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carbohydrates.

8:
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Notes 2
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CoordinatedSciences

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02
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Exams
 Table of
Contents
B1. of
Characteristics
Living Organisms 3

B2. Cells 4

B3.
Biological molecules 6

8
B4.
Enzymes

BS. Plantnutrition 9

B6. Animal nutrition 12

17
B7.
Transport
21
38. Gas
exchange a Respiration

19. Coordination a
Response 24

B10. Reproduction 30

B11. Inheritance 37

Environment 41
B12. Organisms & their

B13. Human influences on

Ecosystems 42
 -
Forthe
: o T
~
- +
⑳
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..
&
1
↳
#
E
I
&
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- Fansin . i
If we treo
-
E
getsforo re ⑥
~
E
·
2 got
·
-
I =
#
O
·
-
.
-
E I
-
E ↳-
I
.
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~
1
↑
-
↑
-
I
st E
E go
t
.-
3 Es
-
A
-
- ↓
E
e
-
-i
- s &
-
-i c
ni
i
gi
 B1. Cells

B2. 1. Cell structure

made of cells
Living organisms
* are
up

Animal cell
We ll
cell wall cellulose X

V ~
cell membrane

~ ~
cytoplasm
v ~
nucleus

X
chloroplast &+chlorophyll

vacuoles cell small

large;contains sap

starch
grains glycogen granules (sometimes)
shape regular irregular

Magnification

Specializedcells
·
ciliatedcells:movementof mucus in trachea+ bronchi

roothair cells:absorption

palisade mesophyll cells:photosynthesis

red bloodcells:transport O2

cells:reproduction
egg
·

sperm and
 B2. 2. Movement
in and out
ofcells
·

diffusion: ·

osmosis (diffusion, butfor water)

-

movement
net of particles
-

movement
net of water molecules

-from -from higher water (dilute solution)

a
region of higher concentration a
region of cone

lower
->
concentration -> lower water cone (concentratedsolution)
-

down a concentration gradient -through a

partially permeable membrane

result of random movement ↳

e.g.:cell membrane
-as a

investigating osmosis
*

-substances move in/outofcell through

the cell membrane

factors
*
affecting diffusion
1. to

2. concentration gradient
3. diffusion distance

4. surface area

eventually, cell membrane

- tears

->
away from cell wall
kills the cell

turgor pressure:outwards pressure of

*

cytoplasm on the cell wall

 B3.
Biological molecules

1.
Carbohydrates (C, H,0)

simple sugars complex sugars polysaccharides

(monosaccharides) [disaccharides)
S e.g.:starch,
from
glycogen
glucose
I

Test for starch:iodine solution

Testfor Benedict's solution

reducing sugars:

blue,
green, yellow
S
-

brick red
orange
->
precipitate
2. Fats/ lipids (C, H, 0) Testfor fats oils:ethanol emulsion test

1.
Chop/grindfood testtube
-

2. Addpure ethand shake

->

3.
Prepare andtube of water

Pour
4.
liquidpartof a 3
into

*
milky appearance fats
=

Ctriglyceride)

oils
fatty
acids glycerol fats +
- >

3. Proteins (C,H, 0, N) Testfor

proteins:Biurettest
↑ from amino acids

*
Biuretsolution:KOH CuSOG
+

1. food testtube
->

a
+

little water

2. Biuretsolution
+

-> shake
gently

purple
*
protein
:

4. Water solvent
is
important as a
 Factors

t.E-T.in?Ey.y:E-n-mE
affecting enzymes

"
- :$ :
""" "

optimum to

[
- .

↳
proteins that are
biological caᵗᵈY>

i
" ↑ rate of reaction

and is not
changed in the
process
iÉ "" "" red
enzyme

€
"
" substrate

° """ "

ᵗgg§
" "
⇔.si .
to active site )
"" " " """" to/ %
slow reaction
active site

A shape permanently

enzyme . www..am , , ,

Fo Gfs
.

