) The Weight Beam is a lever with a 3:1 ratio, so when it becomes level and touches the underneath
of the Weigh Beam Stop, the water in the Weight Tank is three times heavier than the Weights and
Weight Hanger. You have already allowed some water in to offset the Weight Hanger, so the
remaining water is the amount you collected in the measured time.
12) Multiply the Weights you added by three, giving you the weight of the water collected in your
measured time.
6
13) Move the Weigh Beam Stop to the right to allow the Weight Tank to drop, pushing up its Drain
Valve and emptying the Weigh Tank, ready for the next flow measurement (see Figure 6, Step 6).
14) Repeat the measurement two or three times to check your accuracy.
Figure 6. How to use the Hydraulic Bench
7
FM01: DISCHARGE OVER A NOTCH
1. Setting up the Initial Water Level (Datum of Head)
Before each experiment, you must set a datum point for the upstream head of water, then all other
measurements of head during the tests will be with respect to this value. To do this, start the pump of the
hydraulic bench until the upstream water level just starts to pour over the bottom of the notch of the weir,
then stop the pump.
Now, wait for the level to stabilize and use a rule or flat edge to make sure the water upstream of the weir
is exactly level with the bottom of the notch (see Figure 1). This is easiest with the rectangular notch. For
the V notch, try to use the weir reflection in the water to help you see how the water level matches with
the bottom of the V.
If necessary, use a small cup or beaker to add or remove some water to or from the upstream section.
Now carefully adjust the depth gauge so that its tip touches the surface of the water. This is the datum
Head value.
Figure 1. Water Level
8
2. Notation
Table 1. Notation
Symbol Meaning Units

u Velocity of flow m/s
H Total Head m
h Height (or depth) m
Q Flow or discharge m3/s
A Area m2
B Breath (Width) of rectangular notch weir m
b Breath (Width) at the point on the V notch weir m
p Pressure Pa or N/ m2
kR and kV Constants for rectangular and V notch weirs -
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
w Specific weight (water) 9810 N/ m3
z Elevation (above a datum or given level) m
Angle degrees
CdR Coefficient of discharge (rectangular notch weir) -
CdV Coefficient of discharge (V notch weir) -
Unit Conversions
Gravimetric Flow: 1 m3/s = approximately 1000 kg/s for clean water at room temperature.
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Experiment 1: Flow and Head Relationship
1. Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are:

- to show how flow (Q) varies with head (H),
- to show how the coefficient of discharge changes with flow, and
- to find the mean coefficient of discharge for the weir and therefore its “constant” for calibration.
2. Theory
Figure 2. Flow over sharp edge notch weirs
Finding the mean Coefficient of Discharge
- For the Rectangular Notch:
From the formula:
(1)
10
Or alternatively:
(2)
Where kR is a constant found from ratio of flow over Head3/2:
(3)
Inserting known values and simplifying:
(4)
- For the V Notch:
From the formula:
(5)
Or alternatively:
(6)
Where kV is a constant found from ratio of flow over Head5/2:
(7)
Inserting known values and simplifying:
(8)
11
3. Experimental Apparatus
The experimental apparatus consists of the following parts:
Figure 3. Main Parts
Figure 4. Details of the Equipment
12
Item Details
Nett dimension and weight 920 mm x 620 mm x 520 mm and 12 kg
Open channel
228 mm x 178 mm x 305 mm
(nominal dimensions)
Rectangular Notch Weir Depth 100 mm, width 30 mm
(nominal dimensions) (Measure accurately before use)
V Notch Weirs One of depth 100 mm, total notch angle 30o ( )
(nominal dimensions) One of depth 100 mm, total notch angle 90o ( )
4. Procedure
A. Rectangular Weir
1) Record the experimental data into Table 3.
2) Use the given nominal values or carefully measure the notch width (B) and record it.
3) Set up the initial water level as shown in Setting up the Initial Water Level (Datum of Head).
4) Start the pump of the hydraulic bench and adjust for the highest flow rate (around 1 kg per second
or 60 kg in one minute).
5) Wait for the low rate and the upstream level to stabilize and note the water quantity you collect
and then time taken. Convert this into volume flow (m3/s).
6) Use the gauge to measure the new water height. Subtract the datum value from your reading to
get the true value of Head and convert this into meters.
7) Repeat for at least seven lower flow rates more that give equal decrease in head (roughly 10 mm
steps should work).
8) Watch carefully the water as it leaves the weir. At some point as the flow gets lower, the water
does not spring clear of the weir and starts to run down the downstream of the weir. Stop taking
results when this happen.
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Table 3. Collected Data Table for Rectangular Weir
Datum value of Head:

Width of notch (B):
Water Quantity (liters or
No. Time (seconds) Gauge Reading (mm)
m3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
B. V Notch Weirs
1) Record the experimental data into Table 4.
2) Use the nominal values given or carefully measure the notch angle to find and record the angle
and the tan value of the angle.
3) Repeat the experiment just as in Procedure for Rectangular Weir.
Table 4. Collected Data Table for V Notch Weir

Notch Angle ( ):
Water Quantity (liters or Time (seconds) Gauge Reading (mm)
No.
m3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
5. Report
Create a blank table similar to Table 5 & Table 6 for your report, using collected data in Table 3 & Table 4
to fill in the corresponding column in Table 5 & Table 6 and calculate the other columns by following the
instruction below.
1) For the Rectangular notch weir, calculate H 3/2 and use Equation 1 to calculate the coefficient of
discharge for each line of your results, use Equation 3 to calculate constant kR.
2) For the V notch weir, calculate H 5/2 and use Equation 5 to calculate the coefficient of discharge
for each line of your results, use Equation 7 to calculate constant kV.
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3) For the Rectangular and V notch, plot charts of flow (vertical axis) against Head. Note the
nonlinearity of the results and how the head changes with flow.
4) For the Rectangular notch, plot charts of Flow (vertical axis) against the value of H 3/2, then find
its slope to calculate the mean value of coefficient of discharge kR (using Equation 4). Note the
linear of the results.
5) For the V notch, plot charts of Flow (vertical axis) against the value of H 5/2, then find its slope to
calculate the mean value of coefficient of discharge kV (using Equation 8). Note the linearity of
the results.
Note:
 Plot of Q against H3/2 (or H5/2) from actual results should give a straight line (see Figure 5). Its
gradient will be the mean value of kR (or kV).
 The constant kR and kV will be used to predict flows in Experiment 2.
Figure 5. Finding the Mean Value of Coefficient
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Table 5. Report Table for Rectangular Weir

