(Advances in Public Policy and Administration) Patrick Ngulube (Editor) - Handbook of Research On Advocacy, Promotion, and Public Programming For Memory Institutions-IGI Global (2019)

Handbook of Research on
Advocacy, Promotion, and

Public Programming for
Memory Institutions
Patrick Ngulube
University of South Africa, South Africa
A volume in the Advances in Public Policy and

Administration (APPA) Book Series
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ngulube, Patrick, editor.
Title: Handbook of research on advocacy, promotion, and public programming
for memory institutions / Patrick Ngulube, editor.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, [2019]
Identifiers: LCCN 2018030367| ISBN 9781522574293 (h/c) | ISBN 9781522574309
(eISBN)
Subjects: LCSH: Archives--Social aspects--Africa. |
Archives--Africa--Administration | Libraries--Social aspects--Africa. |
Library administration--Africa. | Museums--Social aspects--Africa. |
Museums--Africa--Management. | Collective memory--Social aspects--Africa.
Classification: LCC CD2301 .H36 2019 | DDC 027.5--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018030367
This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Public Policy and Administration (APPA) (ISSN: 2475-
6644; eISSN: 2475-6652)
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authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
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Editorial Advisory Board
Ruth Abankwah, University of Namibia, Namibia
Abiola Abioye, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Andrea Copeland, Indiana University, USA
Tiah Edmunson-Morton, University of Oregon, USA
Francis Garaba, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Trywell Kalusopa, University of Namibia, Namibia
David Luyombya, Makerere University, Uganda
Nathan Mnjama, University of Botswana, Botswana
Kgomotso Moahi, University of Botswana, Botswana
Innocent Pikirayi, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Christine Stilwell, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
List of Reviewers
Annie Antonites, The Heritage Foundation, South Africa
Forget Chaterera, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Josiline Chigwada, Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe
Blessing Chiparausha, Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe
Collence Chisita, University of South Africa, South Africa
Peterson Dewah, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Madely Du Preez, University of South Africa, South Africa
Segomotso Keakopa, University of Botswana, Botswana
Lorette Jacobs, University of South Africa, South Africa
Glenrose Jiyane, University of Zululand, South Africa
Margaret Law, University of Alberta, Canada
Eabel Maisiri, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Jan Maluleka, University of South Africa, South Africa
Ngoako Marutha, University of South Africa, South Africa
Mehluli Masuku, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Thomas.Matingwina, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Rosemary Maturure, Solusi University, Zimbabwe

Maned Mhlongo, University of South Africa, South Africa

Nathan Mnjama, University of Botswana, Botswana
Samuel Mojapelo, University of South Africa, South Africa
Koketso Mokwatlo, University of South Africa, South Africa
Julie Moloi, University of Botswana, Botswana
Tshepho Mosweu, University of Botswana, Botswana
Nndwamato Mukwevho, Auditor-General South Africa, South Africa
Isaiah Munyoro, Parliament of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Sam Mutsagondo, National Archives of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Bongani Ndhlovu, Iziko Museums of South Africa, South Africa & University of the Western Cape,
South Africa
Cathrine Nengomasha, University of Namibia, Namibia
Beatrice Ngulube, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
Mpho Ngoepe, University of South Africa, South Africa
Benson Njobvu, University of Zambia, Zambia
Antonio Rodrigues, University of South Africa, South Africa
Umali Saidi, Midlands State University, Zimbabwe
Nampombe-Mnkeni Saurombe, University of South Africa, South Africa
Isabel Schellnack-Kelly, University of South Africa, South Africa
Proscovia Svärd, Södertörn University College, Sweden
Mass Masona Tapfuma, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Mosweu Olefhile, University of South Africa, South Africa
Scholastica Ukwoma, University of Nigeria, Nigeria
Anton C. Van Vollenhoven, North-West University, South Africa
Obert Wutete, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
List of Contributors
Antonites, Annie R / The Heritage Foundation, South Africa........................................................... 348

Bhebhe, Sindiso / National Archives of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe......................................................... 144
Chaterera, Forget / University of South Africa, South Africa & National University of Science
and Technology, Zimbabwe..................................................................................................... 42, 125
Chigwada, Josiline Phiri / Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe..................... 219, 284
Chiparausha, Blessing / Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe............................... 284
Copeland, Andrea / Indiana University Indianapolis, USA................................................................ 31
Ghilardi, Roberta / Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy...................................................... 366
Kalusopa, Trywell / University of Namibia, Namibia....................................................................... 261
Keakopa, Segomotso Masegonyana / University of Botswana, Botswana.......................................... 62
Khumalo, Njabulo Bruce / Independent Researcher, Zimbabwe...................................................... 144
Law, Margaret Zelman / University of Alberta, Canada.................................................................. 206
Mafube, Makatleho Amelia / National University of Lesotho, Lesotho.............................................. 62
Massi, Marta / Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy.............................................................. 366
Maturure, Rosemary / Solusi University, Zimbabwe....................................................................... 219
Moahi, Kgomotso H. / University of Botswana, Botswana................................................................ 238
Mosweu, Olefhile / University of South Africa, South Africa............................................................ 101
Mosweu, Tshepho L. / University of Botswana, Botswana................................................................ 182
Mukwevho, Jonathan / Auditor-General South Africa, South Africa................................................... 1
Ndhlovu, Bongani C / University of the Western Cape, South Africa & Iziko Museums, South
Africa............................................................................................................................................. 334
Nel, Johan / The Heritage Foundation, South Africa......................................................................... 348
Ngoepe, Mpho / University of South Africa, South Africa..................................................................... 1
Ngulube, Beatrice / Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa.............................................. 297
Ngulube, Patrick / University of South Africa, South Africa..................................................... 1, 42, 77
Piancatelli, Chiara / Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy..................................................... 366
Rodrigues, Antonio / University of South Africa, South Africa........................................................ 125
Saidi, Umali / Midlands State University, Zimbabwe........................................................................ 314
Saurombe, Nampombe / University of South Africa, South Africa.................................................. 160
Yoon, Ayoung / Indiana University Indianapolis, USA....................................................................... 31
Zibani, Patiswa / National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africa............................................ 261

Table of Contents
Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xix
Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xxi
Section 1
Chapter 1
Doing More With Less: Application of Soft Power Theory to Enhance Visibility and Accessibility
of Public Archives in a Resource-Strained Environment......................................................................... 1
Jonathan Mukwevho, Auditor-General South Africa, South Africa
Patrick Ngulube, University of South Africa, South Africa
Chapter 2
Building Inclusivity Through Connections With Community Archives............................................... 31
Andrea Copeland, Indiana University Indianapolis, USA
Ayoung Yoon, Indiana University Indianapolis, USA
Chapter 3
Global Perspectives on the Challenges and Prospects of Accessing and Using Documentary
Heritage.................................................................................................................................................. 42
Forget Chaterera, University of South Africa, South Africa & National University of Science
and Technology, Zimbabwe
Chapter 4
Customer Services at the Library Archives of the National University of Lesotho.............................. 62
Makatleho Amelia Mafube, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho
Segomotso Masegonyana Keakopa, University of Botswana, Botswana
Chapter 5
Moving Forward and Making a Difference in Archival Institutions Through a Multifaceted
Approach to Public Programming......................................................................................................... 77

Chapter 6
Collaboration on Public Programming by Memory Institutions in Botswana: Factors for
Consideration....................................................................................................................................... 101
Olefhile Mosweu, University of South Africa, South Africa
Chapter 7
Use of Public Programming Strategies in Promoting Access to Documentary Heritage at
Zimbabwe National Archives............................................................................................................... 125
Chapter 8
Trends in the Utilization of the Holdings at the Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre,
Zimbabwe (2014-2017)........................................................................................................................ 144
Sindiso Bhebhe, National Archives of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Njabulo Bruce Khumalo, Independent Researcher, Zimbabwe
Chapter 9
Raising Awareness About Public Archives in East and Southern Africa Through Social Media....... 160
Nampombe Saurombe, University of South Africa, South Africa
Chapter 10
Use of Social Media Platforms for Increased Access and Visibility by the Botswana National
Archives and Records Services............................................................................................................ 182
Tshepho L. Mosweu, University of Botswana, Botswana
Section 2
Chapter 11
Customer Advocates: The Library’s Secret Weapon........................................................................... 206
Margaret Zelman Law, University of Alberta, Canada
Chapter 12
Advocating for Library and Information Services by National Library Associations of Africa in
the Context of Sustainable Development Goals.................................................................................. 219
Josiline Phiri Chigwada, Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe
Chapter 13
A Framework for Advocacy, Outreach and Public Programming in Public Libraries in Africa......... 238
Kgomotso H. Moahi, University of Botswana, Botswana

Chapter 14
E-Resources Marketing in African Academic Libraries: Contexts, Challenges and Prospects........... 261
Patiswa Zibani, National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africa
Chapter 15
Promoting Library Services in a Digital Environment in Zimbabwe.................................................. 284
Chapter 16
School Libraries Are a Must in Every Learning Environment: Advocating Libraries in High
Schools in South Africa....................................................................................................................... 297
Section 3
Chapter 17
African Heritage Isn’t ‘Dead’: Glitches in Organizing Knowledge and Memories With a Focus on
the BaTonga in Zimbabwe................................................................................................................... 314
Chapter 18
(Un)Liberated and Contested Narratives: Museums in a Free South Africa....................................... 334
Bongani C Ndhlovu, University of the Western Cape, South Africa & Iziko Museums, South
Africa
Chapter 19
The Voortrekker Monument as Memory Institution: Mediating Collective Memory, Tourism and
Educational Programming for a Local and Global Audience.............................................................. 348
Annie R Antonites, The Heritage Foundation, South Africa
Johan Nel, The Heritage Foundation, South Africa
Chapter 20
Preserving Memory Through Branding: Museums Brands as Vectors for Advocacy, Promotion
and Public Programming..................................................................................................................... 366
Marta Massi, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Chiara Piancatelli, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Roberta Ghilardi, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 390
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 444
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 450
Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xix
Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xxi
Section 1
Chapter 1
Doing More With Less: Application of Soft Power Theory to Enhance Visibility and Accessibility
of Public Archives in a Resource-Strained Environment......................................................................... 1
Jonathan Mukwevho, Auditor-General South Africa, South Africa
Providing access and usage are the reason for existence of memory institutions such as archive repositories.
Despite the importance of the visibility and accessibility of public archive repositories, various scholars
concur that these repositories in eastern and southern Africa are not known and are accessed by few people.
This chapter utilises the concept of soft power as a framework to examine the visibility and accessibility
of public archives repositories in South Africa. A quantitative research approach utilising questionnaires,
interviews, content analysis and the observation of landmarks were employed as data collection tools.
The findings revealed that collaboration, especially with civil societies, is a key for successful public
programming at the lowest cost. It concludes that the concept of soft power can provide deep insight
and better understanding on how to develop inexpensive visibility programme, yet capable of attracting
a large number of people in a sustainable manner.
Chapter 2
Building Inclusivity Through Connections With Community Archives............................................... 31
Andrea Copeland, Indiana University Indianapolis, USA
Ayoung Yoon, Indiana University Indianapolis, USA
This chapter explores how to construct bridges between existing cultural institutions and community
archives (or community groups wanting to develop archives) and the potential role for third-party
organizations in bridging these groups. Further, research is presented that provides recommendations
for library and archive practitioners who wish to build connections with groups in their communities.
Connecting with participatory heritage is introduced as a means to build capacity in community groups
for sustaining efforts to preserve and make accessible diverse histories.

Chapter 3
Global Perspectives on the Challenges and Prospects of Accessing and Using Documentary
Heritage.................................................................................................................................................. 42
The ability of national archival institutions to make available the documentary heritage in their custody
is the sole basis for justification of their existence and relevance in society. As such, archival institutions
are faced with a great responsibility to ensure that they are visible and able to attract large visitor-ship.
This chapter provides a global perspective on the challenges and prospects surrounding the accessibility
and use of documentary heritage. The chapter largely relies on a review of literature to discuss the future
of archives’ utilisation and to explore the challenges which the global archival community has endured
in the provision of access to and use of their archival holdings. The common factor established in extant
literature is that access is the most critical archival function, yet it is proving to be the most challenging.
Chapter 4
Customer Services at the Library Archives of the National University of Lesotho.............................. 62
Makatleho Amelia Mafube, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho
Segomotso Masegonyana Keakopa, University of Botswana, Botswana
This chapter provides an assessment of customer services at the Library Archives of the National University
of Lesotho (NUL). It set to find out whether the services delivered to customers in the archives meet
customers’ information needs. The population of this study were students, archivists, administrators,
lecturer/researchers, the public and NUL Library management. The study employed both qualitative and
quantitative approaches in the case study design and collected data using questionnaires, interviews,
observations and document analysis. From the data analysis, the study has revealed that customers using
the Archives at NUL are not fully satisfied with the services offered. It has also emerged that there
were no archive policies in place relating to creation, distribution, maintenance and access. It has been
observed that there were inadequate and inappropriate facilities necessary to provide quality services at
NUL Archives Unit. At the end it is recommended that archives policies that will guide in effective and
efficient service delivery in the organisation be developed.
Chapter 5
Moving Forward and Making a Difference in Archival Institutions Through a Multifaceted
Approach to Public Programming......................................................................................................... 77
Traditionally, archival institutions neglected building relationships with their constituencies and
focused on other operational functions. There are number of strategies that can be used to build such
relationships, including public programming. Effective public programming strategies depend on sound
public programming planning, appropriate research strategies, and ethical principles. It is evident that
attempts to build relationships between the archives and their constituencies are a recent phenomenon in
Africa. In fact, it seems to be an afterthought both to practitioners and scholars. Building relationships
with users will make memory institutions visible and successful. Public programming, with its focus on
the public that the organisation serves, is one of the tools that may be used by memory institutions such
as archives to bring the archives to the society and the society to the archives.

Chapter 6
Collaboration on Public Programming by Memory Institutions in Botswana: Factors for
Consideration....................................................................................................................................... 101
Olefhile Mosweu, University of South Africa, South Africa
Public memory institutions such as libraries, archives and museums (LAMs) are mandated to preserve the
cultural and documentary heritage of their nations for posterity. Such preservation is not an end in itself
but the means to make holdings in their care, regardless of format, accessible to the public. However,
studies have revealed that although LAMs are annually funded and they may also have rich accessible
collections, they are underutilised and generally invisible. Funding from national coffers has dwindled
since the global economic recession and the LAMs experience difficulties in attracting and retaining
users. This chapter seeks to determine strategies deployed by LAMs to increase usage of their collections,
establish the benefits of LAMs public programming and highlight challenges encountered in public
programming. Also described in this chapter are some factors to consider when memory institutions
undertake public programming initiatives in a collaborative manner. The data collected through desktop
research was analysed using content analysis.
Chapter 7
Use of Public Programming Strategies in Promoting Access to Documentary Heritage at
Zimbabwe National Archives............................................................................................................... 125
Archival institutions have a potential to transform the socioeconomic and political development of a
people. It is therefore critical for them to be visible and accessible. To this effect, public programming
emerges as a critical archival function performed by archivists to enhance the visibility and utilisation
of archives. Through a grounded theory research approach, this study established that the National
Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ) performs a plethora of public programming activities to improve the
visibility of the institution in the public domain. The potential of public programming activities to
improve the utilisation of the archives at NAZ was found wanting as the institution lacked a planned
schedule of outreach activities. This explains why visits to the research room were dwindling, hence
the need for archivists to be proactive in reaching out to the people. The purpose of this chapter is to
demonstrate public programming as the cornerstone to achieving better recognition and subsequent use
of documentary heritage.
Chapter 8
Trends in the Utilization of the Holdings at the Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre,
Zimbabwe (2014-2017)........................................................................................................................ 144
Sindiso Bhebhe, National Archives of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Njabulo Bruce Khumalo, Independent Researcher, Zimbabwe
Archives are the cornerstone of democracy, good governance and the protection of rights, yet many people
do not understand their worth. Archivists have for years stressed that archives are central to community
development and progress. However, the actual use of archives has usually told a different story, which
has to be analysed to see how relevant archives are to their communities. This study sought to investigate
the patterns of the usage of archival material at the Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre (BARC)

from January 2014 to June 2017. The document analysis method was applied where research request
slips filled in by clients were analysed to show the level of usage of archives at BARC.
Chapter 9
Raising Awareness About Public Archives in East and Southern Africa Through Social Media....... 160
Nampombe Saurombe, University of South Africa, South Africa
Archives serve as society’s collective memory because they provide evidence of the past as well as
promoting accountability and transparency of past actions. Appreciation of the archives should therefore
result in citizens linking these records with their identity, history, civic duty and cultural heritage. However,
research in east and southern Africa seems to indicate that very few citizens are aware of and use the
archives. Social media platforms have been utilized to raise awareness about the archival institutions
elsewhere. This study sought to find out whether the National Archives in east and southern Africa used
social media to raise awareness about archives. The study involved 12 national archives affiliated to the
East and Southern Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (ESARBICA) using a multi-
method research strategy. The findings indicated that social media platforms were not a preferred option
in outreach strategies, even though they were recognized as useful means to reach online information
seekers.
Chapter 10
Use of Social Media Platforms for Increased Access and Visibility by the Botswana National
Archives and Records Services............................................................................................................ 182
Tshepho L. Mosweu, University of Botswana, Botswana
This chapter discusses the use of social media platforms for increased access and visibility by the
Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS). A qualitative research approach is used
to illuminate efforts to use social media for marketing archival services by BNARS, and to closely
analyze the benefits and challenges embedded in the use of social media for marketing and outreach by
archival institutions. This chapter also draws inferences from the study and proffers recommendations.
Primary data was collected through interviews of archivists who manage BNARS social media pages
while secondary data was derived from documentary and content analysis. The study reveals that while
BNARS was visible to users and potential users online, the legal and policy framework was found to
be lacking. Challenges associated with the use of social media pertained to issues of privacy, security,
data management as well as policy and the legal framework. The chapter adds literature on advocacy,
promotion, and public programming by archival institutions in the digital era.
Section 2
Chapter 11
Customer Advocates: The Library’s Secret Weapon........................................................................... 206
Margaret Zelman Law, University of Alberta, Canada
Libraries grow in uncertain financial, political and cultural environments. Advocacy is essential to ensure
that they get the support they need from the communities in which they operate. Advocates, those who
speak out on behalf of the library, are an essential factor in the success of the organization. This article
explores the possibilities of developing library users into advocates, based on a relationship marketing
model. It uses customer service as the primary tool for developing trusting relationships with users so