-
( created with bonds )
temporary

normal enzyme denatured

/
enzyme
enzyme
remains unchain products to ( NOT denatured )
enzymes work slow at low

c
◦

to ↑ kinetic
= ↑ = ↑ rate of collisions
energy
•

>
free to combine
→
until reaches optimum to (37°C in humans )
with other substrates
to ,
beyond the optimum enzyme permanently
•

lock and looses

key shape deforms active site
= →

mechanism →
denatured substrate fits
longer
→
no

7 60°C
*
most
enzymes stop working
Enzymes speed reaction
1-
can
up a

/ B) pH
guilds bg
molecules tease
( in stomach )

☐ amino acid
most
enzymes
maltose 0
+
star-lord starch protein P% + £
maltose 0 I amino acid o
e
☐
*

¥
I \ i 1 I 1
°
2 4 6 8 10 12

pH
 B5. Plant nutrition Investigate the need for

A) chlorophyll

6C0, 6H28
fightCHO, O,
+

Photosynthesis:
·plants create
carbohydrates
from raw materials

using energy
from light
↳ @ chloroplast:

light a -> chemical a

B) light
1 starch made
↑> old
no new

destarching:place leaf cupboarda this starch up

-
in used

->
place back in
sunlight
w/ a leaf partially covered(Al foil) starch?
2

- #
-> test as (A)

1
6 ↑

starch?
C) CO2 Investigating the rate of photosynthesis
A) lightintensity NV
independentvariable
=

dependentvariable
DV=

CV= control

-place lamp @ dif distances

-measure bubbles or
VO,
producedin 1 min

glass
* absorbs
tank heat

-
pondweed

B)
o

38
-
38
 Photosynthesis
-

Leaf structure a function ·

palisade mesophyll
adumn-shaped
~

I
-

tightly-packedw/ chloroplasts
-> maximize photosynthesis

Gas
exchange
·

stomata:where
exchange takes place
·

gas
·

Joe:open 0:closed
1

·
underside:H20 loss

·guardcell:absorbs / loses H2C

-> closes / opens stomata

->
O2 out, SOC in

·spongy mesophyll
-internal air
spaces SA.V
=

ratio ↑

for
gas diffusion

Transport
·

xylem:moves to into leaves

-> +photosynthesis @ mesophyll cells

support
I ->
transpiration @ stomata

phloem:transports
sucrose
amino acids

around
plants

Importance MgandNOS of

atmosphere air
spaces spongy mesophyll
->

around

->
leaf mesophyll cells ->
chloroplast
136 Animal
.
Nutrition
136.1 Diet carbohydrates source bread rice potatoes
.

energy , ,

balanced diet :

consists all food proteins growth repair meat fish eggs

groups
-
+
, ,

in correct proportions
fats / Lipids -

energy storage butter oils ,

,
nuts

insulation

vitamins needed small fruits

in quantities +
vegetables

vit c →
collagen protein scurvy
: ↓ rbc ,
gum disease
skin citrus fruits
↳ hair, , gums ,
green veg thinning hair

Vit D rickets
helps body absorb Ca -

dairy products ,
eggs ,
liver : bones

↳
strong bones ,
teeth -
made
by body in
sunlight soft + deformed

minerals needed in small quantities

ca teeth milk cheese

strong bones
eggs
-

, ,
,

blood
clotting
-

Fe -

makes
haemoglobin red meat ,
anaemia :

↳ r.be .
→
transport Oz leafy green veg not
enough r .
b. c.

→ ↓ 02 to tissues

fibre provides bulk for intestines

vegetables
-

(
roughage ) to push food through whole
grain
-

water -

needed for chemical water,

juice ,
milk ,

reactions in cells fruits +

veg
 When do need and ? Malnutrition balanced diet
we more
energy why : caused
by not
eating a

adulthood

? cause Effect
age
-

starvation e eaten 4 used body breaks down energy stores

protein
°

fat
growth
↳

muscle tissue heart other

€
weight loss
damage to immune system diseases
→ → →

↑ ↑
activity active
•
=
e

levels muscles respire ↑

constipation lack of fibre food lacks bulk

e↑
→ muscles can't push food through alimentary canal
pregnancy growth of foetus
•
=

↑ risk of bowel
↑
→
cancer
•
+ Ca ,
+ Fe

↑ coronary too much fat deposits build

up @ coronary arteries
breastfeeding e.
.

heart disease saturated fat =

↓ blood flow = ↓ 02
↑
+ Ca
quality
•
=

( CHD ) + cholesterol = heart attack → death

obesity e eaten 77 used extra e stored as fat

=
weight ↑

= ↑ risk of heart disease ,

diabetes

Protein -

Energy Malnutrition

Kwashiorkor :
lack of protein (
poverty ) underweight
42 yrs old swollen abdomen ( diet)
carb heavy
-

Marasmus of
lack -

severely underweight
protein look emaciated
energy
+ -
 canal
136.2 .