Width of notch (B):
Water
Flow (Q) Gauge Head
Quantity Time H3/2
No. (m3/s or Reading (H) CdR kR
(liters or (seconds) (m)
l/s) (mm) (m)
m3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 6. Report Table for V Notch Weir

Notch Angle ( ):
Water
Flow (Q) Gauge Head
Quantity Time H5/2
No. (m3/s or Reading (H) CdV kV
(liters or (seconds) (m)
l/s) (mm) (m)
m3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Experiment 2: Predicting Flow
1. Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are:
- to show how to calculate flow from the upstream head using the constants found from Experiment
1 and
- to show that you can use the constants found from the experiment to accurately predict flow.
2. Theory
For the Rectangular Notch, once you have found its constant (k R), you can predict the flow simply by using
the upstream head:
(9)
For the V Notch, once you have found its constant (kV), you can predict the flow simply by using the
upstream head:
(10)
Shown in Part 3 of Experiment 1.
4. Procedure
1) For each weir, record the experimental data into Table 7 and Table 8.
2) Repeat head and actual flow measurement, as in Experiment 1.
Table 7. Collected Data Table for Rectangular Notch

Width of notch (B):
No.
m3)
1
2
3
4
17
Table 8. Collected Data Table for V Notch

Notch Angle ( ):
No.
m3)
1
2
3
4
5. Report
1) For each line of your results, calculate H3/2 or H5/2 (determined by your weir).
2) Use Equation 9 (rectangular weir) or Equation 10 (V notch weirs) to calculate the flow based on the
head and your constant.
3) Subtract the actual flow from the calculated flow, divide by the actual flow and multiply by 100 to
find the error in percent.
4) Explain the cause of any significant errors.
Table 9. Report Table for Rectangular Notch

Width of notch (B):
Water Actual
Gauge Head
Quantity Time Flow H3/2 Calculated Error
No. Reading (H)
(liters or (seconds) (Q) (m) Flow (m3/s) (%)
(mm) (m)
m3) (m3/s)
1
2
3
4
Table 10. Report Table for V Notch

