A Survey of Intelligent Building Automation With Machine Learning and IoT

Advances in Building Energy Research
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A survey of intelligent building automation with

machine learning and IoT
Mona Masroor, Javad Rezazadeh, John Ayoade & Mehdi Aliehyaei
To cite this article: Mona Masroor, Javad Rezazadeh, John Ayoade & Mehdi Aliehyaei (2023) A
survey of intelligent building automation with machine learning and IoT, Advances in Building
Energy Research, 17:3, 345-378, DOI: 10.1080/17512549.2023.2208117
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ADVANCES IN BUILDING ENERGY RESEARCH
2023, VOL. 17, NO. 3, 345–378
https://doi.org/10.1080/17512549.2023.2208117
REVIEW
A survey of intelligent building automation with machine

learning and IoT
Mona Masroora, Javad Rezazadehb, John Ayoadeb and Mehdi Aliehyaeic
a
Department of Computer Engineering, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad University, Pardis, Iran; bCrown Institute
of Higher Education, Sydney, Australia; cDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Pardis New City, Iran
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The growth of intelligent buildings in smart cities that are equipped Received 19 September 2022
with smart devices based on the Internet of Things (IoT) is because Accepted 23 April 2023
of the advancement of technologies in the digital world. Intelligent
KEYWORDS
buildings have a positive effect on the comfort of people’s lives. The Machine learning; intelligent
integration of IoT technology and machine learning is the output of building; Internet of Things;
a comfortable and intelligent building. The integration of the two TV; smart home
technologies changes ordinary buildings to become smart; cost-
effective; reduces energy loss, increases safety; and provides
comfort and health to the people that could afford such houses.
This paper will focus on different kinds of sensors that are used in
intelligent buildings. Furthermore, the sensors will be categorized
and compared. Finally, the types of machine learning algorithms
and their objectives in intelligent buildings will be described. The
purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of
intelligent buildings and their concepts and to provide an
overview of machine learning, communication, and its main
challenges in intelligent buildings.
1. Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a physical objects network, tools, buildings, vehicles, and
more that are equipped with electronic devices, software, and sensors that can collect
and exchange data through a communication network (Mozaffari et al., 2019). IoT com-
munication is the future of physical objects in the real world which provides the intelli-
gent devices the ability to communicate with each other and enables users to control
those devices through the Internet (Khanna & Kaur, 2019). With the growing emergence
of the IoT as well as its effective efficiency, the smart city has emerged in all cities of the
world. This is possible via the concept of the interconnection of physical objects (Naranjo
et al., 2019). With the advent of the Internet of things, we are seeing the connection of the
physical world with all the sensors and actuators in the network platform. The integration
of IoT, sensors, and actuators become a comprehensive example of Cyber-Physical
Systems (CPS). It should be noted that any change in CPS’s performance and conditions
will change cyberspace, smart grids, intelligent buildings, transportation systems, and
smart cities (Tao et al., 2019). The information collected from IoT-based devices is very
CONTACT Mehdi Aliehyaei aliehyaei@yahoo.com

© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
346 M. MASROOR ET AL.
important and valuable and is used to predict and analyze IoT behaviours in daily activi-
ties (Al-Garadi et al., 2020). The IoT-based devices are integrated with different hardware
and capabilities such as in smart healthcare systems (Moghadas et al., 2020). These
devices have high capacity due to their high performance and low cost (Wang et al.,
2019) The integration of the physical world with the computing elements constitutes
an intelligent environment that aims to identify and provide personalized services to
users who are associated with the environment (Fotros et al., 2020). A good example of
an IoT-based smart environment is a smart city, which has a positive impact on the
comfort it provides in people’s lives. The concept of the smart city also encompasses
various application areas is shown in Figure 1 (Lim et al., 2018).
An important component of smart cities is smart homes, which include various IoT-
based digital devices. Smart homes are connected by different electronic devices and
create a two-way quality of interactive multimedia services. In such a system, the com-
munication of many devices and data production (Rathore et al., 2016). IoT has provided
many areas for advanced device connection, services, and systems. As connected IoT
devices in smart homes grow, smart homes are expected to grow in smart communities;
connected smart homes become intelligent communities (Han et al., 2017).
With the growing population and growth of smart cities, the demand for intelligent
buildings is also increasing, and with the advent of technology, the expectation for
smart homes is increasing. Components of intelligent buildings include systems inte-
gration, advanced building management tools, automation, extended sensors, energy
management, enterprise data management, data analysis, software applications,
Figure 1. Smart city application areas.

ADVANCES IN BUILDING ENERGY RESEARCH 347
IT integration, and intelligent buildings which measure all the performance of the build-
ing with sensors embedded in the walls and ceiling of the building, and send software to
residents and building management in real-time without human intervention (Sinopoli,
2016). The data generated through these sensors is very large, and the data generated
through these IoT-based devices is analyzed by using various tools (Ur et al., 2018). IoT
devices can sense and transmit data (Rezazadeh, Sandrasegaran, et al., 2018). There is a
huge request for IoT devices that are in homes, offices, planes, and virtually everywhere
which can be recorded in cloud storage (Sahraei et al., 2019). The growing number of
these devices provides us with new opportunities (Bashir & Gill, 2016). According to
(Lee et al., 2015), IoT-based devices install data in intelligent buildings, such information
includes geographical location, sensor signals, or unstructured sensor data (Ur et al., 2018)
to detect temperature or light intensity, which enables these sensors to be set up at work-
stations via sensor networks to improve productivity (Rezazadeh, Moradi, et al., 2018). The
overall goal of all smart environments is to extract valuable information from a vast
volume of information. After extracting this valuable information, service management
improves (Ur et al., 2018).
Data classification is one of the most widely used branches of pattern recognition and
data mining. The wide scope of its application can be easily observed in everyday life. Wher-
ever there is pattern recognition this diagnosis will be accompanied by classification (Han
et al., 2011). All large and complex data sets are difficult to analyze traditionally and can be
easily analyzed by using machine-learning techniques. Traditional learning methods apply
to data that is fully loaded into memory (Qiu et al., 2016). Machine learning is a series of
techniques for data mining and knowledge discovery that seeks useful structural patterns
in data. This was used in 1994 in the classification of flows in intrusion detection (Frank,
1994). Recent studies show that machine learning is used for intelligent building appli-
cations (Djenouri et al., 2019). Furthermore, (Peng et al., 2018) described the importance
of machines that contributed to the improvement of energy efficiency in an office building.
Also, there were discussions regarding the challenges that smart homes face, the electrical
load forecasting in smart grids and buildings, and the energy management system in build-
ings (De Paola et al., 2014; Raza & Khosravi, 2015; Stojkoska & Trivodaliev, 2017).
By reviewing the research literature and the mentioned references, it can be found that
in all the published articles, one or more types of internet-building smartness have been
investigated, and so far, comprehensive research that examines almost all types of these
systems has not been done (Baduge et al., 2022; Din et al., 2019; Iwendi & Wang, 2022;
Kayode Saheed et al., 2022; Lin et al., 2022; Yudidharma et al., 2023).
The key points of this survey are listed below:
1) Examined the intelligent building based on the importance of these buildings and the
comfort that they provide and the level of users’ quality of life, as well as examining the
technologies and automation which are used. Furthermore, it compares appropriate
protocols in the automation of intelligent buildings, which effectively improves the
quality of People’s life.
2) Evaluated the machine learning techniques in the intelligent building according to its
type of applications and analyzed all methods that reduce energy consumption.
3) Classified important challenges in intelligent buildings into 4 groups and each group is
used to achieve specific goals: recognition, prediction, adaptation, and optimization.
This survey is structured as follows: In the second section, the concept of intelligent build-
ing, architecture, components of the intelligent building, and building automation system
are discussed. Section 3 discusses the concept of machine learning and its use in intelli-
gent buildings, section 4 discusses challenges in intelligent buildings, and the paper is
concluded in section five.
2. Intelligent building
The intelligent building was created by integrating telecommunication technologies and
computer technology into its design and construction, without overlapping and distinc-
tive from the interior and exterior architecture. Intelligent buildings provide the ideal con-
ditions for optimal management and productivity of their inhabitants compared to
traditional buildings using all the facilities and equipment. Clearly, with the help of tech-
nology and communication improvements, the move has been made to provide a safe,
comfortable, and at the same time energy-efficient environment. What makes intelligent
building management so important is the well-being and security of residents and
increased cost-effectiveness and cost savings (Finley et al., 1991).
An intelligent building includes hardware and software equipment that utilizes the
most advanced and state-of-the-art building technology systems, including building
automation, security and safety, telecommunications, and equipment management
systems. The integration and monitoring of different parts of the building utilize a
range of hardware and software, creating an integrated and intelligent building manage-
ment system. This is a system whose permanent task is to provide a suitable environment
by ensuring that the performance of the various components of the building is balanced
and optimized by planned management practices. The pattern of security relations,
welfare, and energy efficiency is provided. This management system is a truly integrated
human-made intelligent system that utilizes efficient networks and integrated software.
It’s a process that introduces the building industry to the world’s information and technol-
ogy (Finley et al., 1991). Figure 2 shows the process diagram for the intelligent building
defined in this paper.
2.1. Types of intelligent buildings