that they are willing to speak on behalf of the library. Adding the issue of reputation and advocacy as
strategic outcomes of customer service requires a different way of thinking and planning. The article
concludes with a call for more investigation in this area.
Chapter 12
Advocating for Library and Information Services by National Library Associations of Africa in
the Context of Sustainable Development Goals.................................................................................. 219
The chapter documents the role that is played by national library associations in advocating for the
development of library and information services for the attainment of the United Nations (UN) 2030
Agenda in Africa. A structured records review and literature review was done to solicit information on
how national library associations are taking part in achieving the sustainable development goals. Websites
of associations were looked at and participants were drawn from national library associations in Africa,
Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa Library and Information Associations
(SCECSAL), African Library and Information Association and Institution (AfLIA), and the International
Federation of Library Associations (IFLA). The results indicated that national library associations are
facing challenges in their advocacy work and there is a need to offer training to library staff and improve
communication between librarians and policymakers.
Chapter 13
A Framework for Advocacy, Outreach and Public Programming in Public Libraries in Africa......... 238
Kgomotso H. Moahi, University of Botswana, Botswana
Public libraries are regarded as partners in the development process in Africa, yet they bemoan the fact
that they are not adequately supported both by their principals in terms of resources and recognition,
and by their users in terms of usage levels that justify their existence. This chapter presents a review of
literature on the advocacy, outreach and public programming carried out in public libraries. The thesis
advanced is that it is through these processes that public libraries can engender the support they require.
However, advocacy and public programming can only be effectively carried out where libraries have
reached out to communities to provide relevant services that are informed by their context and needs.
The themes arising from the review suggest a framework for public libraries that includes five areas,
namely, strategy and leadership, partnership and collaboration, community engagement and involvement,
assessment and reporting, and equity and social inclusiveness.
Chapter 14
E-Resources Marketing in African Academic Libraries: Contexts, Challenges and Prospects........... 261
Patiswa Zibani, National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africa
Significant changes are taking place in the digital information environment that necessitate a marketing-
oriented paradigm shift in the delivery of e-resources in most academic libraries in Africa. These changes
present different challenges and prospects in terms of newer skills and programming that require a high
degree of adaptability to well-designed marketing ethos in the delivery of e-resources offerings to the
increasingly diverse and sophisticated clientele in the academic environment in Africa. This chapter
examines the challenges and prospects of marketing e-resources in the digital environment in academic

libraries in Africa. It explores the holistic marketing readiness of academic libraries in terms of product
orientation, promotion, pricing, delivery channels, skills-set and atmospherics that would ensure that
the ultimate exchange of value to their clientele is sustained over time. This will accentuate the survival
and relevance of African academic libraries in the current dynamic, competitive, and technology-driven
environment in the world.
Chapter 15
Promoting Library Services in a Digital Environment in Zimbabwe.................................................. 284
This chapter documents the strategies that are employed by librarians in promoting library and information
services in Zimbabwe. The study also sought to ascertain the perceptions of librarians towards promoting
library service in Zimbabwe in a digital environment and assess the challenges faced by librarians when
promoting library and information services in Zimbabwe in a digital environment. A study was done,
and the participants were drawn from academics, the public, schools, and special libraries. An online
questionnaire was posted on Survey Monkey and librarians were invited to participate from the Zimbabwe
Library Association social media platforms. Data was analysed thematically using the objectives of
the study. It was discovered that despite facing a number of challenges when promoting library and
information services, participants were using various strategies to promote their services. The authors
recommend continuing professional development of librarians to effectively deliver their services in a
digital environment.
Chapter 16
School Libraries Are a Must in Every Learning Environment: Advocating Libraries in High
Schools in South Africa....................................................................................................................... 297
Despite the fact that South Africa has been a democracy for 23 years and the efforts made to improve
the education landscape, there is still a crisis in the high school library system. This affects the school
careers of learners and their lifelong-learning opportunities. The lack and loss of school libraries, as
resources for education, deprive learners of their right to a school library and a place to grow mentally
and academically. This chapter advocates for libraries in high schools. The study adopted a qualitative
approach where primary data was collected through a multiple case study, using in-depth interviews at
three schools in the Gauteng Province. School A was a rural high school; school B was a former model-C
high school; and school C a township high school. The key findings underscore the importance of libraries
in the academic success of learners. Recommendations are made on how advocacy for libraries in high
schools could be re-directed.
Section 3
Chapter 17
African Heritage Isn’t ‘Dead’: Glitches in Organizing Knowledge and Memories With a Focus on
the BaTonga in Zimbabwe................................................................................................................... 314

Memory institutions collect, arrange, describe and preserve collections for the benefit of the community.
While the drive is hinged on the desire to promote accessibility and use of heritage assets, memory
institutions’ approach to heritage management may condition institutions to be responsible for the erasure
of some aspects of the heritage. Studies have demonstrated that memory institutions, preserve as well
as give access and usage of the collected heritage to the world. It is argued that without strategies of
having the heritage consumed, memory institutions risk being redundant. Using some lessons from the
BaTonga of Zimbabwe, this chapter outlines the lived and performed heritage in the context of discourses
of advocacy, outreach and public programming strategies. It is argued that promotion and funding of
memory institutions should be very conscious of the lived heritage which plays a very significant role
in defining and promoting the heritage as well as institutions themselves.
Chapter 18
(Un)Liberated and Contested Narratives: Museums in a Free South Africa....................................... 334
Bongani C Ndhlovu, University of the Western Cape, South Africa & Iziko Museums, South
Africa
This chapter analyses the influence of the state in shaping museum narratives, especially in a liberated
society such as South Africa. It argues that while the notion of social cohesion and nation building is an
ideal that many South African museums should strive for, the technocratisation of museum processes
has to a degree led to a disregard of the public sphere as a space of open engagement. Secondly, the
chapter also looks at the net-effect of museums professionals and boards in the development of their
narrative. It argues that due to the nature of their expertise and interests, and the focus on their areas of
specialisation, museums may hardly claim to be representative of the many voices they ought to represent.
As such, the chapter explores contestations in museum spaces. It partly does so by exploring the notion
“free-spokenness” and its limits in museum spaces. To amplify its argument, the chapter uses some
exhibitions that generated critical engagements from Iziko Museums of South Africa.
Chapter 19
The Voortrekker Monument as Memory Institution: Mediating Collective Memory, Tourism and
Educational Programming for a Local and Global Audience.............................................................. 348
Annie R Antonites, The Heritage Foundation, South Africa
Johan Nel, The Heritage Foundation, South Africa
The Voortrekker Monument has been a central memory institution for Afrikaners since its conception
in the 1930s. Built to commemorate 19th century white settlers moving into the interior, the Monument
has for many years been appropriated by different groups for various purposes, including as an Afrikaner
Nationalist symbol. Since the early 1990s, the Monument has made a concerted effort to change
established perceptions and stigmas. The Monument’s registration as a Section 21 Non-Profit Company
in 1993 and declaration as National Heritage Site in 2011 were accompanied by a shift in focus from
a political character to one where its aesthetic architectural heritage and tourism values are celebrated.
These changes in character enabled and drove the expansion of the Voortrekker Monument heritage site
as a memory institution. This chapter discusses the continued success of the Monument post-1994 as a
national memory institution through the diversification of its visitors and programmes.

Chapter 20
Preserving Memory Through Branding: Museums Brands as Vectors for Advocacy, Promotion
and Public Programming..................................................................................................................... 366
Marta Massi, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Chiara Piancatelli, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Roberta Ghilardi, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
This chapter examines the role of museum brands as the connective tissue of several museum activities,
including advocacy, promotion and public programming. Albeit broadly examined with reference to
businesses, branding is rarely looked at in the museum context. By providing a review of the literature
on museum branding, supported by extracts from interviews with museums managers conducted in
the 2008-2018 period, the authors emphasize how the role of brands has progressively become more
critical in the museum context and how brand management processes are increasingly developed in
order to support museum activities. The chapter emphasizes how museums are not only institutions
aimed at preserving their collections, but also organizations that should build an active relationship with
their publics. Brands are, therefore, described as relational tools that can help museums to manage the
relationship with their different stakeholders, including donors and funders. Managerial implications
and future directions are outlined.
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 390
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 444
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 450
xix
Foreword
I am pleased to write a foreword to this Handbook of Research Advocacy, Promotion and Public Pro-
gramming for Memory Institutions. This seminal text brings together a wide-range collection of scholarly
thoughts, ideas and insights on enhancing visibility and accessibility of museum, library and archival
collections as well as institutions in resource constrained environments. The handbook further high-
lights emerging trends in libraries and archives that are focused on building inclusivity and community
connections anchored on public programming, advocacy and outreach. The handbook further explores,
among other issues, global perspectives on the challenges and prospects of access and use of documen-
tary heritage, assessment of customer services and collaborations based on public programming by
memory institutions, promotion of access to documentary heritage through public programming and use
of social media to promote access and create awareness about public archives services. Considering the
range of themes and topics covered in this handbook, from marketing to advocacy, outreach and public
programming, the text brings a fresh approach to museum, library and archival research and discourse.
Discourse on the theories and principles of information management, let alone museums, library
and archives management, are extensively covered in many textbooks already published. However,
with emerging technologies and social media platforms, new ways of promoting library and archival
services are emerging. It’s in this regard that this handbook articulates new perspectives in library and
archives management majorly focusing on issues of public programming, awareness creation, visibility,
customer advocacy, inclusivity, among many others. The handbook promotes the idea that information
management, public programming, advocacy and outreach must henceforth become core aspects of the
strategic goals of all memory institutions that include libraries, archives and museums. It is with this in
mind, that the handbook promotes the idea of public programmes with a focus on advocacy, promotion
and public programming.
Public programming is not a new concept. It goes back a long time to the 1880s when Douglas Brym-
ner (Blais & Enns, 1990) put forward the idea of Canadian Archives and advocated for the documenta-
tion of every aspect of Canadian life. These early initiatives notwithstanding, public programming and
outreach programmes remained limited until 1980s when archivists begun to seriously consider their
obligations to making archival collections available to the general public. Although a lot has changed
with regard to how archivists perceive and interpret their custodial roles and responsibilities, and in spite
of the push by libraries, archives and museums to embrace public programming, the commitment by
memory institutions to public service remains under sharp scrutiny especially in Africa. By and large,
public programming is still viewed in many ways as a luxury.

Foreword
With a marked increase and popular interest in the information professions, especially archives, public
programming continues to gain momentum. This is helping foster more meaningful interactions between
these professionals and the various groups that belong to their constituency. These developments point
to the growing recognition of the importance of information management, especially archives, and the
responsibilities of archivists and other information professionals towards their constituents.
The role of information professionals is quite diverse and wide ranging. As stated by Alison Scammell
(2001), “Information management is a complex set of activities involving the selection, organization,
analysis, evaluation, and dissemination of information”. This handbook seeks to give public program-
ming a new meaning, as those activities that result in direct interaction between individual memory
institutions, especially libraries and archives, and the public. The collection of articles in this handbook
represents a corpus of knowledge across disciplines that make up the information profession, including
records and archives management, library management, among others. The contents too broadly reflect
a mix of information science disciplines. The geographical distribution of the authors, coming from a
number of countries, spread over three continents – North America, Europe and Africa, demonstrates
a convergence of thoughts on the critical issues at stake. This book is highly recommended as a “must
read”, not only to academics, practitioners and students of the information fraternity but also, to histori-
ans, administrators, politicians and all who have stakes in the preservation, transmission and utilization
of institutional memory.
Let me conclude by congratulating all the authors of chapters contained in this handbook, for their
most illuminating insights on the subject of public programming. It’s high time heritage institutions made
a commitment to further interrogate the importance of public programming in extending the frontiers
of knowledge to local scholars, researchers and communities by sharing with them, information on ag-
riculture, commerce, education, health and many others. The contributors to this text are all seasoned
academic authorities in their areas of expertise. I therefore, have no doubt that their contributions in the
form of ideas and experiences provide invaluable insights on the subject of public programming.
Justus Wamukoya
Moi University, Kenya
REFERENCES
Blais, G., & Enns, D. (1990). From paper archives to people archives: Public programming in the man-
agement of archives. Archivaria, 31, 101–113.
Scammell, A. (Ed.). (2001). Handbook of information management (8th ed.). London, UK: Aslib and
Contributors. doi:10.4324/9780203403914
xx
xxi
Preface
The notion of promotion and public programming is deeply rooted in the concept of marketing. It evolved
from the traditional focus on marketing of consumer goods and the marketing of services in the late 1960s
(Kotler & Connor, 1977; Shostack, 1977) to relationship marketing, which has recently been influenced
to a great extent by Marketing 2.0 (Constantinides & Fountain, 2008; Pasquier, & Villeneuve, 2018).
The emphasis of relationship marketing is not on the product or service that is being exchanged, but on
the social relationship that is created before, during and after the provision of the product or service.
The process of exchanging tangible and intangible goods through established social relationships is
the central concern of marketing. In this regard, the notion of marketing has been broadened to include
not “just goods and services, but also events, persons, places, information and ideas” (Pasquier & Vil-
leneuve, 2018, p. 19). In other words, the notion of marketing can be applied to any entity that is eager
to exchange values with other organisations (Kotler, 1967). This statement implies that marketing applies
to commercial or profit marking organisations and non-commercial or non-profit making organisations.
The marketing approach, therefore, applies to non-profit organisations such as memory institutions, which
include archives, art galleries, libraries and museums. Some writers are sceptical about the applicabil-
ity of the marketing approach to these institutions, since they fall short of the exchange criteria such as
price and product (Pasquier & Villeneuve, 2018). However, Cousins (1990) and Pasquier and Villeneuve
(2018) demonstrate that marketing tools are applicable to non-profit sectors as long as their context is
taken into consideration. The broad concept of marketing implies that commercial and non-commercial
aspects of exchanges are possible.
Non-profit organisations have embraced marketing principles and tools to improve their relation-
ship with beneficiaries or clients to raise awareness of their services; improve visibility and use of their
services and attract support for their activities. Marketing-related tools such as advocacy, promotion and
public programming may be useful arsenals for making memory institutions visible and useful. Marketing
planning principles, with their focus on exchange and on changing the behaviour of clients, can inform
the awareness raising and promotional activities of memory institutions. Some aspects of the marketing
mix provide a useful framework to promote and advocate memory institutions.
Advocacy, promotion and public programming are fundamentally aimed at changing the behaviour
of users and potential users of memory institutions. The net result of these activities is to change values
and attitudes among users and potential users towards memory institutions. These activities educate us-
ers and potential users about the value of memory institutions. These activities should be user-centred
for memory institutions to build positive relationships with their users and potential users. Memory
institutions may become user-centred if they conduct user studies to determine the perceptions, needs,
preferences, wants and satisfaction of their users and potential users. In turn, memory institutions will

