SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

3 RD YEAR - MIDTERMS
Hyfa Grace Mapambocol

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY social psychology: how the presence of others

affects an individual's performance.
Social psychology − first social psychology textbooks in 1908 and
− scientific study of the way in which people’s 1924 began to give the emerging field of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are social psychology its shape.
influenced by the real or imagined presence of
other people: A CALL TO ACTION: 1930- 1950s
− Social psychology began to flourish because
SOCIAL SOCIAL SOCIAL the world needed an explanation for the
THINKING INFLUENCE RELATIONS violence of war and solutions to it.
• How we • Culture • Prejudice − Muzafer Sherif’s work laid the foundation for
perceive • Pressures • Aggression later studies of social influence, and the
ourselves to conform • Attraction legacy of Kurt Lewin is still evident
& others • Persuasion and throughout much of social psychology.
• What we • Groups of intimacy − 1940s and 1950s saw a burst of activity in
believe people • Helping social psychology that firmly established it as
• Judgments a major social science.
we make
• attitude CONFIDENCE AND CRISIS: 1960s- MID 1970s
− Stanley Milgram’s experiments demonstrated
SOCIAL THINKING individual’s vulnerability to the destructive
− conceptualizes individuals cognitive commands of authority.
processes about peoples emotions & thoughts − intense debate about the ethics of research
SOCIAL INFLUENCE procedures, the validity of research results,
− effect that the words, actions, or mere and the generalizability of conclusions drawn
presence of other people have on our from research
thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior.
− often influenced merely by the presence of AN ERA OF PLURALISM: MID- 1970s- 1990s
other people, including perfect strangers who − During the 1970s, social psychology began to
are not interacting with us. take a pluralistic approach to its research
SOCIAL RELATIONS methods, the integration of perspectives such
− blanket term for interactions between two or as social psychology and cognitive
more people, groups, organizations psychology into a subfield called social
− composed immense number of social, cognition, and the development of
physical & verbal interactions that create a international and multicultural perspectives
climate for the exchange of feelings & ideas
RESEARCH ETHICS
Historical Context − in quest to create realistic, engaging
− philosophy: major source of insight about situations, social psychologist face ethical
human nature. dilemmas
− the work of philosophers is part of the scientific reasons:
foundation of contemporary psychology. o experiments to resemble real world as
− Psychologists have looked to philosophers for much as possible
insights into the nature of consciousness and o avoid causing participants stress,
how people form beliefs about the social world discomfort or unpleasantness
− Early Philosophers such as Plato offered − researcher are concerned about the health &
keen insights into many social psychological welfare of the individuals participating
issues. But no systematic and scientific study − researcher in the process of discovering
of social psychological issues developed until important information about human social
the end of the 19th century behavior, such bystander intervention,
prejudice, conformity, aggression, obedience
THE BRIEF AND INFANCY OF SOCIAL to authority
PSYCHOLOGY 1880s- 1920s INFORMED CONSENT
− Early research by Norman Triplett and Max − to obtain informed consent, researcher
Ringlemann established an enduring topic in explains nature of experiment to participants

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before it begins & asks for permission to
participate
− ethical dilemma dissolved when participants
are willing to undergo
DECEPTION EXPERIMENT
− sort of description is feasible - where feasible
it is done but sometimes impossible
DECEPTION
− involves misleading participants about the true
purpose of study
− psychologists use deception only if it is the
only way which they can test a hypothesis
about social behavior
DEBRIEFING
− process of explaining to participants at the
end of experiment, true purpose of study &
exactly what transpired
− participants learn about goals & purpose of
research
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD
− any institution (such as a university) that
seeks federal funding for psychological
research is required to have an IRB that
reviews research before it is conducted.
− board, which must include at least one
scientist, one nonscientist, and one person
who is not affiliated with the institution,
reviews all research proposals and decides
whether the procedures meet ethical
guidelines.