Buildings can be divided into three general categories: household, office, commercial, or
industrial (What is a smart building? Definition and Details). All three categories of build-
ings have two main sections:
1) Shared areas such as parking, lobby, staircase, elevator, yard, motel, pool, sports area,
etc.
2) Private Sectors, such as residential units, which constitute individuals’ privacy.
2.2. Intelligent building definition

An intelligent building is a building in which all its interior components interact with one
another in a seamless and environmentally friendly way. In other words, intelligent build-
ing designers provide a cost-effective and dynamic environment by considering four key
Figure 2. Intelligent building definition structure.
elements named: structure, system, service, and management. These lead to greater
comfort, convenience, and security for building users. The following are some of the con-
cepts of intelligent building in other countries in Table 1 (A new definition of intelligent
buildings for Asia | Emerald Insight):
Intelligent buildings are generally defined according to the following three categories
(Ghaffarianhoseini et al., 2016):
1) Definition of performance-based smart buildings

2) Definition of service-based smart buildings
3) Definition of system-based smart buildings
The intelligent building is the right choice of environmental quality models to provide the
needs of users through the mapping of suitable building facilities to achieve a high-value
building (Wong et al., 2005). Table 2 is a summary of the definitions of an intelligent
building:
Table 1. The main concept, features, and functions.

USA FRANCE UK OTHER ASIA
to employ sensors Use of hardware Intelligence applied The emphasis is on Focused on user needs
and control components to the building. information and the requirements
systems to connection to technology. of the user.
monitor a personal computers.
dwelling.
To provide a safer Integrates all security System can Convergence of It should provide
more automation, energy respond to services advanced automatic
comfortable management, and individual, entertainment control systems to
and more communications. organizational, and communications monitor services.
economical environmental and the digital
dwelling. requirements, and management of
cope with changes. the house.
It speaks about Connected with One of the main A structure of an Automatic functions
building external goals is independent communication.
structure communication to achieve efficient networks System
building networks. management of that includes the
systems resources with Internet
building minimum lifetime connection.
services and costs.
building
management.
– Functions included – Emphasizes Rationalization of
energy conservation centralized control building
and management of and also administration to
technology, emphasizes the provide more
information and elements that attentive
communication, provide media administrative
control comfort and access (wiring). services with lower
security. It is a social cost, space utilization
and technical process. and flexibility,
and environmentally
friendly.
Table 2. Definitions of intelligent building.

intelligent Building
Definitions Describe the function
Performance-based Based on the structure, systems, and services used and the optimization of communications
in the building.
Service-based Based on services provided through the office and building automation.
System-based Includes buildings that have three office automation and building and communications.
Other definitions in Creating an efficient environment with maximum efficiency and efficient management of
Europe resources at minimum cost.
Other definitions in A building with good amenities and good network infrastructure and telecommunication
Singapore facilities.
Other definitions in Asia Based on the environmental quality model.
Using smart methods, mechanical engineering can easily be used to design and build
physical and health facilities. For example, a building could be equipped with new worlds
of communication and capable of responding to its environment (Derek & Clements-
Croome, 1997). These capabilities can be divided into four sets of categories: ease of
use, the flexibility of organization, expertise compatibility, and environmental capability
(Decision support to the application of intelligent building technologies - ScienceDirect).
Using the management system, you will be given sufficient capability, control, technical,
management, and empowerment.
2.3. Architecture and intelligent building components

Intelligent buildings equipped with a strong communication infrastructure can continu-
ously respond to and adapt to the environment and allow residents to use the resources
more efficiently. This intelligent architecture must be integrated in such a way that it can
predict and respond to all internal or external events in the building, focusing on intelli-
gent design, good use of smart technology and smart use, and maintenance of buildings
(Kroner, 1997). An intelligent building offers its features through its intelligent control
systems which include: gas leak detection, fire alarm, burglar alarm, earthquake
warning, lighting control, and caller telephone systems, integrated with the remote
control system. Those control systems can reduce any danger around residential build-
ings. An example of an intelligent building is shown in Figure 3.
Each intelligent building consists of three main components: includes hardware, soft-
ware and networks for integrated monitoring and control of building’s mechanical and
electrical systems. Every intelligent building must be able to detect everything outside
and inside the home and be able to feel it like a human. For this purpose, it needs a
series of smart sensors that can collect information in real time. These sensors inside
the building must be able to measure the intensity of light and temperature outside
and inside the building, as well as to detect carbon dioxide levels, noise levels, or gas
leaks, and adjust lighting, heating, and air conditioning appropriately. These sensors
transfer signals to the main control room to set the conditions or alarms. The smart
sensors are only capable of collecting raw information that the building is expected to
extract useful information from and then use for learning. Software is a vital part of intel-
ligent building. In general, the software has two main duties: 1- collecting data from
sensors and 2- iinterpretation of it. The high volume of sensors generated data as a
result, there must be a few well-functioning wired and wireless networks to transmit
Figure 3. Facilities provided in intelligent building.

this data. Also, for the hardware and software to be connected and interconnected, one
needs a communication network that connects all these devices (Batov, 2015).
2.4. Intelligent building technology and automation system

In intelligent buildings, automation is defined as the information technology application,
robotics, and electronics to facilitate the communication and interaction of residents
(Pereira et al., 2018). With the accelerating development of new technologies related to
building, issues such as energy consumption reduction, saving on strategic building
costs, and increasing the comfort and convenience of building occupants are expanding
the use of various technologies called Building automation (building management
systems). Home management and automation systems are used for automatic monitoring
and control of systems such as lighting, plumbing, firefighting equipment, traffic control,
heating, and air conditioning systems. This term also refers to the system in which sensors
and controls are used (Han et al., 2014).
2.4.1. Types of automation systems

Building automation technologies are explained in Table 3. It should be noted that the
existing information systems make the connection between applications and cost
savings equipment. However, there are differences in system performance from the
equipment produced by different manufacturers. It is important to note that all
systems can interact with residents (Pereira et al., 2018). We have summarized the advan-
tages and disadvantages of a building automation system in Table 4.
2.4.2. Components of intelligent building management system

All these systems use an electronic digital processor to control the algorithms and are
capable of communicating with other controls. The term Building Management System
(BMS) covers all control elements including hardware, sensors, communication networks,
and central controls. As you can see in Figure 4, in general, a control system consists of
Table 3. Types of automation systems.