Preface
design and communicate promotion offerings that meet the needs of users. In this regard, Saurombe and
Ngulube (2016) highlight the importance of user studies in public programming for archives.
This handbook seeks to improve the current understanding of research into advocacy, promotion,
and public programming for memory institutions by presenting various contributions focusing on the
situation in archives, libraries and museums. This handbook is divided into three sections. The first
section comprises 10 chapters that focus on the archival context. This is followed by the second section
which comprises six chapters on the environment in libraries. The third section with its four chapters
on museums concludes the handbook.
Chapter 1 underscores that memory institutions have limited resources and outlines how the con-
cept of soft power can be harnessed to enhance the visibility and accessibility of public archives in a
resource-constrained environment. The chapter shows that the concept of soft power can provide deep
insight and a better understanding of how to develop inexpensive visibility programmes that are still
capable of attracting a large number of people in a sustainable manner. Chapter 2 explores how to bridge
the gap between cultural institutions and community groups that want to develop archives. It provides
recommendations for library and archives professionals on how to build connections with groups in
their communities.
Chapter 3 highlights access, one of the most critical archival functions. The utilisation of archives
is discussed as well as the challenges the global archival community faces when providing access to
archival holdings and the use thereof is explored, relying on a review of the literature. Chapter 4 empha-
sises the need to provide adequate customer services so that the existing users and potential users may
sufficiently utilise the service, by using the library archives of the National University of Lesotho as a
case study. Chapter 5 demonstrates that public programming is one of the tools that may be employed
in a multifaceted way by memory institutions, such as archives, to bring the archives to the society and
the society to the archives.
Chapter 6 calls on public memory institutions such as libraries, archives and museums in Botswana to
collaborate in order to increase the use of their collections in the wake of dwindling funding. Chapter 7
shows that the National Archives of Zimbabwe has a variety of public programming activities to improve
the visibility of the institution in the public domain, by using the grounded theory approach. However,
the activities were not effective due to a variety of reasons. Chapter 8 showcases trends in utilising the
holdings at the Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre in Zimbabwe and concludes that the level of
usage of archival holdings was relatively low.
Social media platforms have been employed to raise awareness about archival institutions; Chapter
9, therefore, looks at the use of social media in promoting archives in east and southern Africa to raise
awareness about archives. The study concluded that social media platforms are not a preferred option in
outreach strategies, even though they were recognised as a useful means of reaching online information
seekers. Chapter 10 reports on the use of social media platforms to increase access and visibility of the
Botswana National Archives and Records Services. The study revealed that while Botswana National
Archives and Records Services made itself visible to users and potential users on online platforms, the
legal and policy framework was found to be lacking.
The section on advocacy, promotion and public programming in libraries begins with Chapter 11, which
explores the possibilities of developing library users into advocates based on a relationship marketing
model. Chapter 12 documents the role that is played by national library associations in advocating for
xxii
Preface
the development of library and information services for the attainment of the United Nations (UN) 2030
Agenda in Africa. The results indicated that national library associations are facing difficulties in their
advocacy work; and there is need to offer training to library staff and improve communication between
librarians and policymakers. Chapter 13 provides a framework for the advocacy, outreach and public
programming in public libraries in Africa. The thrust of the chapter is that public libraries should use
a framework that is concerned with strategy and leadership; partnership and collaboration; community
engagement and involvement; assessment and reporting and equity and social inclusiveness to promote
libraries effectively. Chapter 14 examines the challenges and prospects of marketing e-resources in the
digital environment in academic libraries in Africa. It explores the holistic marketing readiness of aca-
demic libraries in relation to product orientation, promotion, pricing, delivery channels, skills-sets and
atmospherics that would ensure that the ultimate exchange of value to their users is sustained over time.
Chapter 15 documents the strategies that are employed by librarians when promoting library and
information services in Zimbabwe. The authors recommend continuing professional development of
librarians to deliver their services in a digital environment effectively. Chapter 16 concludes Section 2
by advocating libraries in high schools in South Africa in view of the crisis in the school library system.
It makes recommendations on how advocacy for libraries in high schools may be re-directed.
The last section of this handbook focuses on promotion activities in museums. By referring to some
lessons from the BaTonga of Zimbabwe, it is argued in Chapter 17 that memory institutions, such as
museums, risk being redundant if they do not device strategies to promote their heritage. The chapter
draws attention to lived and performed heritage in the context of the discourses of advocacy, outreach
and public programming strategies. Chapter 18 provides another case study from South Africa after the
dawn of democracy in 1994. The chapter illustrates the influence of the state in shaping the narratives
of museums in context, by using some examples of exhibitions from Iziko Museums of South Africa,.
Furthermore, the chapter explores contestations in museum spaces. Chapter 19 provides another case
study from South Africa. The Voortrekker Monument, which has been a central memory institution for
Afrikaners since its conception in the 1930s is showcased. The continued success of the Monument
post-1994 as a national memory institution through the diversification of its visitors and programmes is
discussed in the chapter. Chapter 20 concludes the handbook by examining the role of museum brands
as the glue between several museum activities, including advocacy, promotion and public programming.
The chapter emphasises how museums are not only memory institutions aimed at preserving their col-
lections, but also organisations that should build an active relationship with their users and potential
users through branding.
The chapters presented in this book provide a sound starting point when promoting memory institu-
tions and making them visible. They are also a partial response to a call by Hackman (2011) for additional
writings on advocacy and publication of more case studies on archival programmes to develop a deeper
understanding of the concept by professionals.
Enjoy the read!
Patrick Ngulube
xxiii
Preface
REFERENCES
Constantinides, E., & Fountain, S. J. (2008). Web 2.0: Conceptual foundations and marketing issues. Journal
of Direct. Data and Digital Marketing Practice, 9(3), 231–234. doi:10.1057/palgrave.dddmp.4350098
Cousins, L. (1990). Marketing planning in the public and non-profit sector. European Journal of Mar-
keting, 24(7), 15–30. doi:10.1108/03090569010006759
Hackman, L. J. (2011). Parting thoughts: Advocacy and the archives profession. In L. J. Hackman (Ed.),
Many happy returns: Advocacy and the development of archives (pp. 371–388). Chicago: Society of
American Archivists.
Kotler, P. (1967). Marketing management: Analysis, planning, and control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Kotler, P., & Connor, R. A. (1977). Marketing professional services. Journal of Marketing, 41(1), 71–76.
doi:10.2307/1250494
Pasquier, M., & Villeneuve, J. (2018). Marketing management and communication (2nd ed.). London:
Routledge.
Saurombe, N., & Ngulube, P. (2016). Perceptions of user studies as a foundation for public programming
activities by archivists from east and southern Africa. ESARBICA Journal: Journal of the Eastern and
Southern Africa Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives, 35, 29–45.
Shostack, G. L. (1977). Breaking free from product marketing. Journal of Marketing, 41(April), 73–80.
doi:10.2307/1250637
Theimer, K. (Ed.). (2014a). Outreach: Innovative practices for archives and special collection. Lanham,
MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Theimer, K. (2014b). 20 Thoughts on The Future of Archives is Participatory: Archives as Platform, or
A New Mission for Archives. Retrieved February 27, 2018, from: http://archivesnext.com/?p=3700&c
page=1#comment-4180873
xxiv
Section 1
1
Chapter 1
Doing More With Less:
Application of Soft Power Theory to
Enhance Visibility and Accessibility
of Public Archives in a Resource-
Strained Environment
Jonathan Mukwevho
Auditor-General South Africa, South Africa
Mpho Ngoepe
Patrick Ngulube
ABSTRACT
Providing access and usage are the reason for existence of memory institutions such as archive reposi-
tories. Despite the importance of the visibility and accessibility of public archive repositories, various
scholars concur that these repositories in eastern and southern Africa are not known and are accessed
by few people. This chapter utilises the concept of soft power as a framework to examine the visibility
and accessibility of public archives repositories in South Africa. A quantitative research approach util-
ising questionnaires, interviews, content analysis and the observation of landmarks were employed as
data collection tools. The findings revealed that collaboration, especially with civil societies, is a key
for successful public programming at the lowest cost. It concludes that the concept of soft power can
provide deep insight and better understanding on how to develop inexpensive visibility programme, yet
capable of attracting a large number of people in a sustainable manner.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch001
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Doing More With Less
INTRODUCTION
The importance of promoting and maintaining the visibility and accessibility of archival holdings to
the public by archives repositories, especially in the digital era cannot be overemphasised (Blais &
Enns, 1991, p. 103; Maidabino, 2010, p. 1). Accessible public archives enhance an institution’s image;
facilitate research and education; enhance service delivery to citizens and other stakeholders; foster
accountability and transparency; as well as promote justice (Arko-Cobbah, 2008, p. 181; International
Council on Archives, 2012, p. 8; Wamukoya, 2012, p. 121; Ngulube, Sibanda, & Makoni, 2013, p. 135).
This will in turn help the archival institutions, as Parliament will continue to invest in archives and users
will continue to recommend to other potential users (Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011). Visibility is viewed
by Treem and Leonardi (2012, p. 150) as situations, means, methods and opportunities for making new
products and services known. Accessibility is the characteristic or right of citizens to easily access public
archives with minimum barriers, which is the ultimate goal of any archive policy (Ketelaar, 1995, p.
456). In most instances, archival institutions are not visible and accessible due to a lack of resources.
A survey of resource allocators in the USA in 1984 concluded that archives failed to win financial
support over other institutions because of a lack of visibility of the archive repositories (Goerler, 1991,
p. 379). In other words, archivists must seek ways to justify and validate their existence, including ex-
panding their customer/user base as it is no longer enough to point out the value in the safe keeping of
old documents (Chute, 2000, p. 33; Mason, 2016, p. 1). For example, user groups need to know that:
• Public archives materials have value, both to themselves and to the larger communities to which
they participate and belong;
• Archival materials are accessible and are relevant to what they do; and
• The archive is an important resource (Chute, 2000, p. 33).
Public archives repositories, including those in East and Southern African Regional Branch of the
International Council of Archives (ESARBICA), have failed to foster, among the population at large,
an appreciation for the importance of archives in society and their relevance in individuals’ daily lives.
Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011, p. 17), Saurombe (2016, p. 149), Venson, Ngoepe and Ngulube (2014),
Archival Platform (2015), Njobvu, Hamooya and Mwila (2012), Ngulube and Tafor (2006) as well as
Ngoepe and Ngulube (2014) concur that archives repositories in eastern and southern Africa are un-
known to and accessed by few people. With all the different resources (for example, financial, human,
information resources) that are currently available, public archives repositories should develop a pro-
gramme and fight for a piece of the market by increasing their visibility as much as possible (Mason,
2016, p. 1; Saurombe, 2016, p. 126; Morgan, 2010, p. 20). This study utilised the concept of soft power
as a framework with which to examine the visibility and accessibility of public archives repositories in
South Africa, with the view to suggesting ways to enhance it. In this study, soft power is defined as an
ability to set the agenda, persuade and bring forth positive liking in order to attain a desired outcome or
change the preference of others.
The regulation of public archives repositories in South Africa was established in terms of the Con-
stitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996 (Schedule 5), which changed the South African archi-
val landscape from being a centralised service into ten individual institutions, which are: the National
Archives and Records Services of South Africa (NARSSA), including the National Film, Video and
2

Sound Archives (NFVSA), which is a subsidiary of NARSSA; Eastern Cape provincial archives; Free
State provincial archives; Gauteng provincial archives; KwaZulu-Natal provincial archives; Limpopo
provincial archives; Mpumalanga provincial archives; Northern Cape provincial archives; North-West
provincial archives and Western Cape provincial archives (Archival Platform, 2015, p. 53; Bopape,
2015, p. 1, Ngoepe & Jiyane, 2015, p. 68; Sulej, 2014, p. 19). NARSSA was established in terms of the
National Archives and Records Services of South Africa Act, No. 43 of 1996. The focus of the research
is on archives services and not on library services, even though some institutions blend these two insti-
tutions. Currently, annual reporting of the public archives repositories in South Africa is consolidated
and available in the relevant department’s annual report.
THE USE OF CONCEPT OF SOFT POWER AS A FRAMEWORK IN THIS STUDY
The concept of soft power can be associated with a visibility programme, which is key in influencing
people in order to change their attitudes and behaviour (Garaba, 2016, p.74). In this regard, the concept
is necessary in this study as far as visibility and accessibility of archives are concerned. In support of
the above statement, Ngulube (2018, p. 11) argues that conceptual tools should be used only if they are
appropriate for the research problems and questions. Observable distinctive qualities of soft power include
persuasiveness, inexpensiveness and legitimate dependence (Wagner, 2014, p. 2; Purushothaman, 2010,
p. 3; Michalek et.al, 2016, p. 2). These qualities of soft power could provide valuable insight and better
understanding of issues affecting visibility and accessibility of public archives such as statistics showing
a continuously lower percentage of archival material being consulted (Chute, 2000, p. 37; Onyancha,
Mokwatlo & Mnkeni-Saurombe, 2013, p. 92; Maphorisa & Jain, 2013, p. 172); leaner budget for public
engagement activities (Bountouri & Giannakopoulos, 2014, p. 511; Crymble, 2010, p. 126; Tom, 2016,
p. 1) and visibility programmes being perceived as of minor importance (Van der Walt, 2011, p. 118).
For instance, through the power of persuasiveness, better understanding could be brought on how to
attract a large number of people to access and use archives. In addition, knowledge could be gained on
how public archives could best develop the visibility programme credibly that could be perceived as
important by the resource allocators, in this case the Parliament of the Republic of South Africa. Lastly,
deeper insight could be given into how to develop inexpensive public programming activities during
the time of budget constraints.
With regard to budget, the National Archivist in South Africa, Ms Nomaza Dingayo, the Chief Direc-
tor of Archives and Libraries, reported in 2015 to the parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Arts and
Culture that the budget was one of the challenges of the archives, because it was very minimal and the
archives could not attain all it set out to achieve. For example, an estimate of income and expenditure
for the 2016-17 financial year was US$2,881,642.86.1 From this estimate, US$2,113,357.14 was used
to compensate the employees, with the remainder of US$768,285.71 being used for the cost required for
other archival programmes or activities (Tom, 2016, p. 1). It is important for archivists to acknowledge
that resources are scarce in South Africa. Indeed, society has limited resources and therefore cannot
produce all the goods and services people wish to have. Cook (1997, p. 107) argues that if archives wish
to increase use without substantial financial and staff increases, the archives repositories must devise
ways of making the archival experience less staff intensive and ensuring they require a small amount
of the financial support.
3

Following Jabareen (2009, p. 54), Ivy (2015, p. 145), Imenda (2014, p. 189) and Ngulube (2018,
p.4), the soft power framework serves as a network of interlinked concepts or a related group of ideas,
which together provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon of study. According to Ngu-
lube (2018, p. 4), concepts are terms or words that represent a particular aspect of reality or object and
are the building blocks or ingredients of a theory. Concepts from a theory may be used as a conceptual
framework of a study (Ngulube, 2018, p. 4). On one hand, a conceptual framework is made up of con-
cepts that form part of a theory, or concepts from various theories. On the other hand, it may also be
developed inductively by the researcher through pulling together various components of theories, various
concepts embedded in the extant literature, diverse theories, and sources and experiences (Ngulube 2018,
p. 9). It is the latter explanation of the conceptual framework on which this study is based. A conceptual
framework maps the concepts that are explored in a research study and includes concepts that guide the
research, and data collection and analysis.
According to Ngulube (2018, p. 4) concepts applied in a research study should be defined in order to
clarify the theoretical focus of the research, and to operationalize the research questions in data collec-
tion tools such as questionnaires and interview guides. In that regard, concepts or constructs and their
attributes gleaned from the concept of soft power are summarised and defined as follows:
1. Leadership: Ability to influence another person to do what the person would not have done oth-
erwise (Mittal & Elias, 2015). In this paper, attributes of leadership include expert knowledge,
collaboration and speech/presentation. Firstly, the currency of expert knowledge as an attribute
of leadership lies in the effectiveness of credibility, attractiveness and persuasiveness of expert
knowledge in changing the intended audience’s attitude and behaviour more than non-expert or
untrustworthy knowledge (Kroenig, McAdam & Webber, 2010, p. 414; Chong, Fu & Shang, 2013,
p. 54; Mittal & Elias, 2015, p. 59). Moreover, collaboration draws its currency from its ability to
work together with like-minded people or organizations (Rao, 2016, p. 175). Such relational power
could serve as power base on different influence strategies (Chong et al., 2013, p. 54). And finally,
the currency of speeches as an attribute of leadership is derived from the quality of delivering a
message by someone who represents visions with strong confidence and perseverance. Regularly
delivered by a credible person, the message appeals to the emotion of the recipients and the target
is open to communication, attitudinal change is most likely (Kroenig et al., 2010, p. 417).
2. Social Media (Innovation): Communication and online discussions, together with their powerful
influence on purchase decisions and product/service evaluations, have become new and central
driving forces for marketing decision-makers (Ludwig & De Ruyter, 2016).
3. Culture: Promotes universal values that other people can readily identify with and that are natu-
rally attractive to them and the dual identity model can play a critical role in this regard. The dual
identity is a particular form of crossed categorization in which the original group boundaries is
maintained but within a major superordinate group identity that represents a higher level of inclu-
siveness (Dovidio, Gaertner, Pearson, & Riek, 2015, p. 241). The model is relevant in this chapter
as South Africa strives for unified or shared values, and at the same time takes into account vari-
ous racial and ethnic groups that exist in the country. Dovidio et al. (2015, p. 241) posit that dual
identity may be relevant, especially on interracial and interethnic group contexts.
4. Education: The ability of an organisation or institution to attract foreign students or facilitate
student exchanges is a powerful tool of public engagement (McClory, 2015). Figure 1 illustrates
this.
4

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of concept of soft power

(Mukwevho, 2017)
Firstly, the researchers believe that these four constructs (leadership, culture, education and social
media) and their attributes can only be effective in changing people’s behaviour if they are underlined
by elements of smoothness, ethos, pathos and logos. Secondly, the study used the concept of soft power
to narrow literature review to topics specifically relevant to the discussion of archives and records
management. Therefore, text selected for conceptual framework analysis should effectively represent
relevant literature (Jabareen, 2009, p. 53; Maxwell, 2012, p. 40). A literature survey will be done based
on the themes or constructs from the soft power framework and the identified knowledge gap this study
sought to close. Finally, the constructs and underlying characteristics of soft power will be evident in
the interpretation of the findings, conclusion and recommendation of this study.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Despite the importance of visibility and accessibility of public archives repositories, archives repositories
in eastern and southern Africa are not known and are accessed by few people. In their study, Ngoepe and
Ngulube (2011, p. 17) found that NARSSA was not visible in the public space and members of the public
were unaware of its existence and mandate. For instance, 92% of interviewees in the study indicated
that they had never visited the national archives (Saurombe, 2016, p. 149). Venson et al. (2014, p. 63)
established that there was low visibility of public archives in the media. In the 2012-13 financial year, a
paltry 661 people out of a population of 54 million in South Africa had accessed and used archives (Ar-
chival platform, 2015, p. 126). More recently, in an analysis of South Africa’s national archival system,
Archival Platform (2015, p. 131) concluded that public archival repositories have failed to fulfil their
mandate to make records accessible to the public, with a few exceptions. In her study, Saurombe (2016,
p. 250) found that five (56%) of the public archive repositories did not use the information gathered of
users’ needs and their level of satisfaction to improve their public engagement programme. In other words,
archives suffer from an image problem, social invisibility and the purpose of archives is misunderstood
(Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2014, p. 5).
5

Some of the reasons cited for low visibility and accessibility of archives repositories by the scholars
above included inadequate resources to transform access to archives. In addition, factors contributing
to this situation include archivists having neglected, or having been denied, the resources to sustain a
visibility programme, and teachers at every level of education having failed to exploit archives as an
educational tool and resource. Of importance is that the people’s archive programme is a ‘must’, even
during times of insufficient staff and large backlogs. Without these programmes, public archives risk
losing visibility, support and, possibly, their very existence (Chute, 2000, p. 37). This study’s thesis state-
ment is that, since it appears that public archives repositories are without adequate financial and other
resources to develop and implement effective visibility programme, the use of soft power could provide
deeper insight into and better understanding of how to develop inexpensive visibility programmes, yet
being capable of attracting a large number of people in a sustainable manner.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY
The purpose of this study was to investigate how the visibility and accessibility of public archives may
be enhanced in a resource-strained environment using the soft power concept as a conceptual framework.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
The concept of soft power helped frame the research objectives, make assumptions about the research
problem, identify what variables to include in the research design, ring-fence the literature review and
combine the findings into a coherent structure in the context of archives and records management (Ngu-
lube, 2018, p. 11; Jabareen, 2009, p. 53; Maxwell, 2012, p. 40).
The specific objectives were to:
1. Identify cultural strategies adopted to enhance visibility and accessibility of the public repositories
in South Africa;
2. Assess the leadership qualities required at all levels to enhance visibility and accessibility of public
archives repositories in South Africa;
3. Determine the extent to which public archives repositories have adopted social media as an innova-
tive tool to promote archival resources; and
4. Assess the educational exchange programmes used by public archives repositories in South Africa
as interactive methods for public engagement, awareness and education.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature for this chapter is reviewed as per the themes from the objectives of the study.
6