Social Psychology Compare to Related
Disciplines
SOCIOLOGY - study of groups, organizations,
societies than individuals
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - study of psychological
processes people have in common that make
them susceptible to social influence
PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY - study of
characteristics that make individuals unique and
different from one another
THE POWER OF THE SITUATION
The Importance of Explanation
⎯ Fundamental Attribution Error: The
tendency to overestimate the extent to
which people’s behavior is due to
internal, dispositional factors and to
underestimate the role of situational
factors.
⎯ Understanding that people’s behavior is
often not caused by their personalities but
by the situations they are in is central to
social psychology.
The Importance of Interpretation
⎯ to specify the objective properties of the
situation, such as how rewarding it is to
people
Behaviorism
⎯ A school of psychology maintaining that to
understand human behavior, one need only
consider the reinforcing properties of the
environment:
⎯ behavior is followed by a reward (such as
money, attention, praise, or other benefits), it
is likely to continue; when behavior is followed
by a punishment (such as pain, loss, or angry
shouts), it is likely to become extinguished.
The importance of interpretation
It is one thing to say that social situation has
profound effects on human behavior, but what
exactly do we mean by social situation?
⎯ specify the objective properties of the
situation, such as how rewarding it is to
people and then document the behaviors
that follow from these properties.
⎯ For social psychologies, the relationship
between the social environment & the
individual is a two way street. Not only
does the situation influence peoples
behavior, peoples behavior also depends
on their interpretation, or construal of their
environment.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
⎯ school of psychology stressing the
importance of studying the subjective way
in which an object appears in people’s
minds rather than the objective, physical
attributes of the object
SOCIAL COGNITION
⎯ How people think about themselves and
the social world; more specifically, how
people select, interpret, remember, and
use social information to make judgments
and decisions
⎯ 2 Kinds of Social Cognition: 1. Automatic
Thinking 2. Controlled Thinking
Automatic Thinking: Low Effort Thinking
⎯ Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional,
involuntary, and effortless.
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⎯ Automatic thinking helps us understand new
situations by relating them to our prior
experiences.
⎯ When we meet someone new, we don’t start
from scratch to figure out what he or she is
like; we categorize the person as “an
engineering student” or “like my cousin
Helen.”
⎯ People use schemas, which are mental
structures that organize our knowledge about
social world.
o those mental structures influence the
information we notice, think about,
remember.
SCHEMAS
⎯ Mental structures people use to organize their
knowledge about the social world around
themes or subjects and that influence the
information people notice, think about, and
remember
⎯ Schemas encompasses our knowledge about
many things, other people, ourselves, social
roles & specific events
⎯ contain our basic knowledge and impressions
that we use to organize what we know about
the social world and interpret new situations.
⎯ Very useful for helping us organize & make
sense of the world and to fill in the gaps of
knowledge.
Korsakov’s syndrome.
⎯ Tragically, this is what happens to people who
suffer from a neurological disorder
⎯ People with this disorder lose the ability to
form new memories and must approach every
situation as if they were encountering it for the
first time, even if they have actually
experienced it many times before.
Accessibility
⎯ schema that comes to mind and guides your
impressions of the man can be affected by
accessibility
⎯ the extent to which schemas and concepts
are at the forefront of the mind and are
therefore likely to be used when making
judgments about the social world
Something can become accessible for three
reasons:
1. some schemas are chronically accessible
due to past experience
2. something can become accessible
because it is related to a current goal.
3. schemas can become temporarily
accessible because of our recent
experiences
⎯ Our judgment about other people can be
influenced by schemas that are accessible in
our memories
Priming
⎯ the process by which recent experiences
increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or
concept.
⎯ The stroop effect - color of the word
Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-
Fulfilling Prophecy
self-fulfilling prophecy operates as follows:
⎯ People have an expectation about what
another person is like, which influences
how they act toward that person, which
causes that person to behave
consistently with people’s original
expectations, making the expectations
come true.
Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental
Heuristics
Mental Shortcuts - efficient, however, and
usually lead to good decisions in a reasonable
amount of time
Judgmental Heuristics - mental shortcut people
use to make judgments quickly & efficiency
⎯ heuristic - greek “discover”
Common uses for heuristics:
√ Reduce mental effort needed to make
decisions
√ simplify complex & difficult questions
√ They’re fast & accurate way to arrive at a
conclusion
√ Help with problem solving
How easily does it come to mind?
Availability Heuristic
⎯ A mental rule of thumb whereby people
base a judgment on the ease with which
they can bring something to mind
⎯ physicians have been found to use
availability heuristics when making
diagnosis. Their diagnosis are influenced
by how easily they can ring different
disease to mind
o example: If you are thinking of
flying and suddenly think of a
number of recent airline
accidents., you might feel like air
travel is too dangerous and decide
to travel by car instead.
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Availability heuristic leads you to
think that plane crashes are more
common than they really are.
⎯ What comes to mind quickly is deemed
significant - sometimes incorrect
HOW SIMILAR IS A TO B? THE
REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC
Representativeness Heuristic
⎯ A mental shortcut whereby people classify
something according to how similar it is to a
typical case
⎯ strategy for making judgment base on the
extent to which current stimuli or events
resemble other stimuli or categories
⎯ categorizing things according to
representativeness is often perfect reasonable
thing to do.
o If you meet someone who is into yoga,
spiritual healing and aromatherapy you
might immediately assume that she
works as holistic healer rather than
something like a school teacher or
nurse. Because her traits match up to
your mental prototypes of a holistic
healer, the representativeness
heuristic causes you to classify her as
more likely to work in that profession.
Base Rate Information
⎯ Information about the frequency of members
of different categories in the population
o eg. percentage of students @ NDMU
who are from Koronadal City.
§ you want to guess where your
classmate is from
§ there are more people in Kor
City.
ANCHORING & ADJUSTMENT HEURISTICS
⎯ Anchoring & adjustment is a cognitive
heuristic where a person starts off with an
initial idea and adjust their beliefs bases on
this starting point
⎯ anchoring effect: tendency to rely on an
initial piece of information when making
judgments
BARNUM EFFECT
⎯ phenomenon that occurs when individuals
believe that personality descriptions apply
specifically to them (more so to other people),
despite that description is actually filled with
information that applies to everyone
o horoscope
⎯ Why do most people believe that this
personality description describes them so
well?
o Representativeness Heuristic -
Statements are vague enough that
virtually everyone can find a past
behavior that is similar to the
feedbacks
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL
COGNITION
⎯ content of our schemas is influenced by the
culture in which we live.
⎯ culture influences social cognition in other
fundamental ways. An analogy that is often
uses is that the human mind is like a toolbox
filled with specific tools to help people think
about & act in social world.
Analytic Thinking Style
⎯ A type of thinking in which people focus
on the properties of objects without
considering their surrounding context; this
type of thinking is common in Western
cultures
Holistic Thinking Style
⎯ A type of thinking in which people focus
on the overall context, particularly the
ways in which objects relate to each other;
this type of thinking is common in East
Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, and
Korea)
CONTROLLED SOCIAL COGNITION: HIGH-
EFFORT THINKING
Controlled Thinking
⎯ Thinking that is conscious, intentional,
voluntary, and effortful
⎯ People can usually turn this on or turn off
at will and are fully aware of what they are
thinking.
⎯ effortful requires mental energy
MENTALLY UNDOING THE PAST:
COUNTERFACTUAL
REASONING
Counterfactual Thinking
⎯ Mentally changing some aspect of the
past as a way of imagining what might
have been
⎯ can have a big influence on our emotional
reactions to events.
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⎯ The easier it is to mentally undo an
outcome, the stronger the emotional
reaction to it
⎯ eg. “If only I had answered that one
question differently”, you might think “I
would have passes the exam”
Overconfidence Barrier
⎯ The fact that people usually have too
much confidence in the accuracy of their
judgments
Improving Human Thinking: How successful are
people at correcting their mistakes? How can they
be taught to do better?
1. to make people a little more humble about
their reasoning abilities.