Building Automation Systems (BAS) Energy Management System (EMS) Building Management System (BMS)
The Building Automation System Building Energy Management A building management system (BMS)
(BAS) is used to control building Systems (EMS) are computer-based is a set of software and hardware
services and may initially be used in systems management systems that that are installed to monitor and
building automation and building control, monitor, measure and control the various parts of the
management, but according to the optimize building technical services building. By using the internet, we
German institute of engineers and energy consumption of need all of the information gathered
(Verein Deutscher Ingenieure), electrical appliances embedded in from a system to better manage it, as
building automation means buildings. The building’s energy well as integrate sensors, actuators,
measuring, controlling, and management system links building and controllers to identify and
managing building services using a installations, including lighting, evaluate various energy and
computer. Therefore, building heating, air conditioning (HVAC), environmental parameters. Its
control is a part of building and room equipment, to create a performance depends on a large
automation. It includes several sub centralized platform for managing amount of data collected from its
systems including air conditioning energy consumption buildings. It subsystems, which can be divided
(HVAC), electrical systems, fire also allows remote users to control into five general categories: lighting,
fighting, lighting systems, systems, and monitor all processes (Kastner air conditioning (HVAC), safety,
security systems, and elevators et al., 2005). access control, and mechanical
(Wang, 2009). installations (Tushar et al., 2018).
Table 4. Advantages and disadvantages of building an automation system.

Advantages of building an flexibility There is no need to re-wiring the building.
automation system Low costs Due to the use of wireless methods and the lack of
wires and ducts, it is very cost-effective.
Being isolated Due to insulation, wireless systems are immune to
lightning
and electrical damage.
high security Wireless systems are secure regarding data security,
provided
they are configured correctly.
disadvantages of building an Bandwidth limitation The bandwidth of a wireless system is very limited
automation system against the
wired equivalents.
Increasing complexity Wireless solutions need frequency and IT coordination
in design and integration.
Skills in providing Nowadays, users need more technical knowledge than
technical services before
for system maintenance.
Figure 4. Building Management System (BMS) infrastructure.
three main components, a sensor, a controller, and an operator. Each component of the
network architecture is in some way connected to the communication system (Batista
et al., 2013).
BMSs are also remotely accessible and controllable, which also enables integrated
energy management. Through this automation of all the information collected from
the sensors in one place, this software is based on IoT-based software and supports
real-time control and analysis processes. The BMS building consists of the following com-
ponents (Table 5) (Minoli et al., 2017).
Sensors: the sensors are responsible for measuring and transmitting environmental
parameters this information to the system. This information can include outdoor and
Table 5. BMS components.

Components Definition Reference
Sensors Wave detectors that measure the physical Qolomany et al. (2019)
quantities going on.
Controllers Information received from the sensors is Qolomany et al. (2019)
transmitted to the operators after
processing.
Actuators Acts based on commands sent from the Wang (2009)
controller.
Communication The cable between the controller and Sinopoli (2016)
conductors actuators.
Protocols Communication rules to use devices. Sinopoli (2016), Wang (2009), Wang (2009),
Kastner et al. (2005), Tushar et al. (2018),
Batista et al. (2013)
indoor ambient temperatures, ambient light levels, humidity levels, the number of gases
in the air, the presence or absence of onsite personnel, and other information critical to
optimal system operation. According to audio visual sensors, they have been divided into
six categories: 1)Temperature 2)Position 3)Optical 4)Engine speed 5)Electric 6)Ultrasonic
for remote controls (Gassmann & Meixner, 2001). Table 6 shows the summary of
different types of sensors and their applications.
Controllers: controllers are components of the system that receive information from
the sensors and process them based on their internal software or network software
and send commands to the operators as needed (Qolomany et al., 2019). They are
small computers of various sizes and capabilities that are designed for the specific
purpose of inputting and outputting data. Input information to controllers via Inputs
such as reading temperature, humidity, pressure, and current (analog type information)
and outputs information from controllers through outputs including sending commands
and control signals to control other equipment. The input and output information can be
either analog or digital. The controllers used in building automation are divided into three
categories (Sinopoli, 2016):
1) Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

2) Network / System controllers
3) Unity terminal controllers
PCs have the most processing power and responsiveness but are two to three times
more expensive than network/system controllers. Unity terminal controllers are at
the lowest level in terms of price and power compared to other controllers. PCs are
used for specific places, such as clean rooms or hospitals where the cost of controllers
is less important. In-office buildings, supermarkets, shops, and ordinary buildings,
network/system controllers are used instead of PCs. Most system controllers have feed-
back loops and digital circuits, but the response time of PCs is less than one millise-
cond. Network/system controllers maybe used to control one or more systems such
as air conditioners, boilers, chillers, etc, or to monitor a set of network controllers.
Unity terminal controllers are usually used to control lighting or simpler equipment
such as heat pumps, fan coils, etc.
Actuators: operators are also components of the system that receive and respond to
commands sent from controllers. These actuators can be adjustable air passage valves,
Table 6. Commonly used sensors in intelligent buildings.

Types of Type of sensor Type of
Application sensors activity Sample sensor Description communication
Control Environment Temperature Thermocouples Sensor for measuring and Bluetooth, WiFi,
sensor sensor Resistor detecting temperature Zigbee,
temperature that controls air IEEE802.15.4
detectors (RTD) conditioning and
IC heating.
(Semiconductor)
Infrared sensors
Humidity Capacitive The sensor detects ZigBee, Bluetooth,
sensor Thermal resistive comparative humidity in WiFi
Relative Humidity the air.
(RH)
Optical sensor Photodetector A sensor that measures the ZigBee, WiFi
Fibre optics amount of electricity and
Pyrometer light.
Proximity, Infrared
− Proximity Capacitive sensors A sensor that detects an ZigBee, RFID
sensor Photoelectric object and measures its
sensors distance
Ultrasonic sensors
Safety Environment Gas sensor Carbon dioxide Sensors that detect firing ZigBee
sensor sensor and gas leaks.
Gas detector
Nitrogen oxide
sensor
Hydrogen sensor
Carbon monoxide
detector
Smoke sensors Optical smoke A sensor that senses smoke ZigBee, Bluetooth
sensor (Airborne particles and
(Photoelectric) gas) and measures its
Ionization smoke level.
sensor
Security Touch sensor IR(Infrared Thermal IR An infrared sensor that ZigBee, Bluetooth
Red) sensors detection senses specific
features of its
surroundings by
emitting or detecting
infrared rays.
Motion/ Passive Infrared Motion Detection Sensor ZigBee, WiFi
Occupancy (PIR) which
sensor Ultrasonic converts motion into an
Microwave electrical signal.
Monitoring Environment air-quality Electrochemical A sensor that controls Bluetooth, WiFi,
sensor sensor sensor carbon dioxide levels, air Zigbee
Particle sensors deficiency, or air
CO2 sensor pollution.
CO sensor
Level sensor Level sensor Point level sensors The sensor is for detecting RFID
Continuous level the level of
sensor liquids in the covered or
outdoor environment.
Touch sensor Contact sensor Overhead door The sensor is used to ZigBee,
contact sensors detect whether doors, WiFi or wired
Overhead door windows, or other similar
contact sensors structures are open or
Surface door closed.
contact sensor
Pull-apart contact
sensors
Recessed door
contact sensors
relay switches, and flow connectors. The following points should be considered when
selecting operators:
1) Comply with the mechanical requirements of the controller device