Notch Angle ( ):
Water Actual
Gauge Head
Quantity Time Flow H5/2 Calculated Error
No. Reading (H)
(liters or (seconds) (Q) (m) Flow (m3/s) (%)
(mm) (m)
m3) (m3/s)
1
2
3
4
18
FM02: REYNOLDS NUMBER AND
TRANSITIONAL FLOW
1. Objective
The objective of is experiment is to show laminar condition and turbulent conditions.
2. Theory
Consider the case of a fluid moving along a fixed surface such as the wall of a pipe. At some distance y from
the surface the fluid has a velocity u relative to the surface. The relative movement causes a shear stress
which tends to slow down the motion so that the velocity close to the wall is reduced below u. It can be
shown that the shear stress produces a velocity gradient du/dy which is proportional to the applied stress.
The constant of proportionality is the coefficient of viscosity and the equation is usually written:
(1)
Equation (1) is derived in most textbooks and represents a model of a situation in which layers of fluid
move smoothly over one another. This is termed 'viscous' or 'laminar' flow. For such conditions
experiments show that Equation (1) is valid and that is a constant for a given fluid at a given temperature.
It may be noted that the shear stress and the velocity gradient have a fixed relationship, which is
determined only by the viscosity of the fluid. However, experiments also show that this only applies at low
viscosities. If the velocity increases above a certain value, small disturbances produce eddies in the flow
causing mixing between the high energy and low energy layers of fluid. This is called turbulent flow and
under these conditions it is found that the relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient varies
depending on many factors in addition to the viscosity of the fluid. The nature of the flow is entirely
different since the interchange of energy between the layers now depends on the strength of the eddies
(and thus on the inertia of the fluid) rather than simply on the viscosity. Equation (1) still applies but the
coefficient no longer represents the viscosity of the fluid. It is now called the 'Eddy Viscosity' and is no
longer constant for a given fluid and temperature. Its value depends on the upstream conditions in the flow
and is much greater than the coefficient of viscosity for the fluid. It may be noted that this implies an
increase in shear stress for a given velocity and so the losses in the flow are much greater than for laminar
conditions.
What, then, determines whether the flow will be laminar or turbulent in a given situation? We have seen
that laminar flow is the result of viscous forces and that turbulent flow is in some way related to inertia
forces. This was realized by Reynolds who postulated that the nature of flow depended on the ratio of
inertia to viscous forces. This led to the derivation of a non-dimensional variable, now called Reynolds
number - Re - which expresses this ratio.
On physical grounds we may say that the inertia forces are proportional to mass multiplied by velocity
change divided by time. Since mass divided by time is the mass flow rate and this is equal to density
multiplied by cross sectional area multiplied by velocity u we may write:
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Inertia forces (2)
Where d is the diameter of the pipe.
Similarly the viscous forces are given by shear stress multiplied by area so, using Equation (1), we may
write:
Viscous forces (3)
Dividing the inertia forces by the viscous forces we obtain Reynolds number as:
(4)
The term is called the kinematic viscosity, v, and it is often convenient to write Equation (4) as:
(5)
Note that the previous equations can also be derived by dimensional analysis but in either case it should be
remembered that Re represents the ratio of inertia to viscous forces.
The important discovery made by Reynolds was that for normal flow in a pipe, the transition between
laminar and turbulent flow always occurs at approximately the same value of Re, irrespective of the fluid
and the size of the pipe. This, therefore, enables prediction of flow conditions in pipes of any size carrying
the fluid. It must be appreciated, however, that there is never a precise point at which transition between
laminar and turbulent flow occurs.
Consider the case of increasing velocity in a pipe. Initially the viscous forces dominate and the flow is
laminar. As velocity increases occasional eddies form but these are quite quickly damped out by viscous
effects. Further increase in velocity is accompanied by an increase in the number of eddies until a point is
reached where the complete flow is subject to turbulent mixing and can be considered fully turbulent.
Transition from fully laminar to fully turbulent flow may occur interspersed with periods of quite steady
laminar flow. The final transition to fully turbulent flow tends to be more well-defined since above a certain
level of turbulence becomes self-generating and a few disturbances will set the whole flow into turbulent
motion.
Now consider the case of reducing velocity. In this case the turbulent motions tend to continue until the
velocity is below that at which turbulent flow originally started. Eventually, however, a point is reached
when the viscous forces damp out the eddies and the flow reverts quite quickly to laminar. This behavior
can be demonstrated by flow visualization and also by measuring head losses along pipes.
As an example, Figure 1 shows the variation in head loss with velocity for a smooth pipe. On increasing the
velocity, transition occurs between points A and B, and for decreasing flow it occurs between points C and
D. There is a 'reluctance' of the flow to change from one condition to the other and this causes the
hysteresis show in Figure 1. Generally point 0 is the most well-defined and it is normally accepted that this
transition from turbulent back to laminar flow occurs at a Reynolds number between 2000 and 2300. The
Reynolds numbers at points A, Band C depend on the entry conditions and roughness of the pipe. Typically,
point may represent a Reynolds number between 2000 and 2500 but if the entry is carefully controlled and
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the pipe very smooth, laminar flow may continue up to much higher values. The range over which laminar
flow occurs may be extended by eliminating sources of turbulence but the reverse in not true: irrespective
of the level of turbulence at entry, the flow always returns to laminar below a Reynolds number of about
2000. Thus it may be said that below this value turbulent flow cannot exist, but above it the flow may be
either laminar or turbulent depending on the entry conditions.
Figure 1. Variation of head loss with velocity for flow along a pipe
This behavior is demonstrated and observed using the Reynolds Number and Turbulent Flow apparatus. In
considering the results it must be remembered that the transition points are not always clearly defined and
that values of Reynolds number must be expected to vary somewhat from one test to another.
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Figure 2. Reynolds number and transitional flow
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of Reynolds number and transitional flow demonstration apparatus with
optional temperature control module
4. Procedure
The basic procedure, which can be use for all tests, demonstrates how the conditions in the pipe vary with
flow velocity and that the changes occur over a range of velocity (and therefore of Reynolds number). The
22
Reynolds number can be calculated for each condition from the pipe diameter, velocity and the viscosity of
water for the particular temperature of test. Sample calculations are given later in this section. The basic
procedure is as follows:
1) Set up the apparatus, turn on the water supply, and partially open the discharge valve at the base
of the apparatus.
2) Adjust the water supply until the level in the constant head tank is just above the overflow pipe and
is maintained at this level by a small flow down the overflow pipe. This is the condition required for
all tests and at different flow rates through the tube; the supply will need to be adjust to maintain
it. At any given condition the overflow should only be just sufficient to maintain a constant head in
the tank.
3) Open and adjust the dye injector valve to obtain a fine filament of dye in the flow down the glass
tube. In the dye is dispersed in the tube reduced the water flow rate by closing the discharge valve
and adjusting the supply as necessary to maintain the constant head. A laminar flow condition
should be achieved in which the filament of dye passes down the complete length of the tube
without disturbance.
4) Slowly increase the flow rate by opening the discharge valve until disturbances of the dye filament
are noted (see Figure 4b). This can be regarded as the starting point of transition to turbulent flow.
Increase the water supply as required to maintain constant head conditions.
5) Record the temperature of the water using the thermometer, then measure the flow rate by timing
the collection of 200 ml quantity of water from the discharge pipe.
6) Further increase the flow rate as described above until the disturbances increase such that the dye
filament becomes rapidly diffused as shown in Figure 4c. Small eddies will be note just above the
point where the dye filament completely breaks down. This can be regarded as the onset of fully
turbulent flow. Record the temperature and flow rate as in step (5).
7) Now decrease the flow rate slowly until the dye just returns to a steady filament representing
laminar
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Figure 4. Typical flow patterns at various flow conditions
Effect of Varying Viscosity
The viscosity of water varies with the temperature as shown in Figure 5. The variations are quite large over
the range 10 – 40oC and this can be use to demonstrate the effect of viscosity on the velocities at which
transition occurs.
The temperature may be varied either by using the Temperature Control Module, or by using an existing
hot water supply. The following procedure relates to use of the temperature control module:
1) Connect the unit as shown in Figure 3. Switch on the electrical supply. Set the temperature control
to MAX. Turn on the water supply. Adjust the flow control valve on the left of the unit, and the
discharge valve on the apparatus, to achieve turbulent flow conditions in the pipe and a consistent
head in the tank. Adjust the water supply to the unit as necessary to achieve these conditions. This
procedure will ensure that there is adequate flow to cover the required range of flow rates at any
temperature.
2) Adjust the temperature control to obtain the required temperature of water in the apparatus. Note
that the temperature control affects the flow rate. Once the temperature has been set, the
temperature control should not be adjusted; control of flow rate is achieved by using the flow
control valve.
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3) When the temperature has stabilized, follow the procedure in the previous section for determining
the flow rate at each transition point. Use the flow control valve on the temperature control
module to control the supply flow to the apparatus as necessary.
4) The procedure can be repeated for different temperatures by adjusting the temperature control.
Figure 5. Kinematic viscosity of water at various temperatures
Students should conduct the experimental for four different temperatures of water and record the
experimental data into Table 1.
Measure and record the diameter of the glass tube: d = __________
Table 1. Collected Data Table
Temp Condition Time for 200 ml (s)

Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
25
5. Report
Create a blank table similar to Table 2 for your report, using collected data in Table 1 to fill in the
corresponding column in Table 2 and calculate the other columns by following the instruction below.
Calculate the velocity by:
(m/s)
Where:
u: Velocity (m/s)
Q: Flow (m3/s)
: Area of glass tube (m2)
Use Figure 5 to find out the kinematic viscosity of water depend on the temperature.
Calculate Reynolds number from Equation:
Where:
Re: Reynolds number
u: Velocity (m/s)
d: Diameter of glass tube (m)
: Kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s)
Plot a graph of kinematic viscosity against Reynolds number for transitional flow. Comment on the graph.
Table 2. Report Table
Time for
Q U v x 10-6
Temp Condition 200 ml Re
(m3/s) (m/s) (m2/s)
(s)
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
26
FM03: FLOW MEASUREMENT APPARATUS
1. Objective
The objective of the experiment is to show the measurement of flow rate using:
- a venturi meter
- an orifice meter and
- a rotameter.
2. Theory
Figure 1. The Steady Flow energy Equation
For steady, adiabatic flow of an incompressible fluid along a stream tube, as shown in Figure 1, Bernoulli’s
Equation can be written in the form:
(1)
Where:
Hydrostatic head
Kinetic Head ( is the mean velocity, i.e. the ratio of volumetric discharge to cross sectional area of
tube)
27
z = Potential Head
Total Head
The head loss may be assumed to arise as a consequence of the vortices in the stream. Because the
flow is viscous a wall shear stress exists and a pressure force must be applied to overcome it. The
consequence increase in flow work appears as an increase in internal energy, and because the flow is
viscous, the velocity profile at any section is non-uniform.
The kinetic energy per unit mass at any section is then greater than and Bernoulli’s Equation
incorrectly assesses this term. The fluid mechanics entails in all but the very simplest internal flow problems
are too complex to permit the head loss to be determined by any other means than experimental.
Since a contraction of stream boundaries can be shown (with incompressible fluids) to increase flow
uniformity and a divergence correspondingly decrease it, is typically negligibly small between the ends
of a contracting duct but is normally significant when the duct walls diverge.
Calculations of Discharge
Figure 2. Explanatory Diagram of the Flow Measurement Apparatus