Alimentary stages of food breakdown

2A °
mechanical digestion ? ✗ 3

1 food broken down smaller

→
pieces
-

mouth

2. -

NO chemical
change to food molecules

3.

2b chemical digestion ?
•

4.
-

food broken down :

5.
insoluble molecules small soluble
large →
,

Organ & Functions

f-
( )

IiÉ-↑É_
#tTFpFFiod
( I

→
bloodstream
B 6. 3 .

Digestion

Mechanical digestion teeth

by -

pointed
◦
↑ SA of food
tearing holding biting
-

, ,

exposed saliva digestive

→
to +
juices
food broken down
quickly
> more

chiselshaped
-
-

biting cutting larger flat surfaces w/ ridges

-

,
,

chewing ,
grinding up food

tooth
decay
To
keep your teeth
healthy :

don't eat too much sugar

-

( ✗ 1- 2 / day with meals )

,

use flour ide toothpaste

→
makes teeth more resistant

to
decay
 Chemical digestion
•
HCl in
gastric juices @ stomach

food broken down : EEE -

kills bacteria in food ( denature

enzymes
)
insoluble molecules small soluble molecules
large →
optimum pH for protease activity
-

"

can be absorbed

bite lmc.it )
•

enzymes
: secreted @ -

secreted
by liver

stored bladder
in
gall
-

mouth
amylase starch simpler sugars
•
→
,
pancreas
-

@ duodenum : neutralizes acidic mixture

protease pancreas protein amino acid ( from stomach )

food
•
→
of +
gastric juices
↳ suitable pH for enzyme action
•

lipase pancreas fats →

fatty acid +
glycerol -

emulsifies fats ( mechanical d.)

↑ SA
to
prepare for chemical d.
→

Villi ( vill I
singular :

finger like
projections 1mm
long
•

≈
-

↑ internal SA of small intestine

absorb nutrients faster

I
→

* microvilli
-

walls :
1- cell thick = short diffusion distance
-

lacteal : absorb digested fats

capillaries sugars
-

:
,
a. a .
 Roothairs
B7.
Transport G

roof hair:↑SA

I rate
of cells
-> of absorption of:
B7.1.
Transport in
plants -

H20 via osmosis

-mineral ions via active transport

H2Cmovement pathway
OSMOSiS
*

roofhair cell -> root cortexcells

->
xylem ->
leaf mesophyll cells
~

xylem:
·

⑳
-transportH20+ minerals
-

roots -> stem -

leaves Investigate movement of water

phloem: sucrose with:

celery
·

-
transport food materials acids
-

amino

-leaves roots
->
+ stem ↳>
stain shows

poi -
non
p ↑

xylem? or phloem?
•

H2O is
transported Factors affecting transpiration
-

roots → leaves

vessels
through
-

lift
-

+
lower

Transpiration
-

loss of H2O vapor from plant leaves cold room

by evaporation of H2O @ surface of mesophyll cells 1- to of

•
:
room warm room
-

-
→
diffusion of H2O vapor through stomata
•

humidity :

spray water in plastic bag

→
wraparound plant

↳ ? ↑ to
predictions =
_
rate

↑ hum =
_
rate

*
transpiration stream Translocation
' '
-

transpiration pulls on H2O in

xylem
-

movement of sucrose + a. a .

H2O molecules held together -

in vessels

by cohesion -

from source ( regions of production )

pulled
( regions )
→ continuous water column sink of
as a to storage
-1
respiration / growth
B7.2. Transport in mammals The Heart

arteries:pumps bloodAWAYfrom I
Circulatory system
·

↑
of bloodvessels Veins:bloodRETURNS to $
system
·

a
·

7
·
+
pumps values

-> ensure bloodflows in 1 direction

*double circulation (mammals) <

1
-

1. t o
lungs (pulmonary circulation)
2.
body
to tissues (systemic circulation)