2) Comply with the specifications of the controller system, in particular, the control signal
output
3) The suitability of its operating environment (Wang, 2009).
The three parts mentioned above are linked together by a communication mechanism
that consists of two other important parts:
1) Communication conductors such as wires, optical fibre, and radio waves: cables are
considered to be one of the most important infrastructures and features of an intelli-
gent building and require the latest cable technology to reduce interference and
increase low voltage power in the cable. An intelligent building can optimize its per-
formance by maximizing the use of structured cabling for different parts of the build-
ing as well as by complementing wireless systems (Sinopoli, 2016).
2) Communication protocols include protocols that regulate smart communication are
a set of communication rules, to connect two devices in an intelligent building,
both devices must use the same protocol (Sinopoli, 2009). In addition to the
issues with the use of sensors and controllers, another important issue we face is
how to connect the components of an intelligent building. Today, different proto-
cols are used in the field of communication in intelligent buildings. Several com-
munication methods and protocols are needed to communicate between
different units in an intelligent building, for example, transferring information
from sensors to controllers and transferring commands from controllers to operators
(Dietrich et al., 2010).
Smart home communication protocols are among the very important things that should
be taken into consideration when choosing and buying smart building equipment. In
general, communication protocols are uniformly integrated with all cases and used in
different products. A major advantage of using the BMS network according to a standard
protocol is the increased compatibility between the various components of the control
equipment. There are different types of protocols, some wired, and some wireless proto-
cols used in all smart systems depending on the design. Some of these protocols will be
discussed in Figure 5.
Wireless protocols technologies let devices communicate with each other without
cables and connect to the web (TCP / IP networks). Several different types of wireless tech-
nology can be implemented and used in hardware products for IoT and machine-to-
machine (M2M) applications (Froiz-Míguez et al., 2018).
Z-wave protocol is a two-way wireless communication protocol regarding IEEE 802.11.
This protocol is designed for energy consumption and low bandwidth for intelligent
buildings. The technology does not use any wiring to transmit control signals, and this
is done only with the help of RF signals, so it does not interfere with any wireless
device (Rezazadeh et al., 2012). Some smart home appliance manufacturers make their
products based on the Z-Wave protocol.
Figure 5. Types of communication protocols for intelligent building automation.
Zigbee protocol is used in small, personal, and low-power networks. It works like Blue-
tooth and Wi-Fi. It’s standard (IEEE 802.15.4). This type of protocol essentially requires
three types of devices in a network: federated network coordinators, full-functional
devices used as network coordinators or conventional routers that are suitable for sup-
porting different topologies, and Low-performance devices created with low complexity.
It is used in home automation, industrial, home entertainment systems, and smart devices
(Sinopoli, 2016).
Wiring protocols as the name suggests, one wire protocol uses a single wire interface
for data communication between devices. A few examples are described as follows (Froiz-
Míguez et al., 2018):
KNX protocol it is a standard based on ISO/IEC 14543 model that connects different
equipment including sensors, actuators, and controllers using information technology.
It is a surrogate protocol as well as a rectifier for its three pre-standards BatiBus and Euro-
pean Installation Bus (EIB) and European Home System Protocol (EHS). Currently, the KNX
standard is managed by the konnex community. It also supports various network inter-
faces such as Twisted Pair (TP), Power Line (PL), and a wireless solution called KNX-RF
radio frequency (Ruta et al., 2011).
Lon works protocol technology is based on the lon talk communication protocol,
which is an open protocol based on ISO-14908 standard and utilizes a control programme
microprocessor in an integrated chip called a neural chip to provide a standard for com-
munication between lon talk devices to produce from various manufacturers. Also, radio
waves, fibre optic, infrared, coaxial, etc are used in the physical layer (Wang, 2009).
Protocol x10 is an open-layer protocol designed for home automation wiring com-
munications. The main feature is to send control commands via the home electrical
wiring and can be reused without the need for wiring (Jiang et al., 2004). Connecting
devices by passing low voltage signals through the wiring, these signals do not affect
other home electrical appliances.
BACnet5 protocol an open protocol is the Building Automation and Control Network
(BACnet) which distinguishes it from others because of its proprietary structure for build-
ing automation. BACnet has been used in many building automation systems around the
world and has been awarded the ISO 16484–5 international standard for a year (Wang,
2009). Due to its high sensitivity, it is used for large-scale fire alarm systems. Table 7
shows the comparison of the protocols in different automation (Snoonian, 2003).
The following goals can be achieved by using a comprehensive building management
system (Wong et al., 2005):
1) Saving fuel and energy and optimizing energy consumption in buildings.

2) Manage, control, and display the system.
3) Reduce maintenance costs.
4) Extend the useful life of the devices.
5) Improving equipment efficiency and performance coefficient.
6) Connected to other control systems.
7) Providing comfort and creating a comfortable space for the comfort of residents.
The purpose of building automation systems and equipment is to provide comfort and
security for the residents of residential, office and commercial buildings, which include
the following:
a) Control of mechanical and electrical installations by connecting to the mechanical

control unit.
b) Lighting control by connecting to the lighting control section.
c) Air conditioning control by connecting to the air conditioning control section.
d) Fire alarm and smoke control by connecting to the fire alarm control section.
e) Traffic control and protection by connecting to the traffic control and protection
section.
f) Manage lifts at specific times.
2.5. Objectives of the benefits of intelligent building advances

Objectives of the benefits of Intelligent building advances in technology and communi-
cations have led to the creation of buildings designed to increase comfort, security, easier
management, reduce energy consumption and minimize environmental impact (Ruta
et al., 2011). Although the implementation of the building management system and its smar-
tening will increase the cost of building construction, the amount of savings in current build-
ing costs resulting from the implementation of this system can offset the initial costs. In
addition, it will provide a higher level of comfort for residents. Intelligent control systems
have a high level of flexibility that can be easily adapted to different needs. Conversion
and optimization can also be easily done during operation to reduce energy costs and
reduce maintenance costs. Building management systems are highly controllable. Also,
proper structure control of various components from all over the world is possible.
2.6. Commercialization of AI/ML products in the field of intelligent buildings

Nowadays, most people use smart mobile phones and the internet, commands can be
issued remotely to control the temperature of your home, and when you get home
Table 7. Comparison of protocols in different types of automation.
Compatibility Simplicity
with other of Data transfer
Protocol name Standard Type of use products implementation media Frequency Data rate Range
Z-Wave (About Z-Wave IEEE 802.11 Home automation ✓ Simple Wireless <1GHZ, 868.42 MHZ(Europe), 9.6, 40,100 30-metre open-air,
Technology - Z-Wave 908.42 MHZ (America), kbps < 30-metre
Alliance) indoor
Zigbee (Zigbee - IEEE 802.15.4 Home automation, ✓ Simple Wireless 2.4 GHZ, 915 MHZ(America 20,40, 250 10–100 m
Connectivity Standards industrial and Australia), 868 MHZ kbps
Alliance) (Europe)
KNX ISO/IEC14543 Building ✓ Medium Wiring, Wireless 868.3 MHZ 8.192–16.4 150 m
ADVANCES IN BUILDING ENERGY RESEARCH

automation (Unusual) kbps
Lon Works ISO- 14908 Home ✓ Medium Wiring, Wireless 400MHz, 450 MHz, 900MHz, 5Kbps to 30–120 m
automation, (Unusual) 2.4GHz 1.25Mbp
Industrial
x10 − Home automation ✓ Simple Wiring 310 MHZ(America), 433.99 20 bps 122-metre or 400
MHZ(Europe) foot
BACnet5 ISO 16484–5 Building ✓ Medium Wiring, 9.676.8Kbps(MSTP), 78.8Kbps 10 /100 1200 m (for MSTP)
automation Wireless, (LonTalk), 100+Mbps /1000
Zigbee (BACnet IP) Mbps
359
you can find a comfortable atmosphere. If a building bears the title of ‘Intelligent Build-
ings,’ it allows its owners to control the weather, lighting systems, home appliances,
locks, and all kinds of cameras and monitors from anywhere and away from the building.
In Table 8 you can see the commercialization of AI / ML products in the field of smart
buildings.
3. Application of machine learning in intelligent buildings

Intelligent buildings can now be defined as being able to receive and use information to
improve the behaviour and patterns of residents and the environment, in fact by using
sensors and analyzing this data they will also achieve a behavioural paradigm by using
machine learning techniques, all of which will lead to the convenience and comfort of
the residents as well as their lives. Machine learning techniques are widely used to
achieve these goals, which can be achieved by examining the internal relationships of
a set of data sent from sensors used in intelligent buildings. They are used for prediction.
Machine learning makes intelligent buildings autonomous so they can adapt to changing
environments and make it easier for humans to communicate. The machine learning
algorithms are classified into four main groups according to Figure 6 (Dietterich et al. ).
1) Supervised learning: is a type of learning where the system performs learning based
on the most labelled examples, analyses a data-driven learning algorithm, and pro-
duces an inference function that if the data are discrete, they are categorized, and if
the data are continuous, they are called a regression function.
2) Unsupervised learning: is done on unlabelled data to find patterns hidden in the data
and used to cluster populations into different groups.
3) Semi-supervised learning: using a small number of tagged data and a lot of unlabelled
data, the goal is to build a better cluster.
4) Reinforcement Learning: in this model, the machine looks at the environment, selects
and executes events, and depending on the behaviour that it shows itself to be
rewarded or punished, then learns which strategy is best. This is how it behaves in
Table 8. Products of the AI/ML techniques in intelligent buildings.