(Venturi meter, Orifice Meter, Rotameter)
Venturi Meter
Since negligibly small between the ends of a contracting duct it, along with the Z terms, can be
omitted from Equation 1 between stations (A) and (B).
From continuity:
28
(2)
And
(3)
The discharge: (4)
Where:
The bores of the meter at (A) and (B) are 26 mm and 16 mm.
g = 9.81 m/s2 and are the respective heights of the manometric tubes A and B (hA, hB)
Orifice Meter
Between tappings (E) and (F) in Equation 1 is by no means neglibible. Rewriting the equation with the
appropriate symbols: (5)
29
Such that the effect of the head loss is no make the difference in manometric height (h E – hF) less than it
would otherwise be. An alternative expression is: (6)
Where the coefficient of discharge C is given by previous experience in BS1042 (1981) for the particular
geometry of the orifice meter. For the apparatus provided, C is given as 0.601
Reducing the expression in exactly the same way as for the Venturi meter (7)
Where:
The bore at (E) is 51.9 mm and at (F), the water diameter is 20 mm
g = 9.81 m/s2 and ,
30
Rotameter
Figure 3. Principle of the Rotameter
Observation the readings for the pressure drop across the rotameter (H) – (I) shows that this difference is
large and virtually independent of discharge. There is a term, which arises because of wall shear stress, and
is therefore velocity dependent, but since the rotameter is of large bore this term is small. Most of the
observed pressure difference is required to maintain the float in equilibrium and since the float is of
constant weight, this pressure difference is independent of discharge.
The cause of this pressure difference is the head loss associated with the high velocity of water around the
float periphery. Since this head loss is constant then the periphery velocity is constant. To maintain a
constant velocity with varying discharge rate, the cross-sectional area through which this high velocity
occurs must vary. This variation of cross-sectional area will arise as the float moves up and down the
tapered rotameter tube.
From Figure 8, if the float radius is Rf and the local bore of the rotameter tube is 2Rt then:
Cross Sectional Area = Discharge / Constant Peripheral Velocity
Now , where l is the distance from datum to the cross-section at which the local bore is R t and is
the semi-angle of tube taper.
Hence l is proportional to discharge. An approximately linear calibration characteristic would be anticipated

for the rotameter (see Figure 4)
31
Figure 4. Typical Rotameter Calibration Curve
Calculations of Head Loss
By reference to Equation 1, the head loss associated with each meter can be evaluated
Venturi Meter
Applying the equation between pressure tapping (A) and (C) (8)
so
This can be made dimensionless by dividing it by the inlet kinetic head
o Energy equation from A to B:
o Same elevation:
o Continuity:
32
o The equation becomes (9)
Therefore
Head Loss = inlet kinetic heads
Orifice Meter
Applying Equation 1 between (E) and (F) by substituting kinetic and hydrostatic heads would give an
elevated value to the head loss for the meter. This is because at an obstruction such as an orifice plate,
there is a small increase in pressure on the pipe wall due to part of the impact pressure on the plate being
conveyed to the pipe wall. BS1042 (Section 1.1 1981) gives an approximate expression for finding the head
loss and generally this can be taken as 0.83 times the measured head difference.
Therefore: (15)
The orifice plate diameter (51.9 mm) is approximately twice the Venturi inlet diameter (26 mm), therefore
the orifice inlet kinetic head is approximately 1/16 that of the Venturi, thus:
Therefore: (16)
Head Loss = inlet kinetic heads
Rotameter
Or this meter, application of Equation 1 gives: (17)
Then, as illustrated in Figure 5: (18)
33
Inspection of the table of experimental results show that this head loss is virtually independent of discharge
and has a constant value of approximately 100 mm of water. As has already been shown, this is a
characteristic property of the rotameter. For comparative purposes it could be expressed in terms of the
inlet kinetic head. However, when the velocity is very low the head loss remains the same and so becomes
many, many times the kinetic head.
It is instruction to compare the head losses associated with the three meters with those associated with the
rapidly diverging section, or wide-angled diffuser, and with the right-angled bend or elbow. The same
procedure is adopted to evaluate these loses.
Figure 5. Rotameter Head Loss
34
Figure 6. Flow measurement apparatus
35
Figure 7. Rotameter Connection Diagram
4. Procedure
 Open the apparatus valve until the rotameter shows a reading of approximately 10 mm. When a
steady flow is maintained measure the flow with the Hydraulic Bench as outlined in its manual. During
this period, record the readings of the manometers in Table 1.
 Repeat this procedure for a number of equidistant values of rotameter readings up to the point in
which the maximum pressure values can be recorded from the manometer.
36
Test Number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A
B
C
Manometer Levels E
F
H
I
Rotameter (cm)
Water W (m3 or liters)
Time T (seconds)
5. Report
corresponding column in Table 2 and calculate the other columns by following the instruction in the theory.
Comment about the flow rates measured by venturi meter, orifice, rotameter and hydraulic bench.
Test Number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A
B
C
E
Manometer Levels F
H
I
Rotameter (cm)
Water W ((m3 or liters)
Time T (seconds)
Venturi
Volume Flow Rate Orifice
Q (m3/s) Rotameter
Weigh Tank
Rotameter
/ Inlet Kinetic Venturi
Head Orifice
37
FM04: JET TRAJECTORY AND FLOW
THROUGH AN ORIFICE
Experiment 1: Head and Flow Relationship
1. Objectives
The objectives of the experiment are:
- to understand the relationship between head and flow for an orifice
- to show how the coefficient of discharge varies with flow.
- to use the head and flow relationship to find the average coefficient of discharge for the orifice.
2. Theory
The coefficient of discharge Cd is the ratio of the actual discharge to that which would take place if the jet
discharged at the idea velocity without any reduction of area. The actual discharge Q is given by:(1)
and if the jet discharged at the idea velocity uo over the orifice area Ao, the the discharge Qo would be: (2)
So, from the definition of the coefficient of discharge, (3)
38
or in terms of quantities measured experimentally, (4)
or (5)
where =>
Table 1. Notation
Symbol Meaning Units