Advantages:
-@lung capillaries:bloodloses pressure
[from 7's
pumping)
travels
slowly
->

travels to labelledlike its

this blood back
your chest
*
in
-

↑
->
pumpedagain =

pressure
->
body cells:
gets O2 +

glucose
·

atrium (pl. atrial cardiac muscles

bloodfrom contract
faster more
frequently receives
lungs body
+ ~
+

ventricles blood
supplies to
push
- ->

-
inside heart
·

ventricles +

out of the heart

-

pump bloodto
restof body
-

thicker, more muscular walls atria relax

*
leftvs. right? bloodflows in

pressure?
#

atrioventricular values
-

between atrium ventricle

-stops blood
flowing from v. -> a

when v. contracts
 (CHD)
Coronary heart disease lood
B vessels

high-pressure blood
artery: carry
coronary artery away from 4 (oxygenated)
-

supplies blood to heart < flow speed: fast

O2+ nutrients

capillary: carry
low
pressure blood
CHD: blocked (oxy de.oxy
coronary artery
when is within tissues
·

-
-> withstand pressure
-

e.g.: blood clot -

flow speed: slow

-> not
enough O to cardiac muscles

->
t respire
-
of contract

-> I stops beating - heart attack / vein:

carry low-pressure blood

cardiac arrest towards of

(deoxygenated)
·

Factors: -

contains: values

smoking cigarettes: nicotine flow speed: slow

-
-

->
blood vessels narrow

-> I
pressure =
hypertension ->
prevention?
-

diet: high in salt components of blood

saturated fats (animals) ·

plasma ->
transports
cholesterol -

blood cells
oils from
*

plants + fish OK -

ions, soluble nutrients, CO2

-

hormones

↑ CDH risk
-obesity =

stress learn to
avoid/manage stress red blood cells:
·
->

nucleus
genes: no
-
-

genetic predisposition (Khuynh huong di chngen) -

Hb
haemoglobin
-carries O2 oxyhaemoglobin
·
white blood cells: Hb protein

-defends the
body from

Investigating physical activity on

pulse + heart rate
infections by pathogens (main benh)
take
pulse before after activity phagocytosis (this ba
·
-
+

A
activity ↑& rate
why? antibody production (s.x. Khang the
·
-

platelets blood
->
clotting
·
 138 Gas .

exchange
*

Respiration
138.1 Gas
.

exchange
( voice box )

( windpipe )
Gas exchange surfaces (g. ex .s .
) alveoli

£-100m
≥
◦

large SA :
faster gas diffusion across surface

control rib movement

•
thin walls : short diffusion distance
→ inhalation / exhalation

good supply of Oz
•

maintain a diffusion gradient

-

protects internal
•

good blood
supply
organs
≈ 250 mil alveoli

!
per lung
•
connective tissue + muscle

↳ gas exchange •
AV of thorax
→ inhale / exhale

Inspired air Expired air

Protecting the Respiratory system
di.ch → is
produced by goblet cells
•

mucus

0, 21% 02 absorbed across

9- ex
s
161 ↳
- -

nhaiy traps bacteria dust particles

,
, ,
→
cells :
respiration •

the cilia beat :

pushes mucus

CO2 =
product of respiration away from lungs → throat → removed
coz 0.04% 4%
→
diffuse out across g. ex .S .

water
vapour
variable always high g. ex -
s must be kept moist ( living )
→ moisture evaporates into air

inhaled exhaled
air air

↳ ?
Effects of
↑
exercise on
breathing Tobacco
smoking
frequency depth ↳ causes:
-

muscles
↑
respire -> need Oc -

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

↑
=
[C02] blood remove CO2 -lung cancer

anaerobic respiration for more e heartdisease

+

coronary
-

->
lactic acid lowerscell pH ->

denature enzymes bloodvessels narrow

getridof
~
↑
->
need 82 to -> bloodpressure

debt hypertension
repaying oxygen
=
->

20 combines cas hugetap

-

investigate? before after exercise

w/ haemoglobin
-
#breaths / min = less Oc carried

chest
expansion (S breaths) w.b.c. secrete chemicals
average
-

v. badfor babies
~ particles
*
remove
to smoke

predictions? alvediwalls

S
->
↳ also breaks

far is
a
carcinogen can cause cancer

behavior
A of cells
tink
-> cells divide
uncontrollably tumor
benign land

malignantas tink
·

↳ =
cancer
138.2 .