Use
Vendor Product name Describe the function AI/ML
FogHorn (Edge AI Platform - FogHorn Lightning™ Edge Using this platform, information analysis and AI
Lightning - FogHorn Systems) AI platform processing with the help
of artificial intelligence is done with less
delay.
Nexus Integra (Nexus Integra | Nexus integra Is an integrated operating platform that AI/ML
Integrated Operations Platform) performs all information and
processing using machine learning and
artificial intelligence and uses it to control,
manage and analyze.
Smappee (Fueling energy efficiency for Smappee infinity A tool for measuring the energy consumption ML
people and businesses – Smappee) in a building that
helps manage energy and water.
LifeSmart (LifeSmart - IoT Smart Home Video smart door A smart video lock that monitors in real-time ML
Solutions, Home Automation & lock
Security Provider)
Figure 6. Machine learning algorithms types.
each situation. The comparison and application of machine learning techniques are
presented in Table 9 below. Neural network algorithm: Neural networks are one of
the methods used in machine learning. Several algorithms are modelled based on
how the human brain works and are used to identify patterns. They interpret
sensory data through the labeling and clustering of input data. Their recognition pat-
terns are numbers that are represented as vectors.
You can think of them as a layer of classification and clustering that is at the top level of
the data under your management. They group unlabelled data based on the similarities
between the input samples and classify it when they receive a collection of labelled data.
Neural networks consist of input, output, and hidden layers. The hidden layer converts the
input into something that can be used by the output layer. Such a tool is an extraordinary
tool for finding very complex and numerous patterns, while man has never had such
power to extract these patterns and train the machine to recognize them. Neural net-
works follow different algorithms, each of which is used extensively in this science. The
Neural network has the following advantages:
1 Adaptive learning: modify the network and the ability to learn based on the infor-
mation given or to perform tasks using basic experiences.
2 Self-organizing: organizes automatically with the data received during training, and
neurons adapt to the learning rule and respond to input.
3 Real-time operators: computations are performed in parallel with special hardware
devices that can extract optimal results.
4 Fault tolerance: if there is a breakdown in the network, efficiency is reduced, but some
features are maintained despite major problems.
5 Categorization: these networks can classify inputs to find appropriate outputs.
6 Generalization: using a limited number of examples, obtain a general rule and gener-
alizes the results of this learning to observations. In the absence of this capability, the
system must remember a large number of relationships.
7 Stability-Flexibility: a stable neural network to retain information without losing the
previous one (Mijwel, 2018).
The neural network is a mass set of equal predictors that have inherent properties it
stores information and makes it possible to use it. These networks have shown great
362
Table 9. The comparison and application of machine learning techniques.
M. MASROOR ET AL.
Assortment Type Algorithm Definition Domain Reference
Supervised Classification Neural Connectionist systems are some kind To predict home appliance (Zigbee - Connectivity Standards Alliance; Edge AI Platform -
learning /Regression networks of the computing system that utilizes bi- load control and FogHorn Lightning - FogHorn Systems; Nexus Integra |
biological neural networks. classification Integrated Operations Platform; Fueling energy efficiency
for people and businesses – Smappee)
SVM It uses learning algorithms to classify To predict user behaviour LifeSmart - IoT Smart Home Solutions, Home Automation &
and analyze data regression. and location Security Provider; Dietterich et al., Gonzalez and Zamarreno
(2005), Deb et al. (2016)
Bayesian The representation is the meaning of Energy management system Hawarah et al. (2010), Madabhushi and Aggarwal (1999)
networks our indefinable relationships between and Recognition of Human
parameters in a domain. Activities
Decision A diagram that illustrates the Modeling the data received Stankovski and Trnkoczy (2006), Yu et al. (2010)
trees the decision-making process and it’s a from the building
helping tool for decision-making and uses
a tree model to represent decisions.
Hidden It is a statistic in which the modelled Monitoring people’s housing Fleury et al. (2009), Zhen et al. (2008), Hawarah et al. (2010)
markov and a method for sequential data
modeling.
Random A structure consisting of several Forecasting and optimizing Ahmad et al. (2017), Wang et al. (2018)
forest decision trees for classification and energy consumption in
regression. buildings
KNN A simple algorithm that predicts unknown Energy consumption Wahid and Kim (2016); Activity Recognition in Smart Homes
data points with its nearest k neighbours. forecasting and analysis of Using Clustering Based Classification)
human activities
Unsupervised Clustering K-Means A method for quantifying vectors that is Improve energy efficiency Zhai et al. (2017)
learning originally derived from signal processing.
Semi- Classification N/A N/A Understanding human Guan et al. (2007), Stikic et al. (2008)
supervised activity and predicting
learning energy consumption
Reinforcement Classification N/A Human-based trial and error learning Control and management Wang et al. (2018); Wahid and Kim (2016); Activity
learning of buildings Recognition in Smart Homes Using Clustering Based
Classification)
performance for estimation and approximation. The neural network algorithms are ANN,
perceptron network, multilayer perceptron network, the radial basis function (RBF)
network, adaptive Resonance Theory (ART) network, and a self-organizing map (SOM).
Using artificial neural networks with short-term load forecasting has been adopted that
inputs this system to display temperature, current and clock values, and day (Gonzalez &
Zamarreno, 2005).
The paper (Deb et al., 2016), using artificial neural networks, predicts the energy con-
sumption of cooling loads using data-driven techniques. Based on the results of this algor-
ithm, it is possible to build an energy model with very high accuracy based on the data of
the past five days, which causes the building energy consumption reduction for the
coming days. In this paper (Jetcheva et al., 2014), using neural networks, it is predicted
that the electrical charge at the surface of the building will save up to 50%. In the
paper (Satrio et al., 2019), a combination of two artificial neural network algorithms
and a multi-objective genetic algorithm reduces the air conditioning energy consumption
in the building.
Support Vector Machine (SVM) is one of the supervised learning methods that are con-
sidered for classification and regression.
It is a new method that has performed much better in recent years than the old
methods. The basis of the SVM classifier is linear classification and segmentation of
data we choose the line that has the most reliable margin.
One of the methods that is currently widely used for the classification problem is the
SVM.
SVM categorizes data linearly and classifies data according to the line with the most
margins. Using QP, the optimal line equation can be solved, which is the most well-
known method for solving problems (Shin et al., 2005). This algorithm finds a special
linear model that produces the maximum cloud margin of the page. Maximizing the
margin of the cloud page leads to maximizing the class separation. The closest training
points to the super plate maximum margin are named the support vector (Shin et al., 2005).
Support vector machine is an example of perceptron amplified and on the floor, it is
used for regression and classification. The purpose of these algorithms is to identify
and differentiate complex patterns in the data. Its application in the intelligent building:
The paper (Alhafidh et al., 2018) describes SVM as the best classifier for predicting human
behaviour in smart homes that focuses on high accuracy and real-time performance in
smart environments. In the paper (Nguyen et al., 2009), the SVM algorithm is used to
predict human position in real-time, which investigates human movements in four
modes that are walking, sleeping, sitting, and standing.
The paper (Fleury et al., 2009) uses SVM to monitor the health of the elderly in smart
homes whereby abnormal situations or internal information can be identified. In the
paper (Zhen et al., 2008), using the SVM locating algorithm, a system with multiple
RFID tags is implemented to detect the brightness of the indoor position to reduce
energy and costs.
Bayesian network algorithm: The Bayesian network is a representation of the possible
distribution of random variables. This grid contains nodes that represent random vari-
ables. Is a non-circular oriented graph that shows a set of random variables and how
they relate independently. How to build Bayesian networks can be done manually or
automatically through large data sets. This network includes (Ademujimi & Prabhu, 2021):
1) Set of variables and edges between variables.