Cultural Strategies to Improve the Image of Archives
Culture is referred to as shared motives, values, beliefs, identities and interpretations of significant
events that result from common experiences of members of collectives that are transmitted across gen-
erations (Mittal & Elias, 2016, p. 61). Cultural activities necessary to transmit such shared values and
identities include publications; guided tours to the archives; archives open days and archives weeks;
archival exhibitions; seminars, workshops and conferences (Kamatula, 2018, p. 1; Mason, 2016, p. 1).
The National Archives and Records Services of South Africa Act, No. 43 of 1996, stipulates that public
archives make known information concerning records by means such as publications and exhibitions.
Furthermore, the 1976 outreach survey sponsored by the Society of American Archivists indicated that
the most frequently used cultural activities were publications and exhibitions (Pairo, 1982, p. 9). In that
regard, a construct of culture represented by a large volume and quality of cultural outputs, including
exhibitions and publications, is considered important in affecting the behaviour of others by influencing
their preferences. Whereas exhibitions can effectively stimulate interest in the archives and create pub-
licity, the appearance and content of publications can convey a strong image of the archival institution
(International Records Management Trust, 1999, p. 48; Katuu, 2015, p. 448).
In Germany in the mid-seventies, state governments staged major exhibitions (the Staufer Exhibi-
tion of 1977, the Wittelsbacher Exhibition of 1980 and the Prussian Exhibition of 1981) to change the
attitude of West Germans towards history, which was marked by indifference and scepticism after the
Second World War (Rauch & Schares, 1991, p. 192). The authors concluded that the three historical
exhibitions met with and fulfilled a keen public interest in history while at the same time intensifying this
interest. Elsewhere, Blais and Enns’ (1991, p. 105) experience of exhibitions awareness activities was
not as successful, perhaps due to the exhibition being effectively designed to appeal to other archivists
rather than the general public.
In South Africa, a study by Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011, p. 12) to assess the extent to which NARSSA
has fulfilled its mandate to take the archives to the people revealed that NARSSA plans its exhibitions in
advance, unlike what it has done in the past. The study further found that NARSSA involves provincial
archives when exhibiting the archival holdings in provinces. A study by Njobvu et al., (2012, p. 245)
investigated the effectiveness of strategies to market the archives at the National Archives of Zambia.
This study found, among other findings, that the majority of employees (80%) indicated that the only
method used to market archival services was through exhibitions during World Archives Day and Library
Week. A case study by Garaba (2016, p. 79) regarding user perceptions about archives at the Lutheran
Theological Institute Library, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, found that the majority of users (17 (59%)
out of 35) was aware of publications in the form of brochures that provided a medium of communicating
with users of the archives because it provides impetus and information about their resources. Further-
more, 19.2% of users identified, among other strategies, exhibitions as popular strategy necessary to
raise awareness of archives because of its immediate appeal to the intended audience. The importance
of the quantity and quality of exhibitions and publication as far as affecting the behaviour of others by
influencing their preferences is concerned, was never clarified in the above studies.
7

Leadership Qualities Required at All Levels to

Ensure Visibility of Archives Repositories
Leadership is the ability to influence others as the direct result of the use of social power, which are the
resources one person has available so that he or she could influence another person to do what this person
would not have done otherwise (Mittal & Elias, 2015, p. 59). The construct of leadership with attributes
of expert knowledge, speech and collaboration is considered important in influencing people to change
their attitudes and behaviour. In this study, any person, irrespective of the position he or she holds, and
the size of the organisation can possess and demonstrate qualities of leadership required to take public
archives repository to the people. In other words, as discussed earlier in this chapter that attributes of
leadership, which include expert knowledge, speech or presentation to the targeted audience and col-
laboration, are not positioned related to work position. Therefore, anyone can possess those attributes.
Elsewhere, Kingsley (2012, p. 138) suggests that leadership implies working as an advocate for the
sector, articulating the value the sector gives to society, and speaking for the sector within government.
It also implies showing the sector the way forward, translating the policy messages from government
into sector context, facilitating the sharing of best practice and creating opportunities for the sector to
flourish, which might not otherwise exist. Ketelaar (1993, p. 8), using a qualitative study, identified bet-
ter contacts and coordination as leadership issues that could increase the efficiency and effectiveness of
archives repositories. He further stressed the need for national archives to show leadership by acting with
more authority, vision, enthusiasm and energy (Ketelaar 1993, p. 8). Mariz, McCrea, Hackman, Kurtz
and Jimerson (2011, p. 115) argue that communicating the purpose, benefits and services provided by
the archives and its staff is a leadership responsibility. Their study concludes that leadership possesses
a collaborative spirit and demands that those who exercise it have full knowledge of structure, practice,
personnel and the wider environment of the entities they lead.
When evaluating the above studies against the construct of leadership explained earlier in the chapter,
the researchers noticed that all studies did not clarify as to whether any person, irrespective of position,
and any organisation, irrespective of its size, can possess and demonstrate qualities of leadership neces-
sary to take public archives repository to the people (Fan, 2008, p. 7). Even though all studies touched
on characteristics of leadership such as expert knowledge, speech and collaboration, it was not clear if
empirical evidence was used to arrive at such conclusion.
Educational Programmes as Interactive Tools for Public Engagement
Educational programmes are necessary in order to increase public awareness of the archivists’ profession
and utilisation of archival material, for the reason that many archives are neither as well understood nor
as heavily used as they could be (Katuu, 2015, p. 448; Senturk, 2013, p. 113). Senturk (2013, p. 113)
emphasises that collaboration between archivists and educators is one of the most important educational
strategies to promote the importance and use of archives. This statement is in support of Cook (1997, p.
104) who suggested that more consideration should be given regarding issues of education and coopera-
tion in order to make archival holdings more visible in the competitive public sphere. Van der Walt (2011,
p. 124) points out that the success of the partnership between archivists and educationalists depends on
the end product, such as a teaching educational kit that can be used at different levels and may include
photographs, cartoons, recorded interviews, speeches, posters, government documents and previously
published literature based on documents, for example newspaper articles. Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011,
8

p. 107) emphasise that educating users and the general public about the value and potential use of ar-
chives is one of the components of public programming. Sulej (2014, p. 34) further recommends the
implementation of an educational programme in South Africa to increase awareness of archives within
the general public and various communities by organising field-related seminars, workshops and training
programmes. Little is known of the employment of student exchange programmes at public archives as
an interactive tool of public engagement, awareness and education.
Adoption of Social Media as an Innovative Tool to Promote Archives
Innovation was identified as an important construct in influencing people to change their attitudes and
behaviour through the platform of social media. Social media is an innovative tool with many benefits
for persons and organisations such as cost-effectiveness, bringing users closer to the organisation and
marketing (Bountouri & Giannakopoulos, 2014, p. 516). Marketing can be better understood in terms
of the 4Ps marketing mix strategy. The marketing mix can be defined in terms of its four components –
product, price, place and promotion. For example, an organisation product is the item a company develops
and is ready to offer the consumers; it can also be in the form of a service. The price component of the
marketing mix does not always refer to the cost of the product, but to the perceived value of the product or
service. Place does not only mean the physical place of selling the products, but also refers to the method
by which the product or service is distributed to the consumer. Promotion of the product refers to all
the methods through which the public is informed about the product or service that the company has to
offer. Promotion includes public relations and can effectively make the product visible to the consumer
(Misra, 2015, p. 48). Public archives, therefore, could utilise social media as a method to distribute and
effectively make archival holdings and archival services visible to existing and potential users.
The use of social media such as Instagram, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter or blogs was found to have
enormous potential to increase the visibility of archival collections (Mason, 2014, p. 158). Studies con-
ducted by Kamatula, Mnkeni-Saurombe and Mosweu (2013, p. 120); Garaba (2012, p. 23) and Ngoepe
and Ngulube (2011, p. 13) revealed that NARSSA and other national archives and organisations in sub-
Saharan Africa were not using social media to promote their collections, despite more and more people
in these countries having access to social networks through mobile technologies. In her study, Saurombe
(2016, p. 319) discovered that the majority of the public archive repositories, that is, seven out of nine
(78%), did not make use of social media to raise awareness about the archives. Only two (22%) national
archives made use of social media (Saurombe, 2016, p. 319). In the same study, four (44%) of the Direc-
tors of public archives in eastern and southern Africa region thought that their visibility on social media
platforms was affecting them negatively (Saurombe, 2016, p. 281). More recently, a study by Phiri (2018,
p. 122) revealed that Angola, Mozambique, Namibia and South Arica do not have webpages or groups
on Facebook, while Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe
have Facebook pages. The Botswana Facebook page had the greatest number of followers with 1,307
likes (Phiri, 2018, p. 122). According to Crymble (2010, p. 145), archives repositories should continue
to adopt and employ new technology as a tool to promote their archival holdings and services to the
public. Nonetheless, the issue of cyber security and social media cannot be ignored.
According to Ashford (2018, p. 1), in the Cisco 2013 Annual Security Report, the highest concentra-
tion of cyber security threats is on mass audience sites such as social media. The ability of individuals
to share information with an audience of millions is at the heart of the particular challenge that social
media presents to businesses. In addition to giving anyone the power to disseminate sensitive organi-
9

sational information, social media also gives the same power to spread false information, which can be
just as damaging. The rapid spread of false information through social media is among the emerging
risks identified by the World Economic Forum in its global risks 2013 report. Of importance is that the
unprecedented reach of social media is something companies cannot afford to ignore because of the
positive and negative effect it can have on the organisation. In that regard, organisations need to develop
strategies to help improve their reputation for customer service and to produce a clear return on invest-
ment for the business (Ashford, 2018, p. 1).
In assessing the adoption of social media as an innovative tool in influencing people to change their
attitudes and behaviour, the use of social media is still at an experimental stage in the field of archive
and records management. Almost all public archives repositories are not implementing social media in
promoting their archival holdings and services to the South African public.
The knowledge gap identified in the literature surveyed above is summarised as follows:
1. Few studies were clear on the volume and historical content of exhibits and publications displayed
to the public.
2. All studies did not clarify whether any person, regardless of position they held and social status in
their community, can possess and demonstrate qualities of leadership.
3. It was not clear if empirical evidence was used in studying leadership qualities in archives.
4. It was not clear if educational exchange programmes can serve as interactive tools for public en-
gagement and awareness.
5. Adoption of social media as an innovative tool was still in experimental mode in the field of archives
and records management globally.
6. All public archives repositories are not implementing social media in promoting their archival
holdings and services to the South African public.
These identified gaps provided the objectives the study seeks to achieve.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter employed a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches in order to provide a more
complete understanding of a research problem than either approach alone. The researchers first conduct
quantitative research, analyse the results and then builds on the results to explain them in more detail
with qualitative research. Quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques were used to minimise
the weaknesses of the other research design. Data were collected through methodological triangulation of
the survey questionnaires, follow-up for clarity on responses obtained from the questionnaires, interview,
physical observation of the public display signage, content analysis of official documents and web-based
content analysis of social media presence of the public archive repositories. The NARSSA, including
the NFVSA, all nine provincial archives (i.e. Eastern Cape archives, Free State archives, KwaZulu-Natal
archives, Gauteng archives, Limpopo archives, Mpumalanga archives, Northern Cape archives, North
West archives and Western Cape archives), annual reports, archival legislation and social media of the
public archives repositories in South Africa were the universe of analysis, from which the researchers
were interested in generalising the conclusions (Mcvilly et al., 2008, p. 161; Bhattacherjee, 2012, p. 65;
Dube, Mukura & David, 2013, p. 71). Furthermore, the annual reports of the national Department of
10

Arts and Culture and relevant provincial departments were purposefully sampled from the 2012-13 to
2014-15 financial years (starting from 1 April of the current year to 31 March of the following year for
national and provincial government, and starting from 1 July of the current year to 31 June of the fol-
lowing year for local government). Currently, the public archives annual reporting information in South
Africa is included in the relevant departments consolidated annual performance reports. The study also
sampled the existing archival legislation and archival contents on Facebook, Twitter, Google+, Instagram
and WordPress. Furthermore, the study selected archivists working in public programming sections of
the identified public archives institutions. Each archives repository was represented on average by two
archivists working in the public programming section of their respective institutions. Finally, the study
also selected the public display signage of Limpopo, Mpumalanga, NFVSA and NARSSA. The selection
of these samples was necessary as it provided researchers with pertinent information. The number of
employees in the public archive repository and the number of those who work in the public programming
section are indicated in Table 1. The majority of respondents were archivists, except one respondent who
indicated his/her position as assistant manager: repository.
There were 74 archivists in the NARSSA and five in the public programming section, 17 archivists
were working in the NFVSA and four archivists were working in the public programming section.
Whereas Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011, p. 10) reveal that four archivists were involved in public program-
ming (two at the NARSSA and two at the NFVSA), this study showed that five worked at NARSSA
and four at the NFVSA, which represents an increase of two, respectively. There were 15 archivists in
the Eastern Cape provincial archives and two working in the public programming section. This study
showed that there were 11 archivists in the Free State provincial archives and five who worked in the
public programming section.
In addition, the study revealed that there were three employees in the Gauteng provincial archives
and three working in the public programming section. Initially, the researcher identified a discrepancy,
as one of the respondents indicated that there were two archivists in the Gauteng provincial archives and
Table 1. Employees in the institution and in public programming section
Total Number of Archivists in the Number of Archivists in Public

Name of the Public Archive Institution
Institution Programming Section
National Archives 74 5
Eastern Cape 15 2
Free State 11 5
Gauteng 2 2
Limpopo 15 15
KwaZulu-Natal 52 9
Mpumalanga No response No response
Northern Cape 4 4
North West 13 4
Western Cape 42 2
National Film, Video and Sound Archives 17 4
Total 245 52
11

two who worked in the public programming section. When doing a follow-up regarding the discrepancy
mentioned above, the researcher found that the deputy director: library was also involved in archives
activities, as a provincial archivist had not yet been appointed. It was also revealed that there was/were
no employee/s dedicated to the public programming function, as they were all involved in anything that
has to do with archives and records management.
Furthermore, the study revealed that 15 employees were working in the Limpopo provincial archives
and 15 in the public programming section. However, initially, a respondent indicated that there were
five public servants working in the public programming section. When the researcher did a follow-up
regarding the discrepancy, it was revealed that there were new (ten) recruits, which increased the number
of archivists to 15. It was further indicated that all 15 employees were involved in public programming
activities because there were no staff dedicated to outreach programmes.
The study showed that there were 52 archivists (21 in the Pietermaritzburg archives, 15 in the Ulundi
archives and 16 in the Durban archives) in the KwaZulu-Natal provincial archives and nine (three in
each of the provincial archives branches) working in the public programming section. There was also an
intern working in the public programming section. These results were confirmed after the respondents
initially provided contradictory figures.
A respondent indicated that there were four archivists and two interns in the Northern Cape provincial
archives and four working in public the programming section. There were 13 employees in the North
West provincial archives and four working in public programming section. The study also showed that
there were 42 employees in the Western Cape provincial archives and two archivists working in public
programming section. There were no data available from the Mpumalanga provincial archives due to
non-responses. However, Ngoepe and Keakopa (2011, p. 154) indicate that the Mpumalanga provincial
archives have a staff complement of only three archivists (including the head of the archives) to service
the entire province.
It is also worthy to note that Gauteng and the Western Cape have archives advisory councils. How-
ever, North West and the Northern Cape are represented at the national archive council. It is important
to mention this because members of the council can speak on behalf of the repository to the politicians.
Taking everything into account, the total number of employees in public archives repositories is 245
and 52 working in the public programming sections. According to Ngoepe and Keakopa (2011, p. 154),
the resources of the archives systems in South Africa are inadequate to execute the mandate in terms of
both level and capacity. They gave the example of the Mpumalanga provincial archives, which have a staff
complement of only three archivists (including the head of the archives), to service the entire province,
while the Free State provincial archives have 12 staff members from the original 22. In contrast, Ngo-
epe and Jiyane (2015, p. 74) report that the total number of employees was at 219, with 11 employees
having left archive repositories in the 2014-15 financial year. Compared to the study by Ngoepe and
Jiyane (2015, p. 74), this study shows an increase of 26 employees from the 2014-15 financial year to
the 2015-16 financial year.
Response Rate
In this chapter, only 15 (60%) of the selected respondents responded and 10 (40%) of the prospective
respondents did not respond to the questionnaire, as indicated in Table 2.
12

Table 2. Respondents and non-respondents to the survey
Public Repository Sample Respondents Non-Respondents

National Archives 2 2 0
Eastern Cape 3 1 2
Free State 2 1 1
Gauteng 3 2 1
Limpopo 4 2 2
KwaZulu-Natal 4 3 1
Mpumalanga 1 0 1
Northern Cape 2 1 1
North West 1 1 0
Western Cape 1 1 0
National Film, Video and
2 1 1
Sound Archives
Total 25 (100%) 15 (60%) 10 (40%)
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This section presents findings of the study.
Legislation Governing Archives and Records Management in South Africa
The legislative framework on archives is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents

according to which public archives is acknowledged to be governed. This body of law is also necessary
in governing how public archives should develop and implement their public programming activities. It
was necessary to understand if the public archives repositories have their own legislation to guide their
activities, including public programming programmes to make archival holding known to the public,
especially the previously marginalised communities in South Africa. For the majority of the respondents
14 (93%), the analysis of the legislation of the national parliament and all nine provincial parliaments
revealed that the public archives repositories have their own legislation on archives and records manage-
ment, except for the North West Provincial Archives at 7% (1). This finding validates the findings of the
studies of Ngoepe and Keakopa (2011, p. 153) and Ngoepe (2016, p. 2) that the North West archives
did not have legislation governing archives and records management. However, this was not significant
since, in terms of section 3(g) of the National Archives and Records Service of South Africa Act (Act
No. 43 of 1996) as amended, the national archives shall assist, support, set standards for and provide
professional guidelines to provincial archives services.
Overall, the questionnaire results and all relevant pieces of legislation provided a framework in which
public programming can be referred to as a legitimate programme to promote the social memory and
identity of the South African society in general.
13