u Velocity of flow m/s
uc Velocity at the vena contracta m/s
uo Velocity in the tank m/s
p Pressure Pa or Nm2
D Orifice Diameter (at narrowest part) m
H Head m of water
Q Flow of discharge m3/s
Cu Coefficient of velocity -
Cc Coefficient of contraction -
Cd Coefficient of discharge -
Ao Orifice Area (at narrowest part) m2
Ac Vena Contracta Area (of the fluid) m2
Density of water Kg/m3
w Specific Weight of water 9.81 N/L or
9810 N/ m3
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
z A distance or displacement m
Unit Conversions
Volume Flow: 1 m3/s = 1000 L/s
Gravimetric Flow: 1 kg/s = approximately 1 L /s or 0.001 m3/s of clean water at room temperature.
39
Figure 1. General Layout
Item Details
Dimensions and weight 700 mm high x 700 mm long x 400 mm front to back. 10
(assembled) kg including nozzles.
Manometer scale 100 mm to 390 mm
1 division = 0.1 mm
Pitot Micrometer
1 complete turn = 1 mm
Set of four Orifice / Nozzles See Figure 2
Dimension in mm
Datum = Distance to internal surface of tank when mounted vertically
Figure 2. Dimensions of the Orifice / Nozzle
40
4. Procedure
(1) Create a blank results table similar to Table 3 to record the experimental data.
(2) Start the pump of the hydraulic bench and adjust the flow so the level in the tank stays just above the
overflow pipe in the tank.
(3) Allow conditions to stabilize and use the hydraulic bench to measure the flow. Record the Head inside
the tank.
(4) Reduce the inlet flow (supply from the hydraulic bench) so that the head falls by about 30 mm.
(5) Allow conditions to stabilize and use the hydraulic bench to measure the flow. Record the Head inside
the tank.
(6) Repeat for decreasing value of head in about 30 mm steps, giving about eight results over the height of
the manometer scale, each time recording head and flow.
Note: the head of this experiment will be the head of water with respect to the centre line of the
nozzle. The manometer measures with respect to the bottom of the base plate – roughly 22 mm lower.
Refer to the base plate drawing in Technical Details to allow for this.
Water Collected Head Ho

No. Time (seconds)
(m3 or liters) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
5. Report
corresponding columns in Table 4 and calculate the other columns by following the instruction below.
(a) Use Equation 4 to find the coefficient of discharge for each line of your results.
(b) Create a chart of coefficient (vertical axis) against flow to see how it varies with flow.
(c) Create a chart of flow (vertical axis) against head. Note the non-linearity of the results.
(d) Now find the square root (or H1/2) of each of your head readings to complete the table.
(e) Create a chart of flow (vertical axis) against the values (H1/2) and note the linearity. You should be able
to extend the results down to the origin of your chart.
41
(f) From the chart, find the slope of the linear results to find the constant for the orifice, then use this to
find the average (mean) coefficient of discharge for the orifice.
Water
Time Flow (Q) Head Ho Ho 1/2
No. Collected Cd
(seconds) (m3/s) (m) (m1/2)
(m3 or liters)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
42
Experiment 2: Horizontal Jet Trajectory
1. Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to understand the horizontal discharge characteristics of an orifice or
nozzle.
2. Theory
Trajectory from Horizontal
Figure 3. Trajectory from Horizontal
The jet emerges from the nozzle at a velocity uc. At any point P in its trajectory it is subject to gravitational
acceleration (g) in the vertical direction, and has a steady velocity component in the horizontal direction. As
gravity affects its path, the trajectory should be parabolic. The head (Ho) of water in the tank will affect the
horizontal distance travelled and therefore the curvature of the jet.
Consider a ‘packet’ of water that has travelled a distance x from the vena contracta to point P in t seconds.
It travels at velocity uc in the horizontal direction, (6)
And over the same time in the vertical direction: (7)
Eliminating t from the two equations gives (8)
and (9)
43
and (10)
or (11)
and (12)
Where the head in the tank (Ho) stays constant, you can find an average value for the velocity coefficient
from a chart of and x (see Figure 4). The chart should give linear results. The inverse value of the
gradient (m) of this chart substituted back into Equation 13 should give this average.
So: (13)
Note: Units of x, y and Ho must be identical (mm or metres)
Figure 4. Chart to help Find Velocity Coefficient
44
Shown in part 3 of Experiment 1.
4. Procedure
1) Create a blank results table similar to Table 5 to record the experimental data.
2) Set the tank for a constant head.
Note: the head of this experiment will be the head of water with respect to the centre line of the
nozzle. The manometer measures with respect to the bottom of the base plate – roughly 22 mm
lower.
3) Refer to the base plate drawing in Technical Details to allow for this.
4) Adjust the depth pins so they just touch the surface of the jet without disturbing it.
5) Mark the positions of the top of the pins onto the chart paper.
6) Slowly reduce the head in the tank and note how it affects the jet.
7) Switch off the water supply.
Head:
x (mm) Actual y (mm)
5. Report
corresponding columns in Table 6 and calculate the other columns by following the instruction below.
(a) Use Equation 12 to calculate the predicted values for the y positions and the results to your results
table. Find the square root of your actual y values to complete your results table.
(b) Create a chart of y position (vertical axis) against x position (horizontal axis) and add your actual and
predicted results.
Note: Make the origin (zero value) of the y axis at the top left of the chart so the curves match those made
by the jet (moving from top left to bottom right).
45
(c) Compare the actual and predicted results.
(d) Create a chart of of the value (vertical axis) against x position (horizontal axis). This should produce
a straight line.
Head:
x (mm) Actual y (mm) Predicted y (mm)
46
FM05: FLUID FRICTION APPARATUS
1. Set up
Bleed Air From All Pipes and Instruments
Before taking any readings, bleed out any air trapped in the circuit, tapping points, connecting tubes,
pressure gauges and Piezometer tubes.
To bleed the connection pipes and piezometer
 Obtain the suitable bucket (10 Litre capacity) to avoid water spills.
 Connect and turn on the cold water supply to maximum flow, open the outlet valve on the circuit you
are testing and wait for any trapped air to leave the circuit.
 Close the outlet valve on the circuit you are testing.
 Select suitable lengths of connecting tube and place one end into the bucket. Connect the other ends
to the tapping points you wish to use.
 Wait until all the air has been forced out of the connecting pipes and quickly connect the free ends of
the pipes from out of the bucket to the pair of tappings on the Piezometers you wish to use.
 Open the valve in the cap at the manifold (top of the Piezometer) and allow the piezometer to fill up.
Release the valve when the Piezometer tubes are full of water.
 Reduce the cold water supply to a low rate of flow and open the outlet valve on the circuit you are
testing.
 Open the valve cap on the Piezometer manifold again and allow the pressure to equalize in the tubes.
The self sealing tappings at the base of the Piezometer will help to keep the tubes full of water between
experiments, as long as care is taken when you use to connecting tubes.
To alter the relative heights of the water column use the hand pump (supplied) to increase the manifold
pressure, or release the pressure by pressing the centre of the valve in the manifold cap.
To bleed the pressure gauge
 Use the length of pipe (supplied) to connect between the gauge tappings (marked ‘+’ and ‘-’ ) and the
tappings at the valve you wish to monitor.
 Open the valve fully, increase the water supply to maximum flow and temporarily block the outlet pipe
(hold your hand over the end of the pipe) to give maximum pressure in the circuit and at the valve.
 Unscrew the cap from each bleed valve (above the pressure gauge). Turn each of the caps around and
press them into each bleed valve body, this opens the valves (see Figure 11).
 Keep the valve open until all the air has passed out of pipe.
47
 Remove the block on the outlet and adjust the flow to that needed for the experiment.
Figure 1. Turn the Bleed Valve Caps around and Press them into the Valve Body
2. Notation
The following symbols are used in the theory and calculations for the experiments:
Symbol Description Units