2) A limited set of unique and contrasting modes for each variable.
3) A variable and straight edge, in other words, contains a Directed Acyclic Graph DAG
(line chart).
The Bayesian network is a new method for identifying potential relationships for predict-
ing or evaluating membership classes. In short, the Bayesian network is a pattern of our
uncertain relation between parameters located in a domain. A non-cyclic directional
graph is a network of nodes to show random variables and arcs to show possible relations
between variables.
The Bayesian network is distributed with acceptable initial values and our relations
between variables. They are very useful in real-world issues. Several years ago, Bayesian
networks were considered by individuals and used as biological groups in the methods
of gene networks by individuals.
In this paper (Hawarah et al., 2010), a method using Bayesian networks to predict the
demand of users for energy consumption services in a home automation system is pro-
posed which is based on this prediction algorithm and detects user behaviour at
home. The paper (Madabhushi & Aggarwal, 1999) employs a method of automatic
identification of human activities using the Bayesian method, which aims at identifying
and monitoring human activities.
3.1. Decision tree algorithm

In general, decision tree analysis is a model that can be used in many branches. Decision
trees can be created using an algorithmic solution for differentiating data in different con-
ditions and ways.
They are used for both classification and regression. The two main elements of a tree
are the decision nodes where the data is distributed and the leaves from which we get the
output (Introduction to Machine Learning, Second Edition). It is a model in data mining
that, like a flowchart, provides a tree-like structure for making decisions and determining
the class and category of a particular data. As the name implies, this tree is made up of
several nodes and branches, in which the leaves represent classes or categories, and
the middle nodes are used to make decisions about one or more specific attributes. A
decision tree has the following advantages (D. K, 2020):
1) The laws produced and used can be extracted and understood and can be easily
explained.
2) The decision tree can work with continuous and discrete data.
3) Unnecessary comparisons in this structure are eliminated.
4) Different properties are used for different samples.
5) There is no need to estimate the distribution function.
6) Preparing data for a decision tree is simple.
7) The decision tree is a white box model. Describing conditions in decision trees is
easily possible with Boolean logic, while neural networks are a black box because
of the complexity of describing their results.
8) Verification of a model in decision trees is possible using statistical tests. (model

reliability can be shown)
9) Decision tree structures are powerful for analyzing big data in a short time.
10) If some data is lost, it does not affect tree construction.
11) Decision trees can identify differences in subgroups.
12) Decision trees can adapt to valueless data.
13) The decision tree is a non-parametric method and does not need special adjustments
to increase the accuracy of the algorithm.
Here we will discuss the algorithms:

5-1) Iterative Dichotomiser3(ID3)- This algorithm is one of the simplest decision-tree
algorithms. In this algorithm, the decision tree is constructed from top to bottom. The
algorithm begins with the question: which property should be tested at the root of the
tree? The information benefit criterion is used to find the answer. By selecting this attri-
bute, a branch is created for each of its possible values, and instructional examples are
arranged based on the attribute of each branch. The above operations are then repeated
for the samples in each branch to select the best attribute for the next node (Induction of
decision trees |).
5-2) C4.5 – This algorithm is one of the generalizations of ID3 algorithm that uses the
Gain ratio criterion. The algorithm stops when the number of samples is less than the
specified value. This algorithm uses the post-pruning technique and, like the previous
algorithm, accepts numerical data. Weaknesses of the ID3 algorithm that have been
fixed in C4.5 include the following:
1) C4.5 algorithm can understand discrete or continuous values in the properties

algorithm.
2) C4.5 can build its decision tree despite missing values, while algorithms such as ID3
and many other classification algorithms cannot build their model despite missing
values (Hssina et al., 2014).
3) The pruning operation to prevent overfitting. Algorithms such as ID3, because they try
to have as many branches and leaves as possible (to achieve the desired result) are
more likely to have complexity in model construction, and this complexity in many
cases causes the algorithm to over-fit and error. With the tree pruning operation per-
formed in algorithm C4.5, the model can be brought to an optimal point that is not too
complicated (and of course not too simple) and does not occur overfitting. The C4.5
algorithm can give different and unequal weights to some properties.
5-3) Classification and Regression Trees (CART): one of the most popular and simplest
decision tree algorithms is the CART decision tree. This algorithm is widely used in classi-
fication and regression. CART, which stands for classification and regression tree, is based
on binary trees. The CART decision tree algorithm to construct the decision tree divides
the data into binary parts and builds a binary tree. The CART decision tree has criteria
named the Gini index to decide to select tree nodes.
The CART tree uses the Gini index to identify which attributes can provide more infor-
mation, and for each attribute (dimension), if the Gini index becomes lower, then more
information that attributes gives us.
1) Chi-Squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) applied statistics researchers

have developed algorithms for generating and constructing decision trees. The
CHAID algorithm was originally designed for nominal variables. This algorithm uses
different statistical tests depending on the type of class label. This algorithm stops
when it reaches the maximum defined depth or when the number of instances in
the current node is less than the defined value. The CHAID algorithm does not run
any pruning methods. 5) Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS): an
extended decision tree is called an expansion tree because it improves its performance
over large volumes of data and is implemented for nonlinear data.
This paper (Stankovski & Trnkoczy, 2006), describes a method using the decision tree
for smart home building that provides a framework for quantifying outcomes and prob-
abilities and identifying features. In the paper (Yu et al., 2010), a building energy demand
forecasting model based on the decision tree method is proposed which can be described
as an extended model that estimates energy performance indicators in a fast and easy
way and improves energy performance by building and reducing energy.
The hidden markov model can model complex markov processes that result in states
based on the possible distribution of observations. For example, if the probability distri-
bution is Gaussian, in such a hidden markov model output states also follow the gaussian
distribution. In addition, the hidden markov model can model more complex behaviours.
Where the output of the states follows a combination of two or more Gaussian distri-
butions, in which case the probability of producing an observation from the product of
the first selected Gaussian is obtained in the probability of producing an observation
from the other Gaussian. The use of statistical methods such as the hidden (Franzese &
Iuliano, 2019) markov model has certain advantages that can be mentioned as follows:
1) This model uses strong mathematics that can be used in many applications.
2) If the model is used correctly, it can be used in many important practical applications.
3) In libraries it can be combined with other algorithms.
A hidden markov model consists of the following components: the number of states in
a model; which separate states with and states in time are specified with.
The number of symbols visible in each mode; visible symbols are related to the physical
outlet of the modelled system. The paper (Ai et al., 2014) employs a hidden Markov model
to calculate the occupants’ number in improve energy consumption in the building,
which can save 10–42% of annual energy by obtaining the actual number of occupants.
The paper (Akkaya et al., 2015) analyses the markov model of smart housing monitoring
for energy efficiency. In the paper (Candanedo et al., 2017), using the markov hidden
model, one can evaluate the prediction of dwelling in a low-energy residential building,
which is useful for detecting activities or performing regular tasks such as simulating resi-
dential energy.
3.2. Random forest algorithm (RFA)

The RFA is an extended model of the bag method; because this algorithm uses both bag
methods and random attributes to create a forest without correlation of decision trees.
Random attributes are known as bag attributes. This attribute creates random subsets of
attributes that ensure a low correlation between decision trees. This is one of the key
differences between a decision tree and a random forest. The decision tree considers
all possible split features, while the random forest selects only a subset of those features
(Dogru & Subasi, 2018).
RFA is a machine learning algorithm from the AI subset and it can be used for classifi-
cation and regression problems (predicting and expressing changes in one variable based
on information from another variable) in machine learning.
As the name implies, the RFA is a classification that includes decision trees in different
subsets of the data set and averages to improve the predictive accuracy of that data set.
RFA, instead of relying on a decision tree, predicts the prediction of each tree based on
the majority of votes and considers the final result as the output.
There are many benefits to using the random forest algorithm. The advantages are:
1) Training time is reduced.