Cultural Strategies Adopted to Improve the Image of Archives
This section presents cultural strategies adopted by the public archives to improve the image of archives
Inclusion of Public Programming in Strategic Objectives
Mason (2016, p. 1) posits that public programming should be clearly and continuously included in the
organisational strategic goals and objectives, so that the programme could have short and long-term goals
attached to it. The respondents were asked to indicate in the questionnaire by marking “Yes” or “No”
or “Not sure” if their public archives included public programming as a strategic objective. The study
revealed that nine public archives (NARSSA, NFVSA, Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal,
Northern Cape, North West and Western Cape provincial archives) included public programming in
their strategic objectives. A respondent was not sure about the incorporation of the public programming
in the Free State archives organisational strategy. There were no data from the Mpumalanga provincial
archives because of non-response. An analysis of the annual reports of the mother departments from
2012 to 2015 financial years also showed the inclusion of public programming activities in the parent
department strategic objectives. The researchers noticed that the concept of promotion of access to
information was used frequently, as opposed to public programming.
Moreover, the strategic goals were not consistent among the public archive repositories and in terms
of the relevant Act of Parliament. For example, for the Free State and Mpumalanga, the purpose of the
archives service was to provide records management and archive services to ensure proper records man-
agement practices at government offices and accountable management of archival records at archives
repositories. The aim of the Western Cape Archives and Records Service was to ensure the proper records
management service within governmental bodies, and preserve and provide access to archival material.
The reason for this inconsistent strategic objective could mean that since the public archives do not table
their separate annual reports as stipulated in the legislation on archives, the consolidated departmental
annual reports with various programmes within the department, including public archive, led to under-
reporting, for example, due to space limit. Accordingly, public archives were unable to have their intent
regarding visibility objective recorded or captured in the departmental annual performance plans. As
the Archival Platform (2017, p. 1) on its analysis of the Annual Report of the Department of Arts and
Culture found that indicators and targets for activity bear little relation to the legislated mandate. They
further observed that this can be misleading as it may mean that good work was not reported on or it
may be difficult to prove that no effort has been made to deliver on a particular aspect of the mandate.
Visibility of Public Archives Landmarks
The purpose of conducting both physical observation and asking selected respondents from distant public
archives repositories via telephone and e-mail due to geographic location regarding landmarks was to
discover if erected public display signage clearly direct existing and prospective users to the public archive
repositories. The study revealed that the signage of the Mpumalanga and the Western Cape archives
was visible, whereas public display signage of the NARSSA, the NFVSA, the Eastern Cape, Free State,
Limpopo and the Northern Cape Archives was not clearly visible. Gauteng did not have landmarks. This
finding registers positive correlation in view of the problem statement, which shows that despite the
14

importance of visibility and accessibility of public archives repositories, archives repositories in eastern
and southern Africa are not known and are accessed by few people.
The study also showed that the contents or messages on the display signage did not communicate
the purpose, benefits and services provided by archives to the public. The result could either mean that
there is existing standards or rules to be adhered to when creating the content for the public display sig-
nage or just a lack of creativity on the side of the archivists. Worse though, archivist may not even have
become involved in creating and developing the content to start with. In terms of soft power, archivists
should regularly get involved and gently show their superior knowledge and understanding in crafting
or creating the content that talks to the real issue or needs of the community they serve and society in
general. As the study by Cevik and Sevin (2017, p. 408) concluded that Turkey’s message dissemina-
tion strategy was not designed in a manner that positive impact was likely to be achieved. Consequently,
the communication strategy failed to address the question of the potential users “What is it in for me?”
Most Important and Effective Public Programming Activities

in Promoting Archives Services to the Public
The study sought to find out about the most important and effective public programming activities in
promoting the archives services to the public. The understanding was that with limited resources, it is
important to mobilise resources to support the most effective programme. Ninety-thee per cent (14) of
the respondents revealed that the Archives Week, exhibitions, international Archives Day and guided
visits, public lecture and display, Friends of Archives and publications activities were the most impor-
tant and effective in promoting the archives services to the public, followed by workshops, seminars,
records management and international relations activities at 13(87%) of the respondents. However, in
all instances, respondents only differ in terms of their degree of agreement, as some strongly agree and
others just agreed.
This finding validates the findings of Saurombe (2016, p. 285) that the most common methods
of promotion mentioned were printed publications and exhibitions, even though other activities were
added as indicated above. In addition, Allyn, Aubitz & Stern (1987, p. 402) explain that the best means
of arousing local interest in the preservation of records and demonstrating their educational value is by
having displays or exhibitions of documents, maps and photographs.
However, in relation to the conceptual framework of this study, the above public programming activi-
ties can be enhanced to ensure that archival holdings are widely known and accessed by the majority
of people, especially from the previously disadvantaged individuals. In this regard, every person will
realise that their interests and needs are taken into consideration when public programming activities
are designed and implemented.
Leadership Qualities Required at All Levels to

Ensure Visibility of Archives Repositories
This section presents leadership qualities required at all levels to ensure visibility of archives repositories.
15

Knowledge of Archives and Records Management as an Important

Attribute for Leadership of the Public Archives Repositories
The study sought to establish the extent to which respondents agreed or disagreed that knowledge of
the archives and records management is an important attribute for the leadership of the public archive
repository. The assumption was that those who possess superior knowledge in their respective area of
specialisation have power and influence. As the old adage says: “knowledge is the power”. Fifteen (100%)
respondents indicated that knowledge of archives and records management is an important attribute for
the leadership of the public archive repository. Knowledge of archives and records management is an
important attribute for the leadership of the public archive repositories, followed by reputation, author-
ity, status and money. For example, 15 (100%) of the respondents indicated that the leadership of the
public archives repositories possesses the knowledge as an attribute, followed by status and authority at
11 (73%) and money at 3 (20%). In other words, the respondents unanimously agreed that knowledge of
the archives and records management is an important attribute for the leadership of the public archives.
In the same study, through an analysis of the legislation, almost all archives legislation stipulates that
the national archivist or provincial archivist or the head of archives services has relevant qualifications
and is knowledgeable about archives and records management.
This result validates the finding of Saurombe (2016, p. 224) that all the directors of the national
archives indicated that staff knowledge and skills ranked as the highest factor that had a positive effect
on the public’s awareness of the national archives. The results further validate the conclusion of Mariz
et al., (2011, p. 115) that leadership demands that those who exercise it have full knowledge of struc-
ture, practice, personnel and the wider environment of the entities they lead. The result also confirms
the existence of the legislative framework that supports recruitment and employment of knowledge-
able people in the field of archives and records management. Mostly, a lack of adequate knowledge of
archives and records management by archivist could be an issue affecting visibility and accessibility of
public archives repositories.
In terms of the soft power concept, knowledge and expertise are essential elements required to ef-
fectively attract the prospective users and retain the existing users of the archival holdings and services.
In view of the problem statement, the superior knowledge of archives and records management by the
archivists might be lacking as the use of archives is considered low as compared to the South African
population. For example, in the 2012-13 financial year, a paltry 661 people out of 54 million population of
South Africa had accessed and used archives (Archival Platform, 2015, p. 126). Statistics South Africa’s
2017 mid-year population estimate puts the total at 56.5 million people (Brand South Africa, 2018, p. 1).
Collaboration With Good Partner as Key for Successful Public Programming
The study sought to establish the extent to which the respondents agreed or disagreed that collaboration
with good partners is fundamental to a successful public programming at the lowest cost. Fifteen (100%)
respondents indicated that collaboration with good partners was the key to successful public program-
ming at the lowest cost. An analysis of the legislation on the same topic showed that almost all legisla-
tion stipulates that the public archives repositories cooperated with organisations interested in archival
matters or the management of records. The results suggest that partnerships with relevant organisations
are important in ensuring visibility and accessibility of archives repositories at the lowest cost.
16

In terms of the soft power concept, the results indicate that collaboration with any organisation,
regardless of size or budget, can work well to satisfy all stakeholders to achieve organisational excel-
lence and effectiveness. For example, civil societies or third sectors are so powerful on public affairs
that forming partnership with them is considered strategic and important in increasing public knowledge
about archives and its services. The underlying qualities could be flexibility and informality of these
non-governmental organisations, which are one of the elements of soft power. Similarly, the study by
Saurombe (2016, p. 127) indicated that local or community organisations and the archives should work
together, simply because it could lead to extra funding, records donations and increased usage. In other
words, working jointly with other organisations could help public archives address the issue of funding
that is not adequate to support public programming initiatives. In turn, the success of such programmes
could encourage sponsors to make funds available for the programme designed to enhance visibility and
accessibility of the public archives repositories.
The Message Communicated Increase Knowledge and

Understanding of the Content to the Intended Audience
The study sought to establish the extent to which the respondents agreed or disagreed that the message
or speech is critical in increasing knowledge and understanding of what was communicated to the target
audience. Fourteen (93%) respondents agreed that the message communicated was essential in chang-
ing the mind and understanding of the audience at whom the message is directed, whereas only one
disagreed. The results suggest the importance of effective communication of information about the value
of archives in attracting potential users to access and use archives, and in this way effectively making
archives known to the public. However, linking the result to the problem statement, communication of
the message about the value of archives to society is either not gentle and regular or is not effective or
appealing to the intended audience. In terms of the soft power concept, the archivists need to communi-
cate repeated messages that appeal to recipients at an emotional level. In that regard, attitudinal change
is likely to occur. The intended audience would most probably believe in the archivist as having some
superior knowledge in this regard and would therefore, most likely identify with the archivist as a model
that the target audience would want to emulate.
Educational Programmes as Interactive Tools for Public Engagement
This section presents data pertaining to educational programmes as interactive tools for public engagement.
Facilitation of Student Exchanges as the Most Powerful Tool for Public Engagement
The ability of an organisation to attract non-native students or facilitate student exchanges is a powerful
tool of public engagement. Seventy-three per cent (11) of the respondents indicated that the organisation’s
ability to attract foreign students or facilitate student exchanges is the most powerful tool for public en-
gagement, as compared to 4 (27%) respondents who disagreed. The finding suggests that foreign student
exchanges are necessary if the public archives seek to be relevant and secure funding for their programme
in order to attract more users of archives. Hackman (2012, p.11) says that advocacy is an investment we
make when we educate and engage individuals and organisations intentionally and strategically so they
17

would support our work. He further emphasises that it is an activity consciously aimed at persuading
individuals or organisation to act on behalf of the programme or institution.
In relation to the problem statement, the outcome may mean the public archives acknowledge the
importance of the programme in attracting potential supporters or funders for the visibility projects who
are not actually involved in providing scholarship to non-native students. And if they do it, the programme
might not be effective in achieving what it was intended to achieve.
Recognition of the Importance of Education and Training in

Promoting Their Archival Holdings and Services
The study sought to establish whether the public archives repositories recognise the importance of
education and training in promoting their archival holdings and services. Eighty per cent (12) of the
respondents revealed that the public archives repositories recognise the importance of education and
training in promoting their archival holdings and services, as compared to 2 (13%) who said no and 1
(7%) who was not sure. This finding validates Saurombe’s (2016, p. 358) recommendation on public
programming framework as it included the need for more training opportunities to be organised by ES-
ARBICA or the national archives, which could lead to the implementation of more public programming
projects. Overall, the above results showed that the majority of public archives considered education and
training for schools essential in ensuring visibility and accessibility of the public archives repositories.
This is important for public archives repositories in many ways, including curriculum development for
teachers and learners, especially for the subject history.
Senturk (2013, p. 111) notes that archivists at the National Archives and Records Administration
(NARA) collaborated with teachers to prepare primary source documents for use by schools. However,
a few academic institutions are currently offering archival qualifications. That is, the University of South
Africa (Unisa), Fort Hare University, University of KwaZulu-Natal and the University of the Western
Cape. Unisa is the only key institution driving the process in archival studies (Tom, 2016, p. 1).
Adoption of Social Media as an Innovative Tool to Promote Archives
Social media use in archives engages new communities of users, provides powerful tools for advocacy
and outreach, and democratises the institutional management of cultural memory (Liew, Wellington,
Oliver & Perkins, 2015, p. 379). Mason (2014, p. 158) notes that the use of social media such as You-
Tube, Facebook or Twitter, has enormous potential to increase the visibility of archival collections. The
study showed that a few public archives repositories selected Facebook 27% (4), followed by Twitter
and LinkedIn at 7% (1) as appropriate and effective to engage users. In terms of the soft power, public
archives should embrace social media as a new method to support their visibility programme. With this
result, the researcher got the impression that few public archives recognise the importance of social
media as a promotional tool for archival holdings and services.
The study further examined of the existence of social media links on departmental websites of the
relevant public archive repositories. The study found that there were links to almost all departments’
websites, except for the websites of the Eastern Cape Sport, Recreation, Arts and Culture and the North
West Department of Cultural, Arts and Traditional Affairs website. For the most part, the links were to
Twitter, Facebook, WordPress, Instagram, Pinterest, YouTube, Tumblr and Google+ and were distrib-
uted unevenly from one department to the other. In other words, it can be stated that almost all relevant
18

departments have a social media platform that the public archives can use to competitively promote their
archival holdings and services to the public. Of importance is that the public archives should start to use
this easy to use technology to their own advantage.
The study also investigated the availability of contents or posts related to archives and records man-
agement within the departments’ social media platform. Almost all social media links, to some extent,
have posts or contents related to archives and records management. With this result, the researchers got
the impression that contents on archives and records management were not dominant as compared to
other directorates within the parent department, such as sports and recreation, for example. This was
evident, as it took long for the researcher to find contents on this subject after sifting through sports and
recreation posts. In terms of soft power, regular posting of trustworthy content to the intended audience
is key in changing its attitudes towards archival holdings and services. Hence, it is important that public
archives consider making it a habit to objectively and smoothly post credible contents through the cur-
rently available departmental social media platform. However, the researcher did not sift through each
type of social media in detail, as it was not the focus of this objective, which is regarded as a shortcom-
ing of the study.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this chapter was to investigate how the visibility and accessibility of public archives may
be enhanced in a resource strained environment using the soft power concept as a conceptual frame-
work. Almost all public archives included public programming in their strategic objectives even though
the concept promotion of access to information was used often. Most of the public archive repositories
consider Archives Week, among other activities, to be the most important and effective in promoting the
archives services to the general public. This must be because the activity is held for more than a day or
for the whole week and the number of attendees to the event. This was evident from the content analysis
of the social media and annual reports wherein reporting on Archives Week was most prominent. A
number of public archives repositories had been involved in public programming activities from 2015
to 2016. This is important as it provides better understanding of whether those programmes were ef-
fective or not. The fact that a number of public archives are involved in public programming activities
and yet various scholars lament that public archives repositories are largely unknown and accessed by
few people is tale telling.
Furthermore, the public display signage of the repositories of the NARSSA, the NFVSA, the Eastern
Cape Archives, Free State Archives, Limpopo Archives, the Northern Cape archives and North West
Archives could not be seen and recognised easily, whereas the KwaZulu-Natal archives, Mpumalanga
archives and Western Cape archives public display signage is clearly visible. In conclusion, public
programming activities that the public archives repositories are involved in are not effective in greatly
promoting the archival holdings and archival services.
Most of the archivists believe that leadership in public archives represents principles, moral values
and the desired future position of the public archive repositories with strong confidence and conviction,
and with high energy and perseverance. The knowledge of archives and records management is regarded
an important attribute for the leadership of the public archives. In addition, knowledge of archives and
records management is considered most important as compared to other leadership attributes such as
reputation, authority, status and money. Public archives are also working jointly with good partners. This
19

is of crucial importance if public archives seek to implement successful public programming at the low-
est cost, as resources can be pooled together. The archivists also believe that the message communicated
is essential in changing the mind and understanding of the audience at whom the message is directed.
This is significant because the effectiveness of the message communicated is of crucial importance to
persuade or gently attract the potential users to use the archival holdings and services. One can only
reach the conclusion that largely the issue of leadership in public archives repositories in South Africa,
particularly regarding the promotion of access to archives, is concerning as knowledge and understand-
ing of archives are not interactively and regularly shared in the public space.
Most of the public archives believe that an organisation’s ability to attract international students is the
most powerful tool for public engagement. However, there was no indication as to whether, currently,
the public archives are engaged in those student exchange programmes. Public archives repositories in
South Africa recognise the importance of education and training in promoting their archival holdings
and archival services. Such educational activities included providing advice on legislation that pertains
to information technology, the provision of placements for practical training for students of the archival
studies, to name just a few. Almost all legislation on archives included provision of training in archival
techniques and the management of records, as well as professional and technical support in aid of the
archival activities and the archival community. In conclusion, the public archives repositories in South
Africa have not yet fully chosen to take up the social media as a new tool in promoting greater aware-
ness of archives.
A number of the public archive repositories do not recognise social media as a tool to improve the
image of the organisation. This was evident as only a few public archives have selected Facebook and
Twitter as appropriate and effective to engage users. For instance, the Northern Cape archives were
using the departmental Facebook account and the Western Cape archives were using the departmental
Twitter account in collaboration with the communication section within their respective department. The
researchers observed that the public archives were not using the available departmental social media such
as Twitter, Facebook, WordPress, Instagram, Pinterest, YouTube, Tumblr and Google+ as innovative
tools to promote the archives. This was evident as almost all the identified social media links to some
extent contained content related to archives and records management. Moreover, a few public archives
repositories proactively developed their social media strategy. In view of the above, one can conclude
that the public archives educational activities are not effectively and gently persuading prospective users
of archives because, at present, statistical usage of archival materials is low. As a way of recognising that
public archives repositories are without adequate financial and other resources, the insight provided by
the concept of soft power could help archivists develop inexpensive visibility programmes, yet, in the
long run, strikingly and greatly increase the usage of the archival materials.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
The study proposes future studies for prospective researchers as follows:
1. Since the study provided valuable insight that any person, regardless of the position they hold
and their social status in the organisation, can possess and demonstrate qualities of leadership,
it, becomes imperative that future research should be conducted into how credible, rational and
regular communication by archivists, regardless of the position they hold, can further improve the
20