Q Volumetric Flow Rate m3/s
h Head m
u Flow Velocity m/s
d Pipe Diameter m
v Kinematic Viscosity m2/s
l Length of pipe (between tappings) m
f Fiction Factor -
g Acceleration due to Gravity m/s2
k Loss Factor -
ks Diameter of Sand Grains m
A Cross Sectional Area of Pipe m2
Re Reynolds Number -
48
Experiment 1: Losses in Straight Pipes Experiments
1. Objective:
The objective of the exercise is to do determine the losses in smooth and roughened pipes.
2. Theory
As fluid flow through a straight pipe, energy is dissipated due to turbulence and friction. This energy can be
measured by the head loss for a length of pipe. Much research has been done into the losses in pipes, and
it has been show that the head loss, h, can be represented by a friction factor f, where (1)
49
Figure 2. Moody Chart
50
Figure 3. Layout of the equipment
51
Table 1. Pipes Fittings and Their Tappings
Distances
Tapping
Item Details Between
Numbers
Tappings
Gate Valve - 1, 2 -
Globe Valve - 3, 4 -
Ball Valve - 5, 6 -
Smooth Pipe 17 mm Diameter Bore 7, 8 912 mm
Sudden Enlargement 13.6 mm to 26.2 mm 9, 10 -
Sudden Contraction 26.2 mm to 13.6 mm 11, 12 -
Smooth Pipe 26.2 mm Diameter Bore 10, 11 912 mm
Smooth Pipe 13.6 mm Diameter Bore 13, 14 912 mm
Radius Bend 50 mm 15, 16 920 mm
13.6 mm Diameter
13.6 mm Diameter
13.6 mm Diameter
Mitre Corner - 20, 21 -
Elbow 13.6 mm Radius 22, 23 -
Orifice 20 mm Diameter 24, 25 -
Expansion 26 mm to 52 mm 26, 27 -
Venturi d1 = 26 mm Diameter 28, 29 -
d2 = 16 mm Diameter
Rough Pipe 17 mm Diameter Bore 30, 31 200 mm
14 mm Effective Diameter
Strainer Includes Two Different Filters 32, 33 -
Smooth Pipe 4 mm Diameter Bore 34, 35 350 mm
Inlet Pipe Coloured White - -
Outlet Pipe Coloured Black - -
4. Procedure
1) Prepare Collected Data Tables.
2) Close the Globe valve and the Ball valve (light blue and grey circuits). Open the Gate valve (dark
blue circuit) half of a turn.
3) Turn on the cold water supply and wait for any trapped air to leave the circuit, then close the Gate
valve.
4) Connect one set of Piezometer tubes to tapping 13 (upstream) and tapping 14 (downstream) for
example. If necessary, bleed the pipes as describes in ‘Set up’.
5) Use the hand pump if necessary to adjust the pressure in Piezometer tubes until the level is halfway
up the scale. The level in each of the Piezometer should the same, if not then check for air bubbles
or leaks.
52
6) Fully open the gate valve and wait for the flow to settle. Record the readings on the Piezometer
into your Collected Data Tables.
7) Use the Gate valve to reduce the flow rate in five suitable steps to give a good spread of results.
8) Repeat for the rough pipe (tapping 30 – tapping 31).Close Globe valve and Gate valve, open the
Ball valve (grey circuit).
Table 2. Collected Data Table for Smooth Pipe
Internal Diameter (d) = Area (A) = Length (l) =

Pipe Type = Smooth pipe
Piezometer Reading
Water Quantity
No. Time (seconds) Upstream Downstream
(m3 or liters)
Tapping …… (mm) Tapping …… (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 3. Collected Data Table for Rough Pipe

Pipe Type = Rough Pipe
Piezometer Reading
Water Quantity
(m3 or liters)
1
2
3
4
5
6
5. Report
Create the Report Tables for Smooth Pipe and Rough Pipe, using Collected Data above to fill in the
corresponding column in your Report Table and calculate the other columns by following the instruction
below:
a. Smooth Pipes
(a) For each pipe, calculate the flow rate (Q) and hence the flow velocity (u)
u=Q/A (2)
53
To follow a meaningful comparison to be made between pipes of different diameter and different flow
rates, the Reynolds number, Re, for each test point is calculated, where
Re = ud / v (3)
Given that v = 1.004 x 10-6 for water at 20oC
(b) Calculate the friction factor, f, and the Reynolds number, Re, for each of the smooth pipes at each flow
rate. The friction factor is measured from Equation1
Calculate the Blasius friction factor for each test point and compare to the measured value of f. For a
smooth pipe, the friction factor is given by the empirical Blasius formula.
f = 4*0.079(Re)-1/4 (4)
The smooth pipes used on the apparatus are good quality with a generally smooth internal surface.
(c) Do these value suggest that the pipe are perfectly smooth? From these calculations, what effect does
the pipe diameter have on the apparent smoothness?
b. Roughened Pipes
Figure 2 shows graph produced by the American engineer Lewis Moody (1880-1953) which show the
relationship between friction factor and Reynolds number for different level of pipe roughness. The line for
a smooth pipe is the same as the Blasius formula.
(a) From the recorded results, calculate the f factor from the Equation1 and the Reynolds number for the
roughened pipe.
(b) Compare the f factor for the roughened pipe with the value from the Moody graph.
(c) This pipe is coated internally with sand that has an average grain size of 0.5 mm (see Figure 2). The
effective pipe diameter is 14 mm, so ks/d = 0.036