2) Used for regression and classification.
3) It is a good way to see the relative importance that is given to input features.
4) A useful algorithm with easy to use.
5) Generate good prediction results using default hyper parameterss.
6) Not many hyper parameters and easy to understand (Xu & Yin, 2021).
The random forest algorithm has three main variables that must be adjusted before use.
These variables include the size of the nodes, the number of trees, and the number of fea-
tures sampled. Random forest classification can be used to solve regression or grouping
problems. The random forest algorithm is made up of several decision trees. Each tree in
each group contains sample data from an estimator dataset. One-third of the data sets
used in sample estimation are discarded as experimental data and identified as out-of-
bag samples. To add more variety to the dataset, more random samples are added to
the prediction process from the properties bag. This reduces the correlation between
the decision trees. Depending on the type of problem, the prediction will be different.
For cases that are regressive or recursive, the decision trees are averaged, and when a pre-
diction is to be made on the categorized item, a prediction is made based on the majority
vote, the most common group variable. Finally, out-of-bag samples will be used to vali-
date and finalize the forecast (Dogru & Subasi, 2018).
In the paper (Ahmad et al., 2017), random forest predicts hotel hourly HVAC loads in
Madrid, Spain, and the results were used to optimize managers’ decisions to predict
energy in buildings and increase energy efficiency. In the (Wang et al., 2018) paper,
using a random forest, the hourly power consumption of two buildings was forecast,
which causes an improvement in energy efficiency in buildings.
3.3. K-Nearest neighbour algorithm

In the nearest neighbour algorithm, based on the initial data, there are vectors in a multi-
dimensional space, each of which contains a tag called a batch. In the classification phase,
k is defined as a constant by the user, and the unlabelled vector (test point) is placed in
the group with the largest number k in the nearest neighbour of that point. In this way,
the label of the test point is also specified. The distance criterion for continuous variables
is usually the Euclidean distance (Rastin et al., 2021).
A point in space belongs to the class in which most of the training points belong to
that class within the closest instance to k. Euclidean distance or cosine similarity is
usually used in this method. In the K Nearest Neighbours classification phase, the test
sample is displayed as a vector in the property space, the Euclidean distance or
cosine similarity of the test vector to the total training vectors is calculated, and the
closest training sample to k is selected (Huang et al., 2009). Of course, there are many
ways to classify a test vector, and so the classical K-nearest neighbour’s algorithm deter-
mines a test sample based on the most votes from its K-nearest neighbours. This algor-
ithm simply operates the classification operation and returns reliable results as a
prediction. The three important factors in this algorithm of the K-nearest neighbours’
method are as follows:
1) The distance or similarity criterion is used to find the K-nearest neighbours.

2) The number of close neighbours.
3) The decision rule for assigning (identifying) a class to a test document is close to k
neighbours.
In the paper (Wahid & Kim, 2016), a predictive approach for the daily loads of residential
apartments is based on the KNN classification algorithm. This divides their daily energy
consumption by hourly consumption into low-consumption and low-consumption apart-
ments. This forecast helps greatly in managing the smart home automation system. In the
paper (Activity Recognition in Smart Homes Using Clustering Based Classification), a two-
level classification method was used to identify the activities of the elderly and patients in
smart homes, firstly to separate similar activities from non-similar from Lloyd’s clustering
algorithm and then to classify non-activities. An algorithm like the KNN algorithm was
used.
3.4. K-Means algorithm

Cluster analysis, or clustering for short, is the process by which a set of objects can be
broken down into separate groups. Each division is called a cluster. The members of
each cluster are very similar in terms of their characteristics, and instead, the degree of
similarity between the clusters is minimal (Machine Learning in Action). In such a case,
the purpose of clustering is to assign tags to objects that indicate the membership of
each object in the cluster. Thus, the main difference between clustering analysis and
‘classification analysis’ is the lack of initial labels for observations.
As a result, tags should be assigned automatically based on common features and
methods for measuring distances or similarities between objects. While in the classifi-
cation of early labels are available and we must be able to label for new observations
using forecast patterns (Machine Learning in Action).
In the paper (Zhai et al., 2017), K Means algorithm is used to improve the energy
efficiency and convenience of the occupants of the building, whose body temperature
and thermal properties are clustered using this algorithm, and the energy efficiency of
this algorithm is improved by at least 21%.
3.5. Semi-supervised learning

Semi-supervised is a combination of learning without the observer. With more common
methods of machine learning, you set the machine learning algorithm. You teach ‘labeled’
data where each record contains result information. This allows the algorithm to infer pat-
terns and determine the relationships between your target variable and the rest of the
data set based on the information it already has.
In contrast, unattended machine learning algorithms learn from a data set with no
result variables. In semi-supervised learning, an algorithm learns from a data set that con-
tains labelled and unlabelled data, which is usually mostly unlabelled. The K-Means algor-
ithm takes the unlabelled data set as input, divides the data set into k clusters, and repeats
the process until it finds the best clusters. The algorithm continues. The value of k must be
predetermined in this algorithm (Zhou & Belkin, 2014).
The K-Means algorithm works in the following steps:
Step 1: To decide on the number of clusters, the number K is selected.

Step 2: K points are selected randomly or by calculation. (This can be other than the input
data set). Based on the following code, the Euclidean distance is used to select the
centres.
Step 3: Assign each data point to its nearest centre, which forms the predefined K clusters.
Step 4: Calculate the average and place a new centre for each cluster.
Step 5: The third step is repeated, meaning that each database is assigned to the newest
and nearest centre of each cluster.
Step 6: If a change occurs again, then step 4 is performed again and the algorithm ends.
Step 7: The model is ready (van Engelen & Hoos, 2020).
In the paper (Guan et al., 2007), the semi-supervised learning algorithm used Co-training
for activity detection which developed an ensemble method. This algorithm is used for
unlabelled samples which improves learning performance. In the paper (Stikic et al.,
2008), the identification of human activities requires labelled training data which signifies
paring the two techniques. The first technique uses the semi-supervised learning algor-
ithm for training and testing simultaneously, and the second technique uses the
system’s active learning to continually ask what data to tag.
4. Remarks, challenges, and future work

Intelligent buildings face challenges such as interoperability, privacy, and security. In the
context of interoperability development, a comprehensive solution for intelligent build-
ings is the cost of integrating smart home appliances, and all products must be compa-
tible with different capabilities for applications such as home automation, healthcare, and
remote control. In the context of security and privacy, with the development of wired or
wireless networks, the most important issue is cyber security, which can be targeted by
cyber-attacks, one of the solutions will be to deploy security policies that are cost-
effective as possible.
The other solution will be the deployment of encryption techniques to protect the
three major security challenges. In a nutshell, the first is to check for authenticity (ensuring
the object was who it claimed it is), the second is to check for integrity (ensured sent and
received data were the same) and lastly to check for confidentiality (ensured information
were unreadable to unauthorized people).
Security in the smart home is also divided into two physical and conceptual sections
that discuss physical components and devices such as sensors and physical operators,
tablets, personal computers, and communication interfaces, such as wireless communi-
cations and user interfaces. The conceptual section discusses how to communicate phys-
ical tools, protocols, data processing commands, data storage, and user interface content
and information (Pal et al., 2020).
In the context of communication protocols, the heterogeneity of the protocols used in
smart home devices requires the use of an interface output gateway for implementation
constraints. Based on recent research in the field of intelligent buildings and considering
its global market, the main challenges and avenues of future research can be summarized
as follows:
1) Behaviour of users in intelligent buildings