visibility and accessibility of public archives repositories in South Africa. This will help shed more
light on how soft power could be applied so that leadership can be used effectively as far as public
programming is concerned.
2. Further study can be conducted to establish how the public archives can best use their parent depart-
ment’s social media strategies to promote archival resources. Perhaps, this could help shed light
or unearth the real cause regarding low interest in using existing parent department social media
platform by the public archive repositories.
3. A feasibility study maybe conducted in future on how public archives can have their own social
media strategy independent of their parent department’s social media strategy to be precise. Perhaps,
this could help address why the public archives in South Africa are not using social media to attract
potential users to use the archival holdings.
4. Finally, future study may be conducted on the feasibility of digitisation projects of the existing
archival holdings, whether on a small or large scale, as a way of enhancing visibility and acces-
sibility of the public archive repositories.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To enhance the visibility and accessibility of public archives repositories in South Africa, the study of-
fers the recommendations for action as follows:
• The study recommends that public archives should develop and implement a visibility programme
that promotes an all-inclusive national identity, while maintaining both the original interracial and
inter-ethnicity group identities so that public archives could be of great interest to potential users
from both groups. The national identity that every person from different communities can identify
with reduces schism and sundering, which could negatively affect the visibility of public archives
repositories. Dovidio et al. (2015, p. 241) states that people who identify more strongly with an
all-inclusive group identity have more favourable attitudes toward those formerly seen as mem-
bers of the other groups who have been categorised within this all-inclusive group identity. In fact,
some of the most important functions of the archives included preservation of history and social
memory, making it accessible to the public, and the promotion of social cohesion, social justice
and human rights (Tom, 2016, p. 1). Friends of archives or any other forum can be reconfig-
ured and refocused to champion or enhance all-inclusive mantras such as national identity, nation
building or social cohesion and empowerment so that, in the end, the attitude of the previously
disadvantaged individuals can be effectively changed on how they perceive the white minority and
their cultural material positively. As a result, softly and in nudging manner drive them to archives.
• The study further recommends that public archives erect public display signage in the right place
and large enough so that it could be easily seen and direct both existing and potential users to the
archives. In other words, display signage of public archives repositories should be erected strategi-
cally in a visible area. In addition, erecting public display signage can be done as a project and in
phases, starting from strategic areas around or next to the premises, moving away from the same.
As the saying goes, charity begins at home, which means that people should deal with the needs
of people close to them before they think about helping others. This is a social power that public
archives should exploit to their own advantage. Because once the people close by or neighbours
21

know about what archives are, and their benefits to the society in general, they can indirectly serve
as human landmarks directing people to archives.
• It is suggested that public archives institutions redesign public display signage with special focus
on packaging messages or contents that is relevant so that it appeals to the needs of the community
it serves. Otherwise, the impact of the message cannot be positive and guaranteed. Public archives
may first understand and identify issues that are pertinent to the needs of the communities they
serve or are of public interest, whether national or provincial, and link that to relevant cultural
material available in their collections and accessible in terms of the language and format in which
they are preserved. If land and family history is of public interest, for instance, the public display
signage contents could read as follows: Are you struggling with land claim issue? Did you know
your family history? And many more… Please, contact archives at (telephone number, Twitter or
Facebook, and name of the relevant department if it is a requirement to have it on the boards, then
website). Certainly, this message has the potential to resonate well with people or appeal to people
in a personal or emotional way. Thus, these messages are more likely to drive them into action
whenever they have time to do so, be it through enquiries or by physically visiting public archives
or by engaging on a social media platform for that purpose.
• It is recommended that the public archives regularly, interactively and publicly communicate su-
perior understanding and knowledge about archives, as well as the benefits of archives to the
society using various platforms. One can argue that when the archivist communicates and greatly
demonstrates superior knowledge of what archives are in a logical manner and with clear purpose
for conveying such understating, he or she helps shape the perceptions of the targeted audience
in a meaningful way. Kroenig et al., (2010, p. 417) observe that when the organisation communi-
cates through a credible source or person that delivers a repeated/regular message that speaks to
recipients/audience at an emotional level and the intended audience is open to communication,
their feeling about something is most likely to change.
• It is also suggested that public archives informally reconsider or adapt their partnership to include
collaboration on cultural strategies such as the annual Archives Week and national oral history,
among other strategies. Pairo (1982, p. 5) suggests that if archives want to attract potential users
even during periods of budgetary constraints, archivists must begin to foster and adopt a coherent
course of action or strategy to make widely known what archives are to the public and why they
are valuable. Partnership is a language of persuasion and influencing people to change their mind
and decide to promote smaller organisations with tight budgets (Thelle & Thylstrup, 2011, p.
581). Without so much money involved as a result of cost sharing, public archives could develop
and implement effective programme in taking archives to the people by making them accessible
easily.
• It is recommended that the public archives start providing scholarship to international students or
other forms of facilitating student exchange programmes. It has been shown that students going
back home are most likely to advocate for the host organisations back home, thus promote the
public archives, including the need of the financial support for the public archives to effectively
implement their programmes. McClory (2015, p. 21) argues that foreign student exchange has
been shown to have positive wave effects when returning students advocate on behalf of their host
institution of study.
22

• It is further recommended that public archives work jointly with the Department of Basic Education
and /or Department of Higher Education or institution of higher learning in South Africa in de-
veloping the curriculum for history teachers and learners or the curriculum for the archives and
records management students even though, currently, few institutions of higher learning are pro-
viding learning and teaching on the subject. How about developing a course regarding the Rivonia
Trial Dictabelt collection? The Rivonia trial is a landmark in South Africa’s fight for freedom:
It was a trial in which Nelson Mandela, together with Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, Raymond
Mhlaba, Elias Motsoaledi, Denis Goldberg, Andrew Mlangeni and Ahmed Kathrada, was accused
of trying to overthrow the state and ended in all the above being sentenced to life imprisonment.
During the trial, no discussions were taken down on paper. Instead, the proceedings were recorded
on 591 dictabelts. The dictabelt is a thin floppy cylinder made of vinyl, red, blue or purple in color
stretched between two rollers and set in rotation in a dictaphone machine used for sound carriers.
In December 2006, these were inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World register. These
precious documents were loaned to the Ina (Institut national de l’audiovisuel) in October 2014
by NARSSA where they will be returned soon (Republic of South Africa, 2017, p. 1). Matthew
Lyons, cited in Senturk (2013, p. 109), notes that:
Providing schools with digital access to archival materials can strengthen both student learning and
archival practice. It can help students learn to approach history actively, creatively, and critically, and
it can help archival institutions broaden and deepen their public service and community ties.
If not, the educational programme will remain ineffective and in the long run threaten the very existence
of the public archives.
• The study recommends that public archives, to the fullest extent, adopt and use the departmental
social media platform to regularly post accurate and trustworthy content pertaining to the archives
and records management. The ease to use technology such as social media is most likely going
to coax and gently persuade potential users of archives in a cost-effective manner. The study by
Thelle and Thylstrup (2011, p. 574) generally found that neutral and easy-to-use technology re-
mains distinct and key in effecting the behavioural preferences of the European citizens and the
international community, respectively. Ngai, Tao and Moon (2015, p. 35) acknowledge also the
significant influence that social media exerts on people’s behaviour. Thus embracing that social
media will most likely increase customer value for the target groups and reduce costs to the tax-
payer (Palm, Lilja, & Wiklund, 2014, p. 37).
The most recent example of the effectiveness of social media is the campaign of the winner of the
South African ruling party’s internal party election in 2017 on Twitter and Facebook. According to Du
Toit and Haffajee (2017, p. 1), the campaign went live in January 2017 and very quickly developed its
own identity. This changed the perception of the intended audience to achieve the desired outcome,
in this case, to win the party presidential election. Therefore, public archives should learn from these
campaigns and start embracing and using social media to promote their archives.
23

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com/2010/11/lee-ann-potter.pdf
29

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Public Archives Repository: A place where documents and records of national, historical significance
were acquired, organised, stored, maintained and made available for use by the public.
Public Programming: A function performed by public archives to communicate and create aware-
ness of archives to the member of the public, educate those who fund the programme and others on
how to use them through harmonisation of various activities, with the aim of developing an effective
and efficient archival service.
ENDNOTE
1
The exchange rate of the rand to the dollar was calculated at 14:1 which was the prevailing rate at
the time of the study.
30
31
Chapter 2
Building Inclusivity
Through Connections With
Community Archives
Andrea Copeland
Indiana University Indianapolis, USA
Ayoung Yoon
Indiana University Indianapolis, USA
ABSTRACT
This chapter explores how to construct bridges between existing cultural institutions and community
archives (or community groups wanting to develop archives) and the potential role for third-party or-
ganizations in bridging these groups. Further, research is presented that provides recommendations
for library and archive practitioners who wish to build connections with groups in their communities.
Connecting with participatory heritage is introduced as a means to build capacity in community groups
for sustaining efforts to preserve and make accessible diverse histories.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter offers practice-based recommendations on how to construct bridges between existing
heritage institutions and community archives or community groups wanting to develop archives. These
recommendations are based on a case study of a multi-year project involving one particular community
archive that began 160 years ago and remains active today, as well as, a qualitative study focused on
individuals who have functioned as a third-party organization to bridge connections between institutions
and community groups. The concept of participatory heritage is presented as the social context in which
connections and capacity are built.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch002

Building Inclusivity Through Connections With Community Archives
BACKGROUND
Archives and Underrepresented Histories
Over the past several decades, heritage institutions (libraries, museums, and archives) have increased their
commitment to documenting and preserving forgotten records and unspoken voices of underrepresented
communities (Cook, 2013). While these efforts have significantly contributed to social justice and human
rights, there are limitations to a top-down approach of collecting and preserving marginalized histories.
Community archives, which take a bottom-up approach, are a potential path to overcoming these limi-
tations (Flinn & Stevens, 2009). Community archives usually refer collections of archival records that
originate in a community-that is, a group of people who live in the same location or share other forms
of community of interest-and whose collection, maintenance and use involves active participation of
that community (Ander, 2007).
Historically, many underrepresented communities have created archives for use by their members to
advocate for their current and historical representation in society. When social justice is desired, com-
munity archives generally possess these characteristics: it is used by members beyond their evidentiary
purpose; it requires control and participation by community members; it is driven by social context
rather than neutrality, it supports activism and advocacy for the community; it contains non-traditional
acquisitions generated through community member donations; its collections are dictated and devel-
oped by community members (Copeland, 2015). Community archives also face many challenges, such
as lack of expertise in and capability of preservation as well as technical and financial sustainability,
because it prioritizes the use of records to support current community information needs rather than
long-term preservation and it is often founded by one or two passionate individuals and it is maintained
by volunteers (Copeland, 2015).
Bringing archival institutions and community archives together is a mutually beneficial approach to
overcoming these limitations for both sectors. The desire for formal or mainstream heritage institutions
to form relationships with community archives stems from a professional responsibility to build more
inclusive and culturally relevant collections. Through forming partnerships, heritage institutions will be
exposed to an increasingly broader scope of topics but also be better positioned to help the communities
that are not capable of organizing and preserving their own stories. The need for community archives to
form relationships with other agencies emerges when financial and physical sustainability issues arise.
Over time, relying on volunteers and limited or sporadic financial resources threatens their long-term
existence. Further, community groups or community archives that are so marginalized as to not have
connections to formal institutions will have access to professional expertise as well as to a preservation
infrastructure. Third-party organizations may likely be the bridge between institutions and community
groups as third-party entities are in a better position to prioritize social justice than are formal archival
institutions, which operate from a premise of neutrality.
There have been considerable practical and theoretical interests in community archives since the early
1990s. Archivists and librarians have recognized the importance and impact of community archives; con-
necting people with their history and heritage, engaging community in social activities, and contributing
democratic heritage from participatory collecting (Duff et al, 2013). Perhaps the most significant role
of community archives is their contribution to social justice, by recovering the hidden and marginalized
stories and documenting the silence that are not the scope of formal memory institutions. Flinn (2011),
32

thus, argues that community archives are frequently associated with a political agenda aiming at social
transformation and challenging discrimination and misrepresentation by mainstream authorities.
The social justice aspect of community archives can serve as a barrier to the connection between
community archives and formal institutions. Duff, Flinn, Suurtamm, and Wallace (2013) explore the
impact of social justice on professional archival endeavors. The challenge for the professional archivist
is figuring out how to simultaneously take the long historical view and engage in present social justice
issues. Further, the democratization of information has had its influence on archival selection as expertise
and power have been decentralized in the process. The effect of this is seen as community members are
increasingly viewed as experts in the collections unique to their communities (Shilton & Srinivasan, 2007).
The tension brought about by social justice and community experts in the archives can be viewed
through the debate between Greene and Jimerson. Put dichotomously, Greene (2013) cautions against
the social justice imperative for fear of politicizing the profession and greatly limiting the objectivity
of archival evidence. On the other hand, Jimerson (2013) argues that archives have always been entities
in service to those in positions of power; to not realize this is to ignore the responsibility of archivists
to be inclusive and to document fully the collective human experience. For a thorough consideration
of social justices in archival thinking and practice, read, “Critical directions for archival approaches to
social justice” (Punzalan & Caswell, 2016).
From this tension within the archival profession, intermediary organizations are beginning to emerge.
These organizations can make the connections between the resource rich archival institutions and his-
tory’s marginalized groups thereby joining both technical and cultural knowledge to the benefit of a
more inclusive historical representation.
The research presented here explores the approach used by individuals acting in the capacity of a
third-party organization that have connected community groups to formal infrastructures of support. In
addition to a case study regarding the Bethel Project, we conducted interviews with eleven individuals
who through bridging the gap between community group and institution produced a tangible cultural
output, for example, a book, a movie, or an archival collection. From the interviews, successful methods
of creating strategic partnerships with heritage institutions were identified. The methods that emerged
support creating equitable partnerships that allow both sides to maintain their voices and political inde-
pendence. While two parties might have mutual interests (e.g., the issue of social justice), they might
also have different organizational priorities and preferences, which may lead to tension in building a
partnership. As Gilliland and Flinn (2013) recommend that the most productive relationship becomes
one based on joint stewardship rather than on the custodial transference of ownership to institutional
archives. We are suggesting that joint stewardship might be more easily obtained through the use of a
third-party organization.
RESEARCH STUDY
Case Study: The Bethel Project
The Bethel Project1 started without intention, in 2013, when Andrea Copeland met Olivia McGee Lockhart,
the keeper of history and archive for the Bethel AME Church in Indianapolis, the oldest Black church in
the city. She met Lockhart and learned of the archive by happenstance as there is no structure, social or
technical, that would have connected them. In speaking with others working with community archives,
33

we find that this is the norm as there are no formal connections to the community archives of under-
represented groups. Over time, Copeland joined with Lockhart and others to find ways to preserve and
make accessible to a greater audience the church’s 162-year-old archive (Copeland, 2017). The archive,
while not kept in an ideal state and certainly not one for the long term, contained documents dating back
to the 1850s, hand written journals, letters, and church financial records.
Copeland’s initial awareness of this community archive is an important aspect to expound upon
as it lends support to the idea that formal systems are needed to connect community groups to the
infrastructures of support contained with heritage institutions including both technology and profes-
sional expertise. Copeland’s connection to the Bethel AME Church began with Rodney Freeman. He
approached Copeland one day, when he was a branch manager for Indianapolis Public Library, because
of her interest in digital preservation of everyday peoples’ digital information and artifacts. He was con-
cerned that there was not enough awareness in the black community regarding the importance of digital
preservation. He asked Copeland to join his group called Project Back Up, formed to raise awareness
of the aforementioned problem.
Freeman was a member of the Bethel AME church. He was also an alum of the graduate program
in library science at Indiana University and a recipient of the Leading in Diversity Fellowship funded
through the Institute for Museum and Library Services, the only federal funding agency for libraries and
museums in the United States. The grant was awarded to increase diversity among the librarians and
archivists in the state of Indiana. This is an important connection to make as without Freeman, Copeland
would not have known of this archive, which in addition is the history of AME congregants is also an
important aspect of the history of black Indianapolis. This is particularly important as gentrification is
steadily erasing the African-American footprint from Indianapolis’ downtown (Herkert, 2016). Further
without the graduate fellowship, Freeman might not have joined the heritage professions and not have
been there to make the connection and to raise awareness of an important history that truly needed to
be shared and preserved.
A connection to a formal institution was needed to ensure preservation and establish access outside
of the church. The support of several heritage professionals and institutions were needed to preserve,
digitize, and make accessible the archive. Copeland began to function as a one-woman third-party or-
ganization connecting Lockhart and the archive with the news media for awareness, the State Library
for funding, the Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) University Library for
digitization and access, the Indiana Historical Society to preserve the physical document collection and
the State Museum for the artifacts.
Figure 1 illustrates that although the Bethel AME Church is physically close to the institutions needed
for preservation of its archive no social connection or system existed to connect the church with those
institutions. It also illustrates that what surrounds the church is no longer a thriving African-American
community but a state university.
At this point, it is important to introduce two additional individuals, Kisha Tandy, Associate Curator
for history and culture at the Indiana State Museum, the recently deceased Wilma Moore, Senior African
American Archivist at the Indiana Historical Society.2 Kisha Tandy was another recipient of the Leading
in Diversity Fellowship. Wilma Moore was a trailblazing historian archivist who broke racial barriers in
the archive profession to create a more inclusive history in the state of Indiana.
34

Figure 1. Map of church and heritage institutions involved in the preservation of the Bethel archive
Figure 2. From left to right: Kisha Tandy, Wilma Moore, and Olivia McGee Lockhart
35

Without these two individuals, who shared a cultural and ethnic background with Lockhart, holding
the positions they did in their respective institutions there is no way Copeland would have asked Lockhart
to consider entrusting these institutions with the archive and artifacts. Further, there is no way Lockhart
would have. It was a tough decision as it was. Ms. Stout, the first Keeper of History asked Lockhart,
on her death bed, to never let the collection leave the church, because of decades of unfair treatment of
the African American community at the hands of the state. However, the church was being sold, there
was no one in line to replace Lockhart, and she could see the benefits to African American history and
advocacy of greater access to the collection. Bethel’s story could be told outside of the walls of the
church and the confines of their community. Without African-American heritage professionals in these
institutions none of the work we’ve done would have been possible.
One of the most important lessons learned and the strongest recommendation that can be made for
creating a system that connections underrepresented groups and their histories to heritage institutions
is to build a more inclusive professional heritage community. This experience has made us intimately
aware of the potential for significant loss if these connections are not made. These discoveries cannot
be left to chance. It is vital to build a more inclusive profession.
Throughout working with Lockhart and the church congregants, the evolution of the project was
mutually beneficial and respectful of all expertise not privileging formally credentialed knowledge over
others. Along those lines, we encourage you to leave the printed page and view a local news recording
of Lockhart discussing the importance of this church and its people to our city. Her voice and wisdom
have guided the essence of our work over the past four years.3 For more information on this project I
recommend reading “The Bethel AME Church Archive: partners and participants” (Copeland, 2017).
Qualitative Study of Individuals Working in a Third-Party Capacity
Given that third-party organizations can function outside of the policies of heritage institutions, they
are more flexible with regards to sharing knowledge and taking social action to build capacity within
communities to collect, preserve, and share their own heritage. Archivist and librarians are beholden to
organizational priorities and a third-party organization could more easily facilitate heritage professionals
engaging with collections that fall outside of their institutional mandates.
Considering the effectiveness of Copeland taking on the role of a third-party organization, we wanted
to speak to others who had acted in a similar capacity and explore more broadly how third-party enti-
ties could contribute to making connections in this way. We interviewed eleven such individuals who
through their work were able to connect a community group with a formal heritage institution to produce
some tangible cultural representation that could be shared and preserved. Most of these individuals were
from our community in Indianapolis and some from other cities around the United States. Through the
case study experience discussed above and these interviews, methods evolved for building successful
community-based heritage projects that form vital connections to both professional expertise and tech-
nical infrastructures of support. Ultimately, these methods will help us build a framework for connec-
tivity, inclusivity, and capacity building. It should be noted that while formal third-party organizations
do exist and function to create connections and increase inclusivity4, we thought lessons learned from
individuals taking on this role would be more relevant to heritage professionals working within their
local communities.
36