Respiration Aerobic respiration

-

a chemical reaction in cells &

-

Uses of energy ? 02 glucose → carbon dioxide water

oxygen
-

uses + +

muscle contraction to break down nutrient molecules + →

+
-
-

protein synthesis to release

energy
-
-

cell division

growth
-

maintain constant body 1-

Anaerobic respiration in muscles :

vigorous exercise
-

a chemical reaction in cells

glucose → lactic acid
-

WITHOUT 02 ↳ debt
oxygen
-

to break down nutrient molecules

to release
energy
-

( fermentation )
in yeast :

alcohol
glucose → + carbon dioxide

flour +
yeast + water = bread
'

; i
starch

amylase maltose↓+glucose_
yeast ana .

resp .

→
coz trapped in
dough

( gluten )

-
other products ?
 4 electrical
:/
=

139 .
Coordination } Response °

nerve
impulse
/
-

an 4 signal
139.1 .
Nervous control in humans -

passes along neuroses ( nerve cells )

Involuntary response ( reflex ) phair Voluntary

◦ •

✗ a.
response
∅ brain in decision w/
making starts brain
-
-

your
connect
→
not of action until it's carried out make conscious decision
-

aware you a
-

to others
usually actions that →
out action
-

are
carry
essential survival
↳
to basic
◦

rapid + automatic

→
minimize
damage to
body

Ku coordinate stimuli +
response of effectors
-

coordinates regulates body functions ( muscles glands )

-

+ +
in

phoi no:p dieiihoa

↳ Reflex Arc

Types of neurone

connector effector

BETA

H
T
139.2 Sense
.

organs contains light receptors ,

rods detect
light intensity
-

The refracts light

eye some sensitive to
light detect color
( bends ) cones
-

of different colors

"" "° " "° " m""

9ᵗʰ
"

enters the pupil carries impulses to brain

µ
focuses light onto retina

blind spot
-

retina meets optic nerve

Pupil Reflex light receptors

-

The no

' '
-

brain fills in the black hole

protects
-

retina from bright light pupil constricts

-

us from not seeing objects in dim light pupil dilates

Viewing near and distant objects

fine
*
Antagonistic muscle action radial muscles
focusing accommodation
I
= -

circular muscles d-iéutiéi

↳ work -
diameter ↓
1 1
together →
contracts , relaxes

-
diameter ↑
 tuyényén
139.3 .
Hormones
tuyéngiép
Hormones :

chemical substance !
the
body is in
danger
-

produced by a
gland tuye-inti.ly tuyén thu.ongtho.in µ
' '
carried blood secreted flight situations
by the in
fight or
-
-

alters
activity of ≥ 1 specific organs
-

effect :

↑ rate ↑ Oz
breathing to muscles
◦

+ =

part of endocrine pupils dilate / widen

the system taken
*
coz
•

away
.no?itie-I
hé •

↑ [ blood glucose ] = ↑
respiration in muscle cells

?
examples
-

Nervous vs . Hormonal control

made
up of
: neuron es , brain
, spinal cord glands

type of message
: 4 impulse chemical hormone

transmission speed very fast slower

of effect short until

length nerve
impulse stops longer until hormone is broken down
- -
 Control of blood levels
glucose
B. 9.4 .
Homeostasis

no ?i coin bating secreted

insE by pancreas
-

↳ maintenance of work side

a
by side
-
-
-

constant internal environment

- .
@ liver
:
to [ H2O ] [ glucose ]
-

internal conditions blood pressure

.

muscle
glucose glycogen
, , ,
→ +

kept within set limits '

.

insulin
'

↳ cells can function →

you can live
blood
glucose level blood level
glucose
* if not ?
too
high too low
-

controlled by negative feedback

glucagon
-

Negative Feedback
↓
jkiiosé '
-

← glycogen I
-
.
. .

rise
'
or fall
_ i r
/

37C / switched on

Ft

-8

* a continuous cycle
then down
bringing levels up ,

' '
called normal
→
stay in a narrow
range

normal Mhmr
'

- - - - - -
-
 Temperature control
◦
the
hypothalamus ≈ thermostat blood to receptors when cold , body creates + saves heat

to of blood
detects
running through shivering muscles contract relax
↳ -
: +

↳
produce heat → warms blood
°
•

if 1- 7 or 4 37°C →
send 4 impulses along nerves
-

vasoconstriction

µ , gang,
pan, way µ, ,g, ya , ,
→
mg , up
,

vñngduoiotcii

÷:*:::::÷::⇔⇔
sweating droplets of sweat evaporate
-
:

cools
body
→

The skin .