2) Analysis of data received from residents
3) Reliability and co-operation and their integration
In addition to using new technologies in intelligent buildings, 5G can be used for

faster and faster connectivity, resulting in lower costs and better flexibility in
object connectivity. The most important feature of intelligent buildings is their
high independence, adaptability to the environment, as well as easy communication
with humans. Machine learning applications in intelligent buildings are used to
achieve specific goals. These goals can be classified into 4 main groups according
to Table 10.
Recognition: in the area of identifying and identifying user activities, this can be
done through two steps, activity pattern classification, and activity type decision-
making (Bourobou & Yoo, 2015) in which in most cases supervised learning algorithms
can be used.
Forecasting: in intelligent buildings, we set the target of prediction based on what is
going to happen and this forecast can provide useful information on future activities
that will help us predict future activities it does.
Adaptation: the user adapts to current conditions and provides optimal service with
user and environmental information in mind, which uses machine learning algorithms
to support reasoning and deduction as well as to deal with complex or fuzzy information
(Genaro Motti et al., 2012).
Optimization: optimization is a very important feature that aims to increase their
efficiency. Classification techniques with machine learning algorithms are used to clas-
sify energy consumption as well as error detection in patterns and prediction of future
energy consumption. A closer look at energy consumption and proper planning to
guide the consumption of energy supply and demand parameters optimally controlled.
Energy saving is not about eliminating electronic devices, but about using these tech-
nologies to control and ultimately optimize energy consumption. Machine learning
approaches can lead to models for short-term energy prediction with higher accuracy
and lower error.
Table 10. Machine learning goals in intelligent buildings.

Research area in
intelligent
building Context Technique Reference
Recognition Saving energy by identifying Multi-class SVM classifier Gomez Ortega et al. (2015)
the exact residence and
occupant pattern of
activity.
saving energy by AAEC method (The first step of Cottone et al. (2015)
recognizing activities at using decision tree
home. is to automatically identify the
activities performed and the
second step of using ranking
algorithm is to define the
importance of each device the
user uses).
Prediction Reduce energy consumption Markov model combination and Gariba and Pipaliya (2016)
by forecasting Naive Bayes classification.
human activities.
Predicting energy Extreme deep learning method Li et al. (2017)
consumption by analyzing (Combining stacked
building energy Autoencoders (SAEsand extreme
consumption data. learning machine (ELM)).
Adaptation Minimize energy Integrated fuzzy control method. Sierra et al. (2007)
consumption based on
user
Preferences.
Optimization Improving accuracy and Combining neural network (BPNN) (A user behavior prediction
speed of predicting and k-Nearest model based on parallel
user behaviour model in Neighbor (KNN) and parallel back neural network and k-
smart home system. propagation model. nearest neighbor
algorithms)
Optimization of energy Genetic algorithm based control Gligor et al. (2006)
consumption system.
through intelligent
building management
system.
5. Conclusion
The integration of IoT technology and machine learning has the potential to transform
ordinary buildings into smart, cost-effective, and comfortable structures that can
improve people’s lives. The growth of intelligent buildings equipped with IoT-based
smart devices has been facilitated by the advancements in digital technologies. These
intelligent buildings are designed to reduce energy loss, enhance safety, and promote
health and comfort for the people living in them. This paper has reviewed different
kinds of sensors used in intelligent buildings and categorized and compared them. It
has also described the types of machine learning algorithms and their objectives in intel-
ligent buildings. The review provides a comprehensive overview of the concepts behind
intelligent buildings, machine learning, and communication and highlights the main chal-
lenges in this area. The growing demand for sustainable and energy-efficient buildings in
smart cities is driving the development of intelligent buildings. The integration of IoT
technology and machine learning has enabled these buildings to optimize energy
usage, enhance security, and create a more comfortable and healthier living environment.
Additionally, the paper classified the key challenges in intelligent buildings into four
groups, namely recognition, prediction, adaptation, and optimization, which are essential
for achieving specific goals in intelligent home automation. Overall, this survey paper pro-
vides valuable insights into the design, implementation, and operation of intelligent
buildings with combination of machine learning and IoT.
Abbreviations
IoT Internet of Things
CPS Cyber-Physical Systems
BAS Building Automation System
HVAC Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
EMS Energy Management System
BMS Building Management System
RTD Resistor temperature detectors
RH Relative Humidity
IR Infrared Red
PIR Passive Infrared
PLCs Programmable Logic Controllers
RF Radio frequency
EIB European Installation Bus
EHS European Home System Protocol
TP Twisted Pair
PL Power Line
BACnet Building Automation and Control Network
ASHRAE American Society of Heating and Air Conditioning Engineers
AI Artificial intelligence
ML Machine learning
SVM Support vector machines
KNN k-nearest neighbours algorithm
ANN Artificial Neural Network
RBF radial basis function
ART Adaptive Resonance Theory
SOM self-organizing map
QP Quadratic Programming
RFID radio-frequency identification
DAG Directed Acyclic Graph
ID3 Iterative Dichotomiser 3
CART Classification and Regression Trees
CHAID Chi-Squared Automatic Interaction Detection
MARS Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines
HMMs Hidden Markov Models
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
GB Gradient Boosting
LDA Linear Discriminant Analysis
RF Random Forests
RNN Recurrent Neural Network
NB Naïve Bayes
LR Logistic Regression
RBF kernel Radial Basis Func- tion kernel
AAEC Adversarial Autoencoder-based Classifier
ELM extreme learning machine
BPNN back-propagation neural network
SAEs stacked autoencoders
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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A Survey of Intelligent Building Automation With Machine Learning and IoT

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Advances in Building Energy Research

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/taer20

A survey of intelligent building automation with

Mona Masroor, Javad Rezazadeh, John Ayoade & Mehdi Aliehyaei

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17512549.2023.2208117

Published online: 04 May 2023.

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A survey of intelligent building automation with machine

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

CONTACT Mehdi Aliehyaei aliehyaei@yahoo.com

Figure 1. Smart city application areas.

2.1. Types of intelligent buildings

2.2. Intelligent building deﬁnition

Figure 2. Intelligent building deﬁnition structure.

1) Deﬁnition of performance-based smart buildings

Table 1. The main concept, features, and functions.

Table 2. Deﬁnitions of intelligent building.

2.3. Architecture and intelligent building components

Figure 3. Facilities provided in intelligent building.

2.4. Intelligent building technology and automation system

2.4.1. Types of automation systems

2.4.2. Components of intelligent building management system

Table 3. Types of automation systems.

Table 4. Advantages and disadvantages of building an automation system.

Figure 4. Building Management System (BMS) infrastructure.

Table 5. BMS components.

1) Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Table 6. Commonly used sensors in intelligent buildings.

1) Comply with the mechanical requirements of the controller device

Figure 5. Types of communication protocols for intelligent building automation.

1) Saving fuel and energy and optimizing energy consumption in buildings.

a) Control of mechanical and electrical installations by connecting to the mechanical

2.5. Objectives of the beneﬁts of intelligent building advances

2.6. Commercialization of AI/ML products in the ﬁeld of intelligent buildings

ADVANCES IN BUILDING ENERGY RESEARCH

3. Application of machine learning in intelligent buildings

Table 8. Products of the AI/ML techniques in intelligent buildings.

Figure 6. Machine learning algorithms types.

1) Set of variables and edges between variables.

3.1. Decision tree algorithm

8) Veriﬁcation of a model in decision trees is possible using statistical tests. (model

Here we will discuss the algorithms:

1) C4.5 algorithm can understand discrete or continuous values in the properties

1) Chi-Squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) applied statistics researchers

3.2. Random forest algorithm (RFA)

1) Training time is reduced.

3.3. K-Nearest neighbour algorithm

1) The distance or similarity criterion is used to ﬁnd the K-nearest neighbours.

3.4. K-Means algorithm

3.5. Semi-supervised learning

Step 1: To decide on the number of clusters, the number K is selected.

4. Remarks, challenges, and future work

1) Behaviour of users in intelligent buildings

In addition to using new technologies in intelligent buildings, 5G can be used for

Table 10. Machine learning goals in intelligent buildings.

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