Methods for Building Connectivity and Capacity
The following methods are simple in concept, but you may find difficult in practice.
• Create a more inclusive community of heritage professionals. Without continuing to diversify the
profession across all communities, important social and cultural connections will not occur. Local
heritage institutions, funding agencies, and library and archival education need to find ways to
work together to create conduits to the profession.
• Be prepared to invest a significant amount of time in building relationships. Plan on spending time
going to meetings, having dinner, and listening to people. This time will be spent building a rela-
tionship with community members building, trust, concern and mutual affection. To quote one of
the interviewees, “you are much less likely to do harm to a community you love and care about.”
• Do your homework and learn deeply about the communities with you wish to work. Learn the
relevant local history and take the time to learn about the significant community members, his-
tory, and events past and present. Learning about the community will make building relationships
much easier.
• Build connections back to your organization not from it. Go to local events, organizations, church-
es, and community spaces like parks to meet people. Go where the people are and find ways to
build bridges back to the formal institutions, not the other way around. Try to see the landscape
from the point of view of the community member and build a path back from across that landscape.
• Connect with elders and opinion leaders within a given community. Build relationships with re-
spected members in the community and use those relationships as a conduit to the greater com-
munity. The elder members of a community are valuable knowledge stores and are rewarding to
work with as a result. For example, Lockhart, Bethel’s Keeper of History, is essential to the entire
archive project as her memory contains the contextual narrative that brings the archive to life.
• Bring something to the table. Think about what you have to offer and how the community mem-
bers will benefit directly from being involved with you. For example, one interviewee, an arche-
ologist, when working closely with a community member will do extensive genealogy research on
that person’s family and share it with them.
• Involve students, volunteers, and community members in spreading the message about your proj-
ects. Individuals who have had a positive experience working with you and your organization can
reach a greater audience than you working alone. For example, an interviewee that creates com-
munity quilts for social action asks project volunteers to share the purpose of the project with the
people they interact with in fabric stores. Also, for them, to share with family, friends, and cowork-
ers about the project, in this way, quilt making motivates community dialog.
• Be flexible when moving from one community to the next. Every community is different and that
methods and strategies that work before may not work again.
Roles Embraced by Interviewees
We found the interviewees embraced a diversity of different roles throughout the projects. The roles
they played included educator, fundraiser, media spokesperson, and coordinator of any number of col-
laborators. These roles we expected based on our experiences with the Bethel Project. The roles of critic,
champion and healer are understandable but certainly less expected.
37

The role of critic was articulated best by an anthropologist who worked with a neighborhood com-
munity that had been displaced by the federal highway system. Former members of this community get
together once a year for a picnic and her work with them produced a monograph and digital collection.
She had this to say:
“First of all, I don’t think we should fetishize these communities, because in some ways they emerge
from very difficult histories of racial and religious segregation, poverty, isolation, in some respects. No
community can be static, no community is here forever. They all are organic living beings, and everything
will change. I do agree that the important point is to capture those histories, preserve them, democratize
that process as much as possible, and have people know that the landscape it didn’t always look like this.
I think our public scholar role is to be a sort of critical voice, not simply to parrot community feel-good
sorts of or community bad experiences.”
The filmmaker whose documentary tells the story of a city high school that opened in 1928 for
African-Americans to enforce segregation in education, prior to that date that same city’s school were
integrated. It’s an ugly racist history. The filmmaker fully embraced the role of community champion:
“Every graduation picture, they have it on the wall, from 1928 on, there’s your great-grandmother,
there’s your great-grandfather, and then here’s our neighbor.” It just hit me. It honestly hit me right then
and there that I had done the wrong story. That basketball is great and deserves all the credit but there’s
a much deeper story. That is a microcosm of the African-American experience in this city in the 20th
century, and it’s there. I see those pictures as a horizontal monument, every bit as impressive as the thing
over here, sticking up tall in the parks. You think what resiliency had to happen to over there, what they
had to overcome, what they were able to change systemically. With that achievement. I was caught.”
One interviewee is an artist who leads a community quilt-making project that documents the history
of lynching of African-Americans in connection to today’s crimes, including murder, committed against
black men by the police. She sees the process of making the quilt as painful but necessary for healing:
for all Americans to own their history and to unpack what it means in order to be freed from fear and
hatred. She expresses her work as a healer in the following way:
“The project’s first priority or principle is really about bringing people to the table. Creating com-
munity. Creating opportunities for people to talk about really difficult subjects for some people, to use
this as a process of healing. And yeah, down there, we’ll learn how to quilt, too, while we go along with
this. I have to tell them, “Well, the reality is a huge part of healing is peeling back the scabs so that all
of the pus and all of the really foul stuff in there bleeds out.” There’s a portion of our healing is really
about encountering that ugly side that you don’t want to. So maybe for you this project doesn’t work,
but you have this over here that you can work on, that will help you do that. Maybe your whole purpose
of encountering this project is to peel off the scabs so you can start bleeding and clean out some of
the detritus and things that’s in there. Down the line, if you’re really serious about this, you’re going to
encounter the thing that will activate you to allow that wound to heal cleanly.”
Most heritage professionals are likely comfortable in the roles of educator, fundraiser, media spokes-
person, and coordinator of any number of collaborators, as well as, librarian and archivist. The degree to
which these same professionals, given institutional policy and professional ethics, would feel comfort-
able or able to embrace the roles of critic, champion, or healer is likely to vary. Depending on the goals
of the project and the community, working with a third-party entity to realize the impact of those roles
might be necessary.
38

Capacity Building and Participatory Heritage
Interviewees were asked about how they moved from a film, a book, or the preservation of an archive
to act and to effectuate change in society. Other than the artist leading the quilt project, they did not see
this as their role:
I can’t provide any answers. I try to stay away from that. It doesn’t preach. It’s not political. It does raise
a lot of questions about where things are today and where they’re going tomorrow. We wanted it to raise
those questions. It’s like the ball is teed up for someone to really do something with it on a meaningful
level. Who is that person? Or people? Who are they going to be? I don’t know.
I used to be a community organizer before I became an anthropologist, and the only thing that can
bring about large-scale social change I believe is actual grass roots organizing. I’m not in a position to
do that, and you guys probably aren’t either. That is the only kind of activity I think that can bring about
fundamental, and social change. I don’t aspire to it, because I know how much work it is, and how hard it is.
For us, this underscores the importance of building capacity for this work in both community members
and heritage professionals alike. It is vital to build capacity in individuals and communities to collect,
create, and share in heritage activities to sustain what these collaborations start.
Whether it is a matter of third-party organizations acting as an intermediary or heritage institutions
directly, those interested in the future of formal heritage institutions (e.g. museums, libraries, archives)
need to engage with participatory heritage for two reasons. First, greater numbers of individuals par-
ticipate in heritage outside of formal institutions than within them; and secondly, the characteristics of
participatory heritage provide a basis for capacity building (Roued-Cunliffe & Copeland, 2017).
Participatory heritage is defined by the following. It is a space in which individuals engage in cultural
activities outside of formal institutions. Knowledge sharing and co-creating with others is the norm as the
process is interactive and multidirectional. Most importance is placed on content and less importance on
medium, process, or professional expertise. Projects in this space acknowledge a diversity of expertise
and operate from a premise of shared authority. Collaborations are bottom-up in nature as they emerge
from connections among individuals rather than organizations
The power of digital connectivity and the ease of content creation fuels participation in heritage
activities. Local and family historians, craftspeople, artists and many more groups are participating in
collection building and memory making outside of formal heritage institutions. The breath of participa-
tory heritage space will continue to expand, and in doing so, create a more inclusive shared heritage.
However, without links to formal heritage institutions, issues of scalability, and long-term and equitable
access arise. Ideally, community-based heritage projects will evolve to include methods for community
groups to partner with heritage institutions to the benefit of both.
Our research will continue to explore both third-party organizations and participatory heritage as essential
components for building connections between community groups and heritage institutions and formal
39

infrastructures that support access and preservation. The next steps include interviewing both community
members and archivists that have engaged in projects through a third-party organization, participatory
heritage, or combination of the two. Understanding all stakeholders’ experiences and expectations will
contribute to more effective system from building connections, capacity, and collections that are inclusive.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank the Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) Arts & Humani-
ties Institute for its generous support of this research.
REFERENCES
Ander, E. (2007). Black and minority ethnic community archives in London. London: Museums Librar-
ies Archives.
Cook, T. (2013). Evidence, memory, identity, and community: Four shifting archival paradigms. Archival
Science, 13(2-3), 95–120. doi:10.100710502-012-9180-7
Copeland, A. (2015). Community archives. In S. K. Hastings (Ed.), Annual review of cultural heritage
informatics (pp. 85–98). London: Rowman & Littlefield.
Copeland, A. (2017). The Bethel AME Church Archive: Partners and participants. In H. Roued-Cunliffe &
A. Copeland (Eds.), Participatory heritage (pp. 15–24). London: Facet. doi:10.29085/9781783301256.003
Duff, W. M., Flinn, A., Suurtamm, K. E., & Wallace, D. A. (2013). Social justice impact of archives: A
preliminary investigation. Archival Science, 13(4), 317–348. doi:10.100710502-012-9198-x
Flinn, A. (2011). Archival activism: Independent and community-led archives, radical public history and
the heritage professions. InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies, 7(2), 1–20.
Flinn, A., & Stevens, M. (2009). ‘It Is Nohmistri, Wimekin History.’ Telling our own story: Indepen-
dent and community archives in the UK, Challenging and subverting the mainstream. In J. Bastian
& B. Alexander (Eds.), Community archives: The shaping of memory (pp. 3–27). London: Facet.
doi:10.29085/9781856049047.003
Gilliland, A., & Flinn, A. (2013). Community archives: What are we really talking about? Keynote
address. Nexus, Confluence, and Difference: Community Archives meets Community Informatics. In
CIRN Conference, Prato, Italy, October 28–30.
Greene, M. A. (2013). A critique of social justice as an archival imperative: What is it we’re doing that’s
all that important? The American Archivist, 76(3), 302–334. doi:10.17723/aarc.76.2.14744l214663kw43
Heckert, A. (2016). The changing face of Indiana Avenue. Indianapolis Monthly. Retrieved from https://
www.indianapolismonthly.com/news-opinion/changing-face-indiana-avenue/
Jimerson, R. C. (2013). Archivists and social responsibility: A response to Mark Greene. The American
Archivist, 76(2), 335–345. doi:10.17723/aarc.76.2.2627p15350572t21
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Punzalan, R. L., & Caswell, M. (2016). Critical directions for archival approaches to social justice. The
Library Quarterly, 86(1), 25–42. doi:10.1086/684145
Roued-Cunliffe, H., & Copeland, A. (Eds.). (2017). Participatory heritage. London: Facet Publishing.
doi:10.29085/9781783301256
ENDNOTES
1
https://comet.soic.iupui.edu/bethel/
2
http://blogs.iu.edu/dlis/2018/08/07/wilma-l-moore-gifted-storyteller-and-community-icon-honored-
with-endowed-scholarship/
3
http://www.indystar.com/story/news/2016/04/08/indys-oldest-african-american-church-sold-hotel-
space/82765744/
4
For example, see International Coalition of Sites of Conscience, https://www.sitesofconscience.org/
en/home/; Chicago Cultural Alliance https://www.chicagoculturalalliance.org; & State humanities
councils in the U.S. https://www.neh.gov/about/state-humanities-councils
41
42
Chapter 3
Global Perspectives on the
Challenges and Prospects
of Accessing and Using
Documentary Heritage
Forget Chaterera
University of South Africa, South Africa & National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Patrick Ngulube
ABSTRACT
The ability of national archival institutions to make available the documentary heritage in their custody
is the sole basis for justification of their existence and relevance in society. As such, archival institutions
are faced with a great responsibility to ensure that they are visible and able to attract large visitor-ship.
This chapter provides a global perspective on the challenges and prospects surrounding the accessibility
and use of documentary heritage. The chapter largely relies on a review of literature to discuss the future
of archives’ utilisation and to explore the challenges which the global archival community has endured
in the provision of access to and use of their archival holdings. The common factor established in extant
literature is that access is the most critical archival function, yet it is proving to be the most challenging.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of selecting, acquiring and preserving manuscripts and archives is to make them available
for use. The availability of public archival materials justifies the existence of national archival institu-
tions and promotes democracy, transparency and accountability in a nation. It is therefore critical to
explore the challenges and prospects of access and use of archives from a global perspective. This will
help in creating an internationally informed ideology on how archivists and information management
professionals can strengthen their position as leaders in the field of preservation of documentary heritage.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch003

Global Perspectives on the Challenges and Prospects of Accessing and Using Documentary Heritage
Archives serve no purpose unless they are used. Research conducted in Africa on access and use of
public archival material revealed that public archival institutions are underutilised, and that they need to
adopt more aggressive strategies to become known, accessible and used by the people (Mnjama, 2008;
Murambiwa & Ngulube, 2011; Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011; Smart, 2011). Debates from around the globe
regarding access and use of public archival materials will be brought to the fore so as to allow archivists
to draw some lessons from each other, thereby creating a better future for the archival global village.
The discourse of this chapter transcends literature on access to archives in Africa (which is predomi-
nantly occupied with lamentations over their underutilisation). The chapter pays due attention to the
success stories recorded elsewhere across the globe. One example among many is the National Archives
of Singapore which has managed to create a one-stop portal for access to cultural and heritage informa-
tion dating back to the 17th century. The portal presents access to various databases, photographs, maps
and plans, oral history audio files and other audio-visual recordings in multiple ways (Beasley & Kail,
2009, p. 149). Overall, this chapter engages existing literature to ascertain the challenges and prospects
of access to and use of archives with the view of creating a stance on which archivists can define a better
future for the archival profession.
CONCEPTUALISING DOCUMENTARY HERITAGE
Documentary heritage refers to recorded history, from papyrus scrolls or clay tablets to film, sound re-
cordings or digital files (Edmondson, 2002). It is the product of a deliberate documenting process and
can further be explicitly defined as comprising items with the following characteristics:
• Moveable
• Made up of signs/codes, sounds and/or images
• Preservable
• Reproducible
• Migratable
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2016) indicates
that documentary heritage normally excludes items which are part of a fixed fabric such as a building
or a natural site, objects on which the signs/codes are incidental to their purpose, or items which were
designed as non-reproducible originals such as paintings, three dimensional artefacts or art objects. An
item of documentary heritage can be a single document of any kind or it can be a group of documents
such as a collection. Documentary heritage therefore refers to all media on which information is recorded,
regardless of the nature of the medium or the method or circumstances of records.
Humanity is uniquely characterised by its ability to build and transmit a collective memory, and its
desire to have access to memory. This can happen in three ways. The first is oral transmission which is
the passing of knowledge and customs from one generation to the next by speech, song and ceremony.
The second is the reshaping of the physical world by altering landforms and erecting buildings which are
the heritage of succeeding generations. The third is by the recording of information in a documentary
form, such as the written word, photography and sound recording. It is this third form of documentary
heritage that is the focus of this chapter.
43

There are many reports which indicate that public archival materials in most African countries are
underutilised. Many governments have not been able to grant access to public records, yet it is the mandate
of national archival institutions to provide access to their collections (Mnjama, 2008; Kilasi, Maseko
& Abankwah, 2011). As such it is prudent to explore the challenges and prospects of access to and use
of documentary heritage from a global perspective. This will provide a composite picture regarding the
global status quo of access to and use of archives. It will also enable today’s archivists to envisage what
the future holds for the archival profession, allow them to be better prepared to meet foreseen challenges,
and to tap into possible opportunities.
Referring to reports recorded in local, regional and international extant literature, the objectives of
the study are as follows:
• To provide an overview of access and use of archives from a global perspective