Pipe Type (Smooth/Rough) =
Flow Piezometer Reading
Water Flow
Time Rate Upstream Downstream Blasius
No. Quantity Difference Velocity Re f
(seconds) (Q) Tapping.... Tapping…. f
(m3 or L) ( ) (m) (m/s)
(m3/s) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
54
Experiment 2: Losses in Bends Experiments
1. Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to determine the head loss in bends.
2. Theory
When a fluid flows round a bend, energy losses occur due to flow separation, wall friction and some
secondary – flow patterns caused by the bend. Bends maybe characterized by the ratio of bend radius to
internal diameter, R/d, where gently sweeping bends may have values of 10 or more, or an abrupt ‘mitre’
bend would be 0.
Figure 4. Bend Radius and Pipe Diameter Relationship
For tight bends such as mitres, the losses will be mainly due to flow separate and secondary flow patterns.
For more gentle bends, flow separation and wall friction will predominate.
These losses can be represented with a loss factor, k.
hB = kB u2 / 2g (5)
However, it is helpful to differentiate between the total loss round the bend (k L, hL), and the loss due to the
bend geometry, (kB, hB) which ignores wall friction losses. The losses around the bend are created by the
bend losses and an additional loss due to the length of pipe that it is made from. This additional loss must
be added to hB to find kL and hL. The loss due to bend geometry is found by measuring the head loss
between the tappings and deducting the calculated head loss for an equivalent length of straight pipe.
In order to give good, steady manometer readings, the pressure tappings after the bends on this equipment
are positioned downstream of the bends. The distance between tappings for each bend are given in Table
1.
55
Figure 5. Loss Coefficients for Smooth Bends
4. Procedure
1) Prepare a Collected Data Table.
2) Close the Globe valve and the Ball valve (light blue and grey circuits). Open the Gate valve (dark
blue circuit) half of a turn.
3) Turn on the cold water supply and wait for any trapped air to leave the circuit, then close the Gate
valve.
4) Connect one set of three set of Piezometer tubes to Tappings at each side of the bends. If
necessary, bleed the pipes as describes in ‘Set up’.
5) Use the hand pump if necessary to adjust the pressure in Piezometer tubes until the level is halfway
up the scale. The level in each of the Piezometer should the same, if not then check for air bubbles
or leaks. Note that Tappings 18 and 19 are actually the same point, but are selected with the two
way valve next to them. The valve handle points to the tapping that is connected. The valve is fitted
to remove any possibility of pressure imbalance when tappings 4, 19, 18 and 17 are used at the
same time.
6) Fully open the Globe gate valve and wait for the flow to settle. Record the Peizometer readings into
your tables .
7) Use the Gate valve to reduce the flow rate in five suitable steps to give a good spread of results.
56
Table 5. Collected Data Table for Bends
Internal Diameter (d) = Pipe Length (l) =

Bend Radius (R) =
Piezometer Reading
Water Quantity
(m3 or L)
1
2
3
4
5
6
5. Report
Create the Report Table, using Collected Data above to fill in the corresponding column in your Report
Table and calculate the other columns by following the instruction below
1) For each test point, calculate the flow velocity, and hence the Reynolds number, following the
Equations (2) and (3).
2) Use Blasius equation to find the friction factor f. For a more accurate measure of the frictional head
loss, use the k/d value (0.036) from Experiment 1 to find the f factor from the Moody chart, at the
given Reynolds number. Indicate which one you will use in your computations.
3) Calculate the frictional head loss for an equivalent length of smooth straight pipe
hL = fLu2 / 2gd
4) The head loss due to the bend geometry can now be found
=>
5) Standard graphs of kL against R/d show that kL has minimum value at R/d of between 2 and 3 (see
Figure 5). Why do you think this is?
57
Table 6. Report Table for Bends
Internal Diameter (d) = Pipe Length (l) =

Bend Radius (R) =
Flow Piezometer Reading
Water Flow Straight
Time Rate Upstream Downstream Bend
No. Quantity Difference Velocity Re f Pipe u2/2g kL
(seconds) (Q) Tapping… Tapping… Loss
(m3 or L) ( ) (m) (m/s) Loss
(m3/s) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
58
Experiment 3: Sudden Expansion and Sudden
Contraction Experiments
The pipes for Sudden Expansion and Sudden Contraction are on the same circuit and may be tested
separately or at the same time (as in this experiment).
1. Objective
The objective of the experiment is to determine the losses in a sudden expansion and a sudden
contraction.
2. Theory
Unlike the other experiments, the sudden expansion and contractions cause a change in fluid
velocity. This change in velocity affects the pressure head, and must be accounted for separately to
the head loss due to the expansion / contraction itself. In fact, because the fluid is decelerating
across the expansion, the static pressure rises.
Sudden Expansion
Head Loss due to the Expansion
Figure 6. Sudden Expansion
From energy equation for section (1-1) and section (2-2):
And
59