2. address overconfidence directly, getting
people to consider the possibility that they
might be wrong.
3. teach people some basic statistical and
methodological principles about how to
reason correctly
ATTITUDES AND ATTITUDE
CHANGE INFLUENCING THOUGHTS AND
FEELINGS
Nature and Origin of Attitudes
Attitudes
⎯ Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
⎯ Important because they often determine
what we do
Where Do Attitudes Come From?
⎯ linked, in part, to our genes
⎯ people may have been inherited a
temperament & personality from their parents
that make them predisposed
⎯ social experiences play a major role in
shaping our attitudes
Social psychologist identified 3 components of
attitude:
1. cognitive component or the thoughts
and beliefs that people form about the
attitude object;
2. affective component, or people’s
emotional reactions toward the attitude
object;
3. behavioral component, or how people
act toward the attitude object.
Cognitively Based Attitude
⎯ An attitude based primarily on people’s
beliefs about the properties of an attitude
object
⎯ sometimes our attitudes are based
primarily on the relevant facts
⎯ An attitude of this kind allows us to
classify the pluses and minuses of an
object so that we can quickly determine
whether we want to have anything to do
with it.
Affectively Based Attitude
⎯ An attitude based more on people’s feelings
and values than on their beliefs about the
nature of an attitude object
⎯ strongly attracted to something—such as
another person—in spite of having negative
beliefs about him or her
⎯ sources:
o can stem from people’s values, such
as basic religious and moral beliefs.
o can result from a sensory reaction,
such as liking the taste of chocolate
(despite its number of calories)
o can be the result of conditioning
Behaviorally Based Attitude
⎯ stems from people’s observations of their own
behavior toward an object.
⎯ How do we know how to behave if we don’t
already know how we feel? According to Daryl
Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory, under
certain circumstances people don’t know how
they feel until they see how they behave.
EXPLICIT VERSUS IMPLICIT ATTITUDES
Explicit attitudes
⎯ ones we consciously endorse and can
easily report
⎯ rooted more on recent experiences
Implicit attitudes
⎯ involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times
unconscious evaluations
⎯ rooted in childhood experiences
When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
⎯ In the early 1930s, Richard LaPiere embarked
on a cross-country sightseeing trip with a
young Chinese couple. Prejudice against
Asians was common in the United States at
this time, so at each hotel, campground, and
restaurant they entered, LaPiere worried that
his friends would be refused service. To his
surprise, of the 251 establishments he and his
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friends visited, only one refused to serve them
(LaPiere, 1934).
⎯ Struck by this apparent lack of prejudice,
LaPiere decided to explore people’s atti-
tudes toward Asians in a different way. After
his trip, he wrote a letter to each estab-
lishment he and his friends had visited, asking
if it would serve a Chinese visitor. Of the
many replies, only one said it would.
⎯ More than 90% said they definitely would not;
the rest were undecided. Why were the
attitudes people expressed in writing the
reverse of their actual behavior?
⎯ attitudes do predict behavior, but only under
certain specifiable conditions. one key factor
is knowing whether the behavior we are trying
to predict is spontaneous or planned.
Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors
⎯ Sometimes we act spontaneously, thinking
little about what we are about to do.
⎯ When LaPiere and his Chinese friends
entered a restaurant, the manager did not
have a lot of time to reflect on whether to
serve them; he or she had to make a snap
decision.
⎯ Similarly, when someone stops us on the
street and asks us to sign a petition, we
usually don’t stop and think about it for 5
minutes—we decide on the spot whether to
sign the petition.
⎯ Attitudes will predict spontaneous behaviors
only when they are highly accessible to
people
Attitude Accessibility
⎯ refers to the strength of the association
between an attitude object and a person’s
evaluation of that object, measured by the
speed with which people can report how they
feel about the object
⎯ When accessibility is high, your attitude
comes to mind whenever you see or think
about the attitude object. When accessibility is
low, your attitude comes to mind more slowly.
It follows that highly accessible attitudes will
be more likely to predict spontaneous
behaviors because people are more likely to
be thinking about their attitude when they are
called on to act.
⎯ ex. someone offers you gummy worms and
you refuse because you don’t like it. (because
you have just tasted a gummy worm you did
not like)
But what makes attitudes accessible in the first
place?
⎯ degree of experience people have behaving
with the attitude object.
⎯ Some attitudes are based on hands-on
experience, such as a person’s attitude
toward the homeless after volunteering at a
homeless shelter.
⎯ Other attitudes are formed without much
experience, such as a person’s attitude
toward the homeless that is based on reading
stories in the newspaper.
⎯ The more direct experience people have with
an attitude object, the more accessible their
attitude will be, and the more accessible it is,
the more likely their spon- taneous behavior
will be consistent with that attitude (Glasman
& Albarracín, 2006).
Predicting Deliberative Behaviors
⎯ Some decisions and behaviors are less
spontaneous, however. We might take our
time and deliberate, for example, when it
comes to matters such as where to go to
college, what courses to register for, or
whether to accept a job offer.
⎯ The best-known theory of when and how
attitudes predict deliberative behaviors is the
theory of planned behavior
o According to this theory, when people
have time to contemplate how they are
going to behave, the best predictor of
their behavior is their intention, which
is determined by three things: their
attitude toward the specific behavior,
subjective norms, and perceived
behavioral control
SPECIFIC ATTITUDES
⎯ The theory of planned behavior holds that the
more specific the attitude toward the behavior
in question, the better that attitude can be
expected to predict the behavior.
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SUBJECTIVE NORMS
⎯ In addition to measuring attitudes toward the
behavior, we also need to measure subjective
norms—people’s beliefs about how others
they care about will view the behavior in
question
⎯ For example, suppose we want to predict
whether Deepa intends to go to a violin
concert and we know that she doesn’t like
classical music. We would probably say that
she won’t go.
⎯ But suppose we also know that Deepa’s best
friend, Kristen, is playing in the concert, and
that Deepa assumes that Kristen will be
disappointed if she is not in the audience and
will view her failure to show up as a slap in the
face.
⎯ Knowing this subjective norm—Deepa’s belief
about how a close friend will view her
behavior—we would likely predict that she will
go.
PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL
⎯ people’s intentions are influenced by the ease
with which they believe they can perform the
behavior— perceived behavioral control.
⎯ Example: If people think it is difficult to
perform a behavior, such as remembering to
use a condom when having sex, they will not
form a strong intention to do so.
⎯ If people think it is easy to perform the
behavior, such as remembering to buy milk on
the way home from work, they are more likely
to form a strong intention to do so.
Considerable research supports the idea that
asking people about these determinants of their
intentions—attitude specificity, subjective norms,
and perceived behavioral control—increases our
ability to anticipate how they will act.
Ex: going to the gym to exercise before going to
work
⎯ Specific attitude ( enjoys working out
before work)
⎯ Subjective Norms (his/her crush will be
there and will be impressed)
⎯ Perceived Behavioral control (it will be
easy to do as the gym is close to his/her
work)
⎯ Specifically, these factors help us predict
those behaviors that are planned and
deliberative, such as deciding what job to
accept, whether to wear a seat belt, whom
to vote for, and, yes, whether to use a
condom when having sex
How Do Attitudes Change?
How do internal and external factors lead to
attitude change?
⎯ Attitudes are not always consistent. They
often change.
⎯ In America, for example, the popularity of
the president often rises and falls with sur-
prising speed. Right after President
Obama assumed office, in January of
2009, 67% of Americans said they
approved of the job he was doing.
⎯ By November of 2010, as the economic
recovery in the United States sputtered,
his approval rating had dropped to 47%.
⎯ Then, right after Osama Bin Laden was
killed in a raid by U.S. Navy Seals in May
of 2011, his approval rating shot back up
to 60%. It stood at 57% in November 2012
at the time of his re-election, but fell back
into the 40s by 2014 (AP-GfK Poll, 2014)
and started to inch upward in early 2015.
⎯ When attitudes change, they often do so
in response to social influence.
Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior:
⎯ when people behave inconsistently with their
attitudes and cannot find external justification
for their behavior.
⎯ Refer to Cognitive Dissonance Theory
⎯ people experience dissonance when they do
something that threatens their image of
themselves as decent, kind, and honest—
particularly if there is no way they can explain
away this behavior as due to external
circumstances.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
⎯ States that our minds go through a process of
confusion and logical conflict called cognitive
dissonance when faced with new information
that conflicts with existing information. We aim
to resolve this to return to a state of cognitive
equilibrium.
⎯ Ex: Smoking vs. Health: Smoking is generally
known to be harmful to health, yet people
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continue to smoke despite this knowledge. It
presents a cognitive dissonance for the
smoker who must accept that their behavior
contradicts their beliefs about health & well-
being.
But what if your goal is to change attitudes on a
mass scale?
⎯ To change as many people’s attitudes as
possible, you would have to resort to other
techniques of attitude change.
⎯ You would probably construct some sort of
persuasive communication, such as a
speech or television advertisement that
advocates a particular side of an issue.
Persuasive Communication
⎯ A message advocating a particular side of
an issue
Yale Attitude Change Approach.
− In essence they studied “who says what to
whom,” looking at the source of the
communication (how expert or attractive the
speaker is)
− The communication itself (the quality of the
arguments whether the speaker presents both
sides of the issue)
− Nature of the audience (whether the
audience is hostile or friendly to the point of
view in question)
Elaboration Likelihood Model
− A model explaining two ways in which
persuasive communications can cause
attitude change: centrally, when people are
motivated and have the ability to pay attention
to the arguments in the communication, and
peripherally, when people do not pay attention
to the arguments but are instead swayed by
surface characteristics
− for example, specifies when people will be
influenced by what the speech says (i.e., the
logic of the arguments) and when they will be
influenced by more superficial characteristics
(e.g., who gives the speech or how long it is).
Central Route to Persuasion
− The case in which people have both the ability
and the motivation to elaborate on a
persuasive communication, listening carefully
to and thinking about the arguments
presented
− The theory states that under certain
conditions people are motivated to pay
attention to the facts in a communication,
which means that the more logically
compelling those facts are, the more
persuasion occurs. That is, sometimes people
elaborate on the messages they hear,
carefully thinking about and processing the
content of the communication.
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
− The case in which people do not elaborate on
the arguments in a persuasive communication
but are instead swayed by more superficial
cues
The Motivation To Pay Attention To The
Arguments
− personally relevant an issue is, the more
willing people are to pay attention to the
arguments in a speech
− In one study, for example, college students
were asked to listen to a speech arguing that
all college seniors should be required to pass
a comprehensive exam in their major before
they graduate (Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman,
1981). Half of the participants were told that
their university was seriously considering
requiring comprehensive exams. For these
students, the issue was personally relevant.
For the other half, it was a “ho-hum” issue—
they were told that their university might
require such exams, but would not implement
them for 10 years
− two variables that might influence whether
people would agree with the speech.
o Strength of the arguments - strong and
persuasive
o Peripheral cue - prestige of the
speaker (eg. prof at Princeton
University)
The Ability To Pay Attention To The
Arguments
− Sometimes even when we want to pay
attention to a persuasive communication, it is
difficult to do so.
− Maybe we’re tired and sitting in a hot and
crowded room, maybe we’re distracted by
construction noise outside the window, maybe
the issue is too complex and hard to evaluate.
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− When people are unable to pay close

attention to the arguments, they are swayed
more by peripheral cues
− for example, consider the daunting task faced
by a jury that has to evaluate a case involving
complicated scientific evidence. Perhaps a
trial in which the plaintiff is suing because he
believes that exposure to a toxic substance at
work made him ill. Now, most jurors are not
scientists—they don’t have the expertise
needed to carefully weigh the arguments in
such a case, even if they want to.

Movements to pay attention to the arguments

Personal Relevant - The more willing people are
to pay attention to the arguments in a speech.