• To underscore the constraints and opportunities posed by certain legal instruments on access to
and use of the public archives
• To analyse the nexus between reference services and processing in giving access to the archives
• To explore the intricacies in balancing preservation and use of public archives
• To propose strategic goals and strategies for a better archival future
AN OVERVIEW OF ACCESS TO AND USE OF ARCHIVES
Administering access is an essential archival function and is ranked by both researchers and archivists as
the highest demand. Access is “the ability and opportunity to discover, use, and understand” the nation’s
documentary heritage (Loewen, 2008, p. 164). Access to documentary heritage entails the need for ar-
chival institutions to align their services to the needs of their users (Kilasi, Maseko & Abankwah, 2011).
It is critical for archivists to make public archives available as this access is regarded as a fundamental
human right (Onyancha & Ngoepe, 2011) and a public right that may not be restricted by administrative
barriers, geography, ability to pay or format (Smart, 2011). Access is therefore the availability of records
for consultation as a result of both legal authorisation and the existence of finding aids (tools that help
a user find information) (Pearce-Moses, 2013). It is essentially the right, opportunity, or means of find-
ing, using or retrieving information.
Access is the nucleus of an archival institution. The remaining archival functions such as acquisition,
description, preservation and conservation are oriented to ensure the availability of archival holdings
(Loewen, 2008). To this effect, McClauseland (2007) argues that the reason for keeping archives is for
them to be used. Recognising access as the raison d’être of archival institutions was the major driving
factor for looking into global perspectives on the challenges and opportunities in giving access to public
archival materials. This chapter is premised on the understanding that access to the archival holdings is
not providing merely for its own sake. In this respect, several studies have attested to the archivist’s pri-
mary purpose being to facilitate access and use of archival materials. However, some schools of thought
do not necessarily perceive access and use as the raison d’être for national archival institutions. For
instance, Jenkinson (1922, p. 15) holds the view that the primary function of an archivist is to safeguard
the archives and their essential qualities, with the secondary duty being to provide access to the archival
materials. To this end, Jenkinson (1922) emphasises that “the position of primary and secondary must not
be reversed”. Such thinking was perpetuated up to the 1940s by Brooks (1940, p. 221) who emphasises
44

the selection of records for preservation, arguing that the archivist’s primary concern should be based
on the question ‘what records shall we preserve?’. That mentality persists to this day. There has been
much debate on whether collecting and preservation is more important than the provision access. In a
study conducted by Kaplan (2000, p. 138) it was revealed that some people believe that it is adequate
for an archival institution to simply focus on collecting and preservation while others objected that the
preservation of documents alone would not make enough public statement, thus emphasising the need
to be proactive in providing access.
The authors of this chapter fully subscribes to Schaeffer (1992, p. 614) who reiterates that archivists
are now the servants of society at large, called upon to ensure archival materials are accessible to a range
of users. Further underscoring access and use as the primary function for national archival institutions
is Cross (1997, p. 5) who indicates that archivists have become less willing to accept access restrictions
as they continue to perceive access as their traditional ties to reference. Similar sentiments were shared
by Duff and Fox (2006, p. 131) who argued on the critical need to equip archivists with the skills to deal
with the unique demands of access and reference work.
The value contained in archival materials is of social, economic, educational, historic, political and
informational value to members of the public. In that regard, Loewen (2008) indicates that a national
documentary heritage has to be wholly accessible, as it contributes to the advancement of the society.
The ability of archives to provide access to their collections is the key that allows archival institutions
to acquire a profile as service-oriented, competent and professionally managed institutions. Ngulube
(2006) emphasises that archives are crucial entities where social scientists and researchers consult when
conducting projects that contribute to society’s knowledge base and social development. Human achieve-
ments are largely dependent on access to archival material. As such, this chapter presents a discourse
analysis of global perspectives regarding the challenges associated with access provision as well as the
inherent opportunities.
It is crucial for documentary heritage to be readily available to people as the information held in
archival material play a significant role in the social, political and economic development of a people.
Additionally, access to public archives gives people an opportunity to exercise their rights while pro-
moting accountability, transparency and good governance (Mnjama, 2008; Murambiwa & Ngulube,
2011; Thurston, 2015). Furthermore, governments’ honesty and integrity can only be supported by the
citizens’ ability to access and use its records (Matangira & Lowry, 2013). Similarly, Thurston (2015)
emphasises that access to a government’s records enables effective public oversight and the achieve-
ment of the international development goals rests with the ability to access reliable information. In the
same vein, Smart (2011) indicates that the information held in the archives is an important resource for
the country’s society as it can significantly contribute to the current debates and decisions that impact
on the country’s social and economic policies as well as the development of political priorities for the
citizenry. To that effect, access and use become the central goal for all archival institutions. Given the
vital importance of the archives and the role they play in peoples’ lives, it is critical to examine the chal-
lenges and prospects of access and use of public archives.
The need for national archival institutions to make their archival collections available to the people
is well documented. Archival institutions exist to preserve and give access to a nation’s documentary
heritage and should therefore strive to make their holdings accessible and knowable across time and
space (Guercio, 2001, p. 244). There is remarkable advocacy in extant literature on the need for archival
institutions to make themselves more relevant and worthy of existing by ensuring that access to their
collection is promoted (Coles, 1988; Greene, 2007; Cook, 2010; Daniels & Ombudsman, 2010; Bacon,
45

2014). It is, however, worrying to note that some archival institutions are struggling to make their col-
lection available for use (Mazikana, 1999; Mutiti, 1999; Murambiwa & Ngulube 2011).
INTERNATIONAL PROTOCOLS ON ACCESS TO ARCHIVES
Given the indisputable importance of the need for public information centres to ensure access to their
holdings, a number of international associations have come up with principles, declarations, codes and
statements to promote the use of documentary heritage. These include but are not limited to the Inter-
national Council on Archives (ICA) Principles of Access to Archives, the ICA Universal Declaration
on Archives and the ICA Archivists Code of Ethics.
International Council on Archives (ICA) Principles of Access to Archives
The ICA’s principles relating to access to archives provide an authoritative international baseline against
which to measure existing access policy and practices and a framework to use when developing new or
modifying existing access rules (ICA 2012). In that respect, the ICA’s principles on access informed
this study in developing strategic goals and objectives for improved access to archives. These are the
ICA’s ten principles on archives:
1. The public has the right of access to archives of public bodies. Both public and private entities
should open their archives to the greatest extent possible.
2. Institutions holding archives declare the existence of the archives, including the existence of closed
materials, and disclose the existence of restrictions that affect access to the archives.
3. Institutions holding archives adopt a proactive approach to access.
4. Institutions holding archives ensure that restrictions on access are clear and of stated duration, are
based on pertinent legislation, acknowledge the right of privacy and respect the rights of owners
of private materials.
5. Archives are made available on equal and fair terms.
6. Institutions holding archives ensure that victims of serious crimes under international law have
access to archives that provide evidence needed to assert their human rights and to document viola-
tions of them, even if those archives are closed to the general public.
7. Users have the right to appeal a denial of access.
8. Institutions holding archives ensure that operational constraints do not prevent access to archives.
9. Archivists have access to all closed archives and perform necessary archival work on them.
10. Archivists participate in the decision-making process on access.
The ICA’s ten principles underscore the importance of access as an element of archival practice.
ICA Universal Declaration on Archives
The ICA’s Universal Declaration on Archives emphasises access and use of archives as a cornerstone of
human development. The declaration acknowledged archives as unique and irreplaceable heritage items
that provide authoritative sources of information underpinning accountable and transparent administra-
46

tive actions. As such, the declaration is hinged on open access to archives for it enriches knowledge of
human society, promotes democracy, protects citizens’ rights and enhances the quality of life. The ICA’s
declaration on archives fundamentally recognises the following:
• The unique quality of archives

• The vital necessity of archives
• The diversity of archives in recording every area of human activity
• The multiplicity of archives’ formats
• The role of archivists in making archival records available for use
• The collective responsibility of all in the management of archives
Owing to the recognition of the above archives’ qualities, ICA strives to ensure that archives are
made accessible to everyone, while respecting the pertinent laws and the rights of individuals, creators,
owners and users.
ICA Archivists’ Code of Ethics
ICA’s code of ethics for archivists places the provision of access to archives at the centre of archivists’
responsibilities. Overall, the code of ethics contends that every archival function -- including processing,
appraisal, preservation, conservation, arrangement and description, reprography, public programming
and microfilming -- is essential in making the documentary heritage available to the people. Item 4 of
the code stipulates that archivists should ensure the continuing accessibility and intelligibility of archi-
val materials. Emphasis on access is also provided in item 6 of the code of ethics where it is indicated
that archivists should promote the widest possible access to archival material and provide an impartial
service to all users. Overall, the following 10 values or principles listed in the ICA’s code of ethics are
meant to directly and indirectly promote the utilisation of archives:
• Archivists should protect the integrity of archival material.

• Archivists must act in accordance with generally accepted principles and practice.
• Archivists should ensure the archival value of records.
• Archivists should ensure the accessibility and intelligibility of archival materials.
• Archivists should advocate good recordkeeping practices.
• Archivists should promote the widest possible access to archival material and provide an impartial
service to all users.
• Archivists should respect both access and privacy.
• Archivists must refrain from activities which prejudice their professional integrity.
• Archivists should pursue professional excellence by updating their archival knowledge.
• Archivists should promote the preservation and use of the world’s documentary heritage.
(International Council on Archives, 1996)
47

LEGAL INSTRUMENTS PERTAINING ACCESS TO AND USE OF THE

PUBLIC ARCHIVES: CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
Archival institutions are in certain instances not able to make materials available to members of the public
due to copyright issues and other laws which they must abide by. This implies that archival institutions
are in possession of some material of which the usage restrictions are determined by another institution
or an individual (Schmidt, 2011). In some instances, there are donors who contribute to an archival
collection and retain the powers to set a time limit or give certain stipulations on how the materials can
be used. Such restrictions usually exist on sensitive material whose privacy needs to be firmly upheld.
Public bodies hold information not for themselves but as custodians of the public good and everyone
has a right to access this information, subject only to clearly defined rules established by law. As such,
this section examines selected laws, Acts, decrees, rules and regulations that preside over the general
populace’s access to and use of the information held in selected public archival bodies. An overview of
archival legislations in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Botswana reflects the common position that ac-
cess to the archives is a key responsibility for national archival institutions. For instance, the National
Archives of Zimbabwe Act of 1986 Section 9, item (a) stipulates that every person shall be entitled to
inspect any public archive which is in the custody of the National Archives, with the consent of the
Director. Similarly, the National Archives and Records Service of South Africa (NARSSA) Act of 1996
was enacted to provide for the proper management and care of the records of governmental bodies and
the preservation and use of a national archival heritage. Section 12 of the National Archives and Records
Service of South Africa Act of 1996 clearly provides for access to public archival material. The section
stipulates that a public record in the custody of the National Archives shall be available to the public if
a period of 20 years has elapsed since the end of the year in which the record came into existence. The
National Archives of Botswana Act Chapter 59:04 Part IV Section 12 item (1) also specifies that subject
to any written law prohibiting or limiting the disclosure of information obtained from members of the
public and to the provisions of this section, public archives which have been in existence for a period of
not less than 20 years may be made available for public inspection.
The provision of access to the archival material in national archival legislations indicates that docu-
mentary heritage is a key resource for the development of a people in many respects. Sharing similar
sentiments is Carvalho (2015) who indicates that access to public information is the touchstone of all
freedoms. Such sentiments are a clear indication that access to information is recognised by many.
It is, however, disappointing to note that although there are clear provisions in the archival legisla-
tions to ensure public access to archival material, outdated archival legislation has for a long time been
lamented as one of the factors hindering the effective utilisation of information by archival institutions
around the world (Kemoni, Wamukoya & Kiplang’at, 2003). Dube (2011) questioned the rules and
regulations governing the management of archival material in Zimbabwe, arguing for the amendment of
the NAZ Act of 1986 to rather focus on the management of records and archives as a nation’s heritage.
The first right to information law was enacted in Sweden in the year 1766 (Mustonen, 2006). On the
African continent, South Africa was the first to pass the Promotion of Access to Information Act (PAIA)
in 2000 and it went into effect in March 2001. The Act was intended to ‘foster a culture of transparency
and accountability in public and private bodies by giving effect to the right of access to information and
to actively promote a society in which the people of South Africa have effective access to information
to enable them to fully exercise and protect all of their rights’ (PAIA 2000, p. 1). The Promotion of Ac-
cess to Information Act of 2000 was, however, criticised by Sulej (2014) for hardly being used by the
48

ordinary citizens because the process of requesting records usually involves seeking the intervention
of the courts. Sulej (2014) also bemoan that the very same Act is being used by interested authorities
to deny access. In the same vein, Rodrigues (2008) criticises the bureaucratic cultures of secrecy and
inconsistent legislation that appear to promote access while serving as instruments that can also be used
to impose access restrictions.
Access to public records is a fundamental human right (Valge & Kibal, 2007; Daniels & Ombuds-
man, 2010). The call to make archives available to the people was made more than six decades ago yet
archivists are still battling to fulfil the goal. In 1946, the United Nations General Assembly recognised
that freedom of information is a basic human right and the cornerstone to all freedoms (Carvalho, 2015).
Following the enshrinement of the right to information in Article 19 of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, more than 80 countries passed national legislation entrenching the right in
domestic law. Such countries include Bulgaria, Costa Rica, Hungary, Jordan, Kenya, Mali, Norway,
Rwanda, Sweden, Tunisia, Uruguay and Zimbabwe. For instance, the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amend-
ment (No.20) Act, 2013, Chapter 4, Part II, Section 62, item 1, stipulates that every Zimbabwean citizen
or permanent resident has the right of access to any information held by the State or by any institution
or agency of government at every level. Section 32 of the South African Constitution of 1996 states:
‘(1) everyone has the right of access to – (a) any information held by the state’. As argued by Rodrigues
(2008), much as a law on access is important, mere enactment is inadequate.
The enshrinement of a people’s right to public information in a country’s constitution is an acknowl-
edgement that such access is critical, yet the national archival institution’s endeavours to increase the
access levels have for a long time been compromised by closure periods applicable to some material. For
instance, the closure period is 60 years in Mauritius, 50 years in Sudan, 40 years in Malawi, 35 years in
Lesotho, 30 years in Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Sierra Leone, Swaziland and Tanzania; 25
years in Gambia and Zimbabwe; and 20 years in Botswana, South Africa and Zambia (Ngulube, 2006, p.
143.). The closure period is 30 years in Poland (Sikorska-Kulesza, Stuchtey, Poncet, & Parry, 2008, p. 94).
The provision of access to archives has also been challenged by other restrictive regulations that are
meant to protect the interests of the state, economy, individuals and the public. The many restrictions
that are applied on archival material have not been enacted by archival legislation but by other legislature
not always in support of the archival laws (Valge & Kibal, 2007, p. 194) and which seems to over-ride
the clauses in archival legislations that provide for access to public information by the populace. For
example, in Zimbabwe, the Official Secrets Act (OSA) of 1970, and the Access to Information and Pro-
tection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) of 2002 undertake to prohibit the disclosure of material which for any
purpose prejudicial to the safety or interests of Zimbabwe might be useful to an enemy, and to protect
original works of authorship. Similarly, the Polish archival law states that an archival document is made
accessible 30 years after its creation, on condition that it does not violate any legally protected state and
citizens’ affairs (Sikorska-Kulesza, Stuchtey, Poncet, & Parry, 2008, p. 94).
Access laws vary widely in their treatment of information relating to internal deliberations about
policy or the management of public institutions.
The United States law obliges institutions to show that disclosure would not cause injury to the quality of
government decision-making while. The Canadian law protects particularly cabinet records even when
there is no evidence that harm would be caused by disclosure. The laws of Ireland and New Zealand
require proof that harm will be caused by disclosure but allow ministers to issue certificates preventing
review of their decisions to deny access. Australia permits non-disclosure without proof of harm and
49

also allows ministers to issue certificates limiting review. The 1999 British proposal denies any right
of access to information held by some security and intelligence agencies and allows ministers to issue
certificates limiting review of decisions to withhold information relating to national security that is held
by other agencies (Roberts, 1999, p. 11).
The British law, proposed in 1999, takes a mixed approach, adopting a blanket exemption of all mate-
rial relating to ‘the formulation or development of government policy’ without proof of harm, and also
an exemption of information where disclosure would be likely to inhibit ‘the free and frank exchange
of views’ or would ‘otherwise prejudice the effective conduct of public affairs’ (Roberts, 1999, p. 12).
The Australian law also allows Cabinet ministers to issue ‘conclusive certificates’ that limit the ability
of tribunals to review their decisions to withhold this information. Indeed, the right of access cannot
be without restrictions, and government bodies hold the legitimate right to restrict access to certain
information.
However, the position taken in this chapter corresponds with that of Harris and Merret (1994) who
indicate that, in as much as governments have a legitimate right to restrict access to certain information,
the restrictions need not be as wide as most governments make them. Official secrecy is amongst the
chief legal weapons used to restrict access to certain information by governments. Secrecy has, however,
been treated as a corrosive disease that forces a society to trip switch from one sterile era of conformity
to another (Harris & Merret, 1994). In the same vein, Roberts (1999, p. 9) indicates that ‘the burden was
once on proponents of access rights to make a case for transparency; today, the burden is on the govern-
ments to make the case for secrecy’. In that regard Schellenberg (1956) cited in Harris and Merret (1994)
argues that records should be available for use to an extent that is consistent with the public interest. To
this end, intellectual property has been criticised for promoting a monopoly over distribution thereby
explicitly hindering access (Bacon, 2014). In the words of Bacon (2014, p, 153), copyright decisions
are not ‘all or nothing’ as they are a barrier to the many benefits that can be realised if information is
made available to members of the public.
Some statutory plans and legislature work to the contrary of what they purport to serve. For instance,
the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) of 2002 gives the impression that it is
meant to promote access to public information for the people. The Act stipulates that public bodies hold
information not for themselves but as custodians of the public good and everyone has a right to access
this information. The bulk of the provisions in AIPPA have, however, been criticized for thwarting what
appears to be its advocacy of ‘the right to accessing public information’. The right to information as
provided for is lamented to have been carefully over-ridden by numerous exclusions and exceptions that
make access to public information too restrictive. Archival scientists continue to denounce any restric-
tions on archival material, arguing that archives are of vital importance and restrictions of any nature
are negative and an obstacle to scientific creativity (Valge & Kibal, 2007, p. 198).
The laws that support members of the public’s right to access public information include the African
Charter on Human and People’s Rights, of which Article 9 stipulates that every individual shall have
the right to receive information and to express and disseminate opinions within the law. Mnjama (2008)
highlights that Kenya ratified this international legal framework and there was, therefore, need for the
country to design policies that provide for increased access to information (after all, lack of national
policy on information is a major hindrance to accessibility of information). The preceding discourse
indicates that access to records and archives is determined by laws, policies and procedures established
by governments and archival institutions. Such laws usually regulate the right of access to public records
50

(Mnjama, 2008). Some laws are enacted to uphold the people’s rights to accessing public information
while other legal instruments deter the call for people’s access to information.
Records managers, archivists and information management practitioners are therefore challenged to
expertly and professionally handle the paradox of observing the right to information and upholding the
right to privacy (Cook, 2010, p. 75).
THE INFLUENCE OF ARCHIVE PROCESSING ON ACCESS
Time is a critical resource that people cannot afford to waste. In that respect, archives users expect to
obtain the information they want quickly, and they are not amused by spending much time going through
huge volumes of material (Jimerson, 2003). Access to public records can only be guaranteed where re-
cords are well arranged and finding aids are in place (Mazikana, 1999). Mnjama (2008) highlights that
bibliographic access is very much dependent on the levