B2.

3 Cell specialization
B2.3.1 - Cell reproduction and organism development
 Many cells have the ability to reproduce themselves. In multicellular organisms this
allows growth to happen. It also means damaged or dead cells can be replaced.
 Multicellular organisms usually start their existence as a single cell called a zygote.
 The zygote is formed as a result of fertilization, which is part of sexual reproduction.
 The two cells that fuse in sexual reproduction are called gametes. Each gamete has one-
half the genetic material of a zygote. The following shows the development progression
for humans: gametes - zygote → embryo - foetus → infant
 The single-celled zygote can divide at a very rapid rate. Initially the cells produced are
unspecialized.
 However, the cells of the zygote rapidly start to differentiate, a process that results in the
formation of specialized cells.
 The number of different cell types that arise from the one original cell can be staggering.
 This differentiation process is the result of the expression of some genes but not others.
Each body cell contains all the genetic information needed to produce the complete
organism.
 However, each cell will develop in a very specific manner depending on which genes
become active. What causes some genes to become active depends on the signals that the
cell receives.
 Cell signalling is the process by which information is transferred from the cell surface to
the nucleus of a cell. This signalling process is essential in controlling gene expression
and therefore differentiation.
 Morphogens are signal molecules. that control cell differentiation. These signal molecules
occur in gradients (areas of concentration differences) in different regions of the early
embryo.
 The concentration of the signal molecules controls the regional development of the first
cells into head and tail structures.
 The gradient of the signalling molecule results in different genes being expressed in
different parts of the embryo, with the result that different parts of the embryo develop
different features.
 As the embryo develops, other signalling molecules become factors in differentiation.
 Some cells have a greatly diminished ability to reproduce once they become specialized,
or lose the ability altogether. Nerve and muscle cells are good examples of this type of
cell.
 Other cells, including epithelial cells such as skin, retain the ability to reproduce rapidly
throughout their life. The cells formed from these rapidly reproducing cells will be the
same cell type as the original cell.
B2.3.2 Stem cells
 There are populations of cells within organisms that retain their ability to divide and
differentiate into various cell types. These cells are called stem cells. Stem cells retain the
ability to divide indefinitely and can diflerentiate along different pathways, resulting in all
the cell types an organism possesses.
 Plants contain such cells in regions of meristematic tissue. Meristematic tissues are found
near root and stem tips. The tissues are composed of rapidly reproducing cells that can
become various types of tissue within the root or stem. Gardeners take advantage of these
cells when they take cuttings from stems or roots and use them to grow new plants.
B2.3.3 Stem cell niches
 When stem cells divide to form a specific type of tissue, they also produce some daughter
cells that remain as stem cells. Figure 1 illustrates a common method stem cells employ
when they divide. Note that this method allows continual production of a particular type
of tissue while also providing for the continuation of stem cells, a process called self-

renewal.
 Stem cells have two unique properties.
1. They can self-renew. When a stem cell divides, there are several possible outcomes: both
daughter cells may remain as stem cells, or a stem cell and a differentiated cell may be
formed, or both cells may be differentiated.Whatever the outcome, stem cells are
maintained.
2. They can recreate functional tissues. Cells become differentiated when cell signalling
ensures that specific genes are expressed as the cell develops.
 For stem cell research, scientists examine certain locations or stem cell niches in humans,
In a stem cell niche the stem cells are present in high numbers as a result of regular
proliferation, but they also demonstrate differentiation, Bone marrow and hair follicles are
both stem cell niches in humans.