Setting
Sudden Contraction
Head Loss due to Contraction
Figure 7. The Vena Contracta
From energy equation for section (1-1) and section (2-2):
And
Setting
and =>
60
4. Procedure
1) Prepare Collected Data Tables for the Sudden Expansion and Sudden Contraction.
2) Close the Globe valve and the Ball valve (light blue and grey circuits). Open the Globe valve
(light blue circuit) half of a turn.
3) Turn on the cold water supply and wait for any trapped air to leave the circuit, then close
the Globe valve.
4) Connect one set of the sets of piezometer tubes to tapings at each side of the sudden
expansion and a second set of piezometer tubes to the tapings at each side of the sudden
contraction. If necessary, bleed the pipes as describes in ‘Set up’.
5) Use the hand pump if necessary to adjust the pressure in Piezometer tubes until the levels
are halfway up the scale. The level in each of the Piezometer should the same, if not then
check for air bubbles or leaks.
6) Fully open the Globe valve and wait for the flow to settle. Record the Peizometer into your
Collected Data Table.
7) Use the Globe valve to reduce the flow rate in five suitable steps to give a good spread of
results.
Table 7. Collected Data Table for Sudden Expansions
Sudden Expansion
Area 1 (A1) :
Area 2 (A2) :
d2/d1 =
Water Piezometer Reading
Time
No. Quantity Upstream Downstream
(seconds)
(m3 or L) Tapping …… (mm) Tapping …… (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
61
Table 8. Collected Data Table for Sudden Contractions
Sudden Contraction
Area 1 (A1) :
Area 2 (A2) :
d2/d1 =
Water Piezometer Reading
Time
No. Quantity Upstream Downstream
(seconds)
(m3 or L) Tapping …… (mm) Tapping …… (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
5. Report
Create the Report Table for Sudden Expansion and Sudden Contraction, using Collected Data above
to fill in the corresponding column in your Report Table and calculate the other columns by following
the instruction below
Sudden Expansion
(a) For each flow rate, calculate the initial velocity, u1, u2, and hence the head rise due to velocity
change across the expansion.
And
(b) Using Bernoulli’s equation and the momentum equation, it can be shown that the head loss at a
sudden expansion, hL, is given as
where kL is usually about 1.0
Calculate the head loss according to this equation.
The measured head change across the expansion will therefore be

62

Setting
(c) Calculate the head rise across the expansion.
(d) To verify the value of kL, plot a graph of the head rise due to velocity minus the measured head
rise (hu-hm), against (u1 – u2)2 / 2g, and the gradient will be the value of kL. Determining the
gradient of a graph is more accurate than using a single test point because it averages out any
experimental scatter.
Sudden Contraction
(a) For each flow rate, calculate the initial velocity, u1, u2, using the continuity equation and hence
the head loss due to velocity change across the contraction.
Although a sudden contraction is geometrically to reverse of a sudden expansion, the same theory
cannot be used in reverse because of differences in the flow pattern.
The streamlines have to converge before the contraction, so they are not parallel through the actual
contraction. The flow continues to converge slightly after the contraction to a smaller diameter than
the narrow pipe (Vena contracta) see Figure 7. Because of these factors, the flow analysis is based
on previous experimentation.
(b) The head loss due to the contraction itself, hL, can be shown as
Where the factor kL depends on the ratio of diameters (see Table 6)
Table 6. Typical Values of the Coefficient k
d2 / d 1 kL
0 0.50
0.2 0.45
0.4 0.38
0.6 0.28
0.8 0.14
1.0 0
63
d2 / d1 = 0.52 for all contractions in the apparatus, so kL = 0.32. Use this value of k to calculate the
head loss due to the contraction.
(c) Calculate the combined head loss, hTOTAL (hTOTAL = hL + hu,) and compare it to the measured head
loss, hm (where hm = h1 - h2).
(d) The measured head loss can also be used to find the kL value for this contraction. Plot the
measured head loss minus the head loss due to velocity change, (hm – hu’) against . The
gradient of the line will be the constant kL for this contraction.
64
Table 9. Report Table for Sudden Expansions
Sudden Expansion
Area 1 (A1) :
Area 2 (A2) :
d2/d1 =
Flow Pressures Velocities
Water (u1 – u2)2
Time Rate Upstream Downstream hL (hu-hm)
No. Quantity Difference Upstream Downstream hu /2g
(seconds) (Q) Tapping… Tapping… (m) (m)
(m3 or L) (hm) (m) u1 (m/s) u2 (m/s) (m) (m)
(m3/s) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
65
Table 10. Report Table for Sudden Contractions
Sudden Contraction
Area 1 (A1) :
Area 2 (A2) :
d2/d1 =
Flow Pressures Velocities
Water Rate u22/2 h
No Time Upstream Downstream hu hL hm-hu
Quantity (Q) Difference Upstream Downstream g Total
. (seconds) Tapping… Tapping… (m) (m) (m)
(m3 or L) (m3/s (hm) (m) u1 (m/s) u2 (m/s) (m) (m)
(mm) (mm)
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
66

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School of Civil Engineering &

International University (IU)

Pham Ngoc, PhD.

School of Civil Engineering & Management

Phone: 848-37244270. Ext 3425 Fax: 848-37244271

HOW TO USE THE HYDRAULIC BENCH...........................................4

The hydraulic bench consists of the following parts:

Figure 1. Gravimetric Hydraulic Bench

Figure 2. Inside View of the Hydraulic Bench

Figure 5. How the Gravimetric Hydraulic Bench Works

Table 1. Technical Details

2. How to use the Hydraulic Bench

1) Find a suitable stopwatch or timer.

2) Check for the correct water level in the sump.

3) Connect the supply pipe to your experiment.

6) Switch on the pump.

Figure 6. How to use the Hydraulic Bench

Figure 1. Water Level

Symbol Meaning Units

The objectives of this experiment are:

Figure 2. Flow over sharp edge notch weirs

Finding the mean Coefficient of Discharge

- For the Rectangular Notch:

From the formula:

Where kR is a constant found from ratio of flow over Head3/2:

Inserting known values and simplifying:

- For the V Notch:

From the formula:

Where kV is a constant found from ratio of flow over Head5/2:

Inserting known values and simplifying:

The experimental apparatus consists of the following parts:

Figure 3. Main Parts

Figure 4. Details of the Equipment

1) Record the experimental data into Table 3.

Datum value of Head:

1) Record the experimental data into Table 4.

3) Repeat the experiment just as in Procedure for Rectangular Weir.

Table 4. Collected Data Table for V Notch Weir

Datum value of Head:

 The constant kR and kV will be used to predict flows in Experiment 2.

Figure 5. Finding the Mean Value of Coefficient

Datum value of Head:

Table 6. Report Table for V Notch Weir

Datum value of Head:

The objectives of this experiment are:

Shown in Part 3 of Experiment 1.

2) Repeat head and actual flow measurement, as in Experiment 1.

Table 7. Collected Data Table for Rectangular Notch

Datum value of Head:

Datum value of Head:

4) Explain the cause of any significant errors.

Table 9. Report Table for Rectangular Notch

Datum value of Head:

Table 10. Report Table for V Notch

Datum value of Head:

The objective of is experiment is to show laminar condition and turbulent conditions.

Where d is the diameter of the pipe.

Viscous forces (3)

The experimental apparatus consists of the following parts:

Effect of Varying Viscosity

Figure 5. Kinematic viscosity of water at various temperatures

Measure and record the diameter of the glass tube: d = __________

Table 1. Collected Data Table

Temp Condition Time for 200 ml (s)