→
lose heat

hair lies flat

-

-
sensory
neuron es
 turning
B9.3. Tropic responses Investigating tropic responses

Phototropism
·
a
response where

parts of plant grows

·

towards/away from light source

(the direction light from

is
coming

Gravitropism
·
a
response where

parts of plant grows

·

towards/away from
gravity

19

with shoots,

phototropism +
gravitropism
=chemical control of

plant growth -Auxin =

plant growth hormone 1 auxin
synthesized in

shoot
tip only
2. a ->
spreads through plant
due to
3.
gravity +
light,
a is
unevenly distributed
4. a stimulates cell
elongation
& shaded side
 ( side shoots )

1310
separate plant
Reproduction
>
runners

.
-

e.
g.
: in plants :

f- bulbs

tubers
f-
food

storage
>
budding
1310.1 . Asexual & sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction :

genetically identical
production of offspring
-
-

from 1
parent
-

( no sex cells or fertilisation) -

bacteria fission
e. via
binary
-

g.
: .

offspring
Advantages :
Disadvantages :

identical to parents
-

in suitable environment :
-

no
genetic variation

maybe suited to
only 1 habitat
exploit conditions +
+

+
population ↑ rapidly + vulnerable to A- conditions

more time
-
+
energy efficient lhi.eu quoi ) t disease
may affect entire population
faster than strep .

Sexual reproduction : nucleus

fusion of nuclei of (sex cells )

2
gametes
-

to form zygote
-

offspring genetically different

-

from each other

:
hQp tu

Advantages :
Disadvantages :

↑ variation
genetic takes time to find mates
-
-

energy
+

+ can adapt better to environment -

isolated members → hard to reproduce

= ↑ survival

discuss ?
disease
likely crop plants
+ is less to > :

affect population
1310.2 .
Sexual reproduction in plants
sepal :
protects unopened flower
2
1
4

3
2 petal :

brightly -
colored ( insect -

pollinated plants )
3 →
attract insects
4

stamen anther :
produces + releases male sex cell ( pollen grains )
filament
n

1-
carpel stigma :
top of female part ; collects

style
ovary
:
produces female sex cell ( ovum )

Pollination : tacnhan

transfer of pollen grains Agents of pollination

anthers →
stigma
-

insect -

pollinated wind -

pollinated
( or other animals )

Pollen ?
grains
-

0*1
Fertilisation
Investigating germination
ther nay main

fuses H2O: swell

-pollen nucleus with seeds
up, enzymes in embryo start
working
-

orum nucleus -hop what Or: respiration -> release

-warmth: at optimalt for enzymes

conditions? predictions?
B10.3. Sexual reproduction in humans

The male reproductive system prostrate glands: secrete fluids for

·

sperm to swim in ): semen

sperm ducts:transfer
sperm
to urethra
urethra: carries urine and semen out of body
penis: transfers to
semen
ragina
sexual intercourse
during

testis (p1. testes): production of male gametes (sperm)

·

that holds
scrotum: tastes outside the
body
·

sac

the female reproductive system

ovaries: release of female gametes (eggs)

·oviducts:transfer egg to uterus and

site of fertilisation

uterus:
develops
·

where the fetus

cervix: of muscle & of uterus

ring opening
·

sexual intercourse
vagina: receives penis during
·
Fertilisation:

-fusion of the nuclei from

-

a o male
gamete "
=
-
a f female gamete
-occurs in the oriducts

size
very
small. "Sum large 0.15 mm

structure -

acrosome (head region) -

round cell
-

flagellum (tail) -
covered in
jelly coating
-many
structural adaptations -

few structural adaptations

mobility capable of locomotion (move) NOT

capable of locomotion

quantity produced every day thousands of immature eggs in ovaries

-

huge numbers -1/ month released

=100mi)/day

Adaptations

flagellum to swim to
cytoplasm contains
energy stores
~

eggs
-

-enzymes in
energy for
the
zygote after fertilisation
acrosome ->

->
digest jelly coat -

jelly-like coating
cell membrane -

A after fertilisation
of egg cell impenetrable
=

barrier

mitochondria i? cell
other
sperm nuclei
->
enter
-

no can
egg
 thi day thi
The Menstrual cycle Pregnancy
-

starts in:
early
adolescent girls =
124.0.
28 days
cycle length =
-

In
1
early development,
I
ball of cells
zygote embryo
a
=
->
- -

↑
I

7
@day 14:
I
ovulation (release of an
egg)
hop this phoi
-

implants into the uterus wall

⑰ ->
oviduct ->
uterus
7 ·
amniotic sac contains amniotic fluid (mom's blood plasmal
I
failed/no fertilisation (period)
->
protects fetus: cushions it from bumps
menstruation
to

I
new
-

cycle
run'
>
i m ·
umbilical cord joins fetus's blood supply to placenta
X T
& =3-7
days
·
mother's blood

i
-

supplies nutrients: glucose, amino acids, fats, Hc0, O2

-uterus starts thicken absorbs waste: CO2,

lining to
again urea
nhan that
->
prepare for next cycle
↳ doesn't build up ->
dangerous
fertilised egg will implanted... diffusion placenta
maybe a be * across the

SA
-large
-

thin wall
day ro

a placenta
-

2 bloods never mix, in the

~
just runs
opposite each other
amniotic sac

-barrier to toxins +
pathogens tri di
-

some still pass through:

smoking -> nicotine
 sexually transmitted infections

~
L

STIs a HIV/AIDS
-HIV human
immunodeficiency virus

lead to
may
AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome
-

can spread by: -sharing needles w/ infected person

-
blood transfusion -
blood

-
mother ->
fetus via placenta
baby via
breastfeeding
controlling spread of STIs

limit #
of sexual partners
-

have protected sex (use a condom)

get tested! If you didn't do the other 2

-

-education -> raise awareness

programs
 am
B11Inheritance B11.2. Cell division

·
Mitosis:
④
B111. Chromosomes nuclear division
genes
-

inheritance: produces:genetically identical cells

·
·

transmission of genetic material (chromosomes duplicatedexactly!) ban

-

=
sac

from
generation generation roles:
~ -

to

growth
+

⑥
carries
genetic info repair damagedtissues
of
+

in the form of genes +

replacement of cells
+

asexual reproduction

daughter cell

N
·
Meiosis
-

reduction division'
n <-
sperm # chromosomes
of is halved
2n
n <-
egg diploid ->
haploid
-produces:genetically different cells

C
- n
-
role:production of gamete cells

23rd pair ofchromosomes

allele:a version of a
gene
xX x+

⑰ ⑦

Half

⑥ X gametes
/1
egg sperm
M + n

2n
=

nucleus contains -

nucleus contains

2 of chromosomes
sets I setof unpairedchromosomes

arrangedin pairs

e.g.:
-

e.g.:
-

humans:23 pairs
B11.3. Monohybridinheritance Genetic Punnett Squares
diagrams a

genotype:genetic make-up of
·

an
organism
(in terms of alleles present)
phenotype:observable features of organism
·

an

identical alleles
homozygous:having 2
·

of a certain
gene
⑨

·heterozygous:having a differentalleles
&
1/

* I identical homozygous parents

-> breed
together
pure
-

breeding

dominant:a n allele that expressedwhen present

·

is

recessive:a n expressedwhen
allele;only
NO dominant
allele gene)
(of is present
 31. 4. Variation a selection
·
variation:differences between individuals

of the same
species

genetic
e.g... continuous
variation
range of phenotypes
-

phenotypic between 2 extremes

-

/
7

height
-

e.g.:

caused
by discontinuous

limited #of
phenotypes
genetic environmental -

no intermediates

factors factors e.g.:tongue rolling;bloodgroups

·

alone
mostly caused
by genes
·

Cotitbien)
mutation:1in chromosome
·

gene or

most cases:n o effect on

phenotype;protein still works fine

rarely:
-> alleles small effecton organism
-

new
->

survival
advantage
+

harmful changes
+

↑
-

exposure to mutation:

tionising radiation:
gamma rays, X-rays, UV

some chemicals:tar (in tobaccol

 Natural selection selective
breeding by artificial selection

Charles Darwin's survival ofthe fittest' ~

individuals we desirable features

variation within population selected

by humans
·
->

production of offspring crossing these individuals

·

many
?
competition for resources
e.g.:
->
produce generation
next
·

for survival
struggle offsprings thatshow desirable features
- -

pure breed
individuals that better
adaptedtoenvir ->
getselected
-

reproduce
->

alleles
4. ed
generation
it
pass on to

over
out
many generations
to
-

breedmore improve:
plants
-

crop
-more
likely pass
to on
genes
-

domesticatedanimals

Natural selection Artificial selection

occurs
naturally when humans intervene

features of adaptedto
environment, useful to humans

developedpopulations survival (notnecessarily for individual'ssurvival)

⑥ usually
time taken
long less time
(only individuals wh

desirable traits reproduce

allowedto

↳ Evolution:
-

natural selection
-

over time -> in:

results

of
A adaptive features of a
population

adaptation:
*

a
process, resulting from natural selection
->
populations become more suitedto their envir

over
many generations
 theirEnvironment
B12.
Organisms org organism
·

ecosystem:a unit
·

the Sun:principal of energy input contains all their environment

orgs
-

source +

in biological systems
-

interacting together
in
given area
(e.g.:lake
-

foodchain:shows transfer of
·

from I another level:

organism to trophic
·

starts
*
1 producer
w:
-

position an
of
organism
in foodchain foodweb
-

a or

foodweb:a network of levels

usually less
·

S
# than trophic
foodchains connected
together (notenough I support
to a 6th)
(interconnected)

↑
2
producer:org. Thatmakes nutrients
its organic
·

level
trophic
own

from sunlight
-

energy
5
via
photosynthesis
-

4
E
consumer:
org. that gets
·

from feeding on
leating other orgs.
3
I
primary
20:
secondary 2
30:
tertiary
1
·

herbivore animal;
gets from
I
eating plants
-

↳ carnivoreanimal;
·

transfer
·I between trophic levels:
1/ other animals
=10% E passedon
-
= 90 lostto environment
decomposer:org.;
·

heat
energy
·

gets from
E dead/waste organic matter
eats 180
·when
long eats another, rarely
it of it
e.g.:fungus (mushrooms)
-

·notall foodmolecules digestedabsorbed

are

-> E
- >

lost in faeces
B13. Human influences on ecosystems
The Carbon cycle

·
I taken out of atmosphere by photosynthesis
·

passed
onto animals decomposers by feeding
·
returnedto atm.
by respiration (CO2)
(plants, animals, decomposing microorganisms)

plants/animals die, but

no decomposition
-> millions years
over of
enough pressure
+

fossil
=
fuels (fossilization)
·
fossil fuels are burnt (combustion) ->

CO24/0.↓
·

deforestation:less producers -> (024/02t

who take up CO2
Deforestation

Uses of land:?

I
building NOT
for cattle
-

grazing
-

sustainable

planting of monocultures
e.g.: palm oil
·

(sustainable)
replanting
*

clearing of trees
=

(large scale)

Effects habitat destruction

=

extinction of species/loss biodiversity

·

of

foresthabitats (rainforest) have

greatbiodiversity

destroyed habitat loss of

many species -> extinction
·
-

(thatcan foundthere)
only be

soil erosion:

tree roots help stabilize soil prevents erosion

by rain
-

minerals
up nutrients,
> take

-
withouttrees nutrients minerals unused

washedinto lakes
rivers
by
-> +

rain

=
permanent loss nutrients
of

hardfor forests
very regrow
->
to

flooding:
·

without trees, topsoil loose, unstable

-

is

easily washed
->

away by rain

↑
-> risk of flash floods, landslides
·

CO2 in atmosphere
trees
photosynthesize
-

less trees ↓02;CO2

=

trees often burnt insteadof cut down

-

are
Water pollution (rivers, lakes, the sea)

sources:
-

chemical waste

-discardedrubbish

untreated sewage
·

fertilisers

↓
Eutrophication
-

run-off of fertilizers, animal waste....

contains nitrate NOx andother ions Cleaching
-

nutrientsfor
=

producers (e.g.:algae, plants)

reen

=↑
growth producers
of @ watersurface ->

block
sunlight
↑
-

death below water surface

=I decomposition (by bacterial
↑aerobic respiration
=
↓ dissolvedO2 in water

fish otheraquatic organisms don't have

enough O2

->
die. I

algae green plants grow

well with NO,
-

->
cover water surface
->
not
enough sunlightfor other plants underneath
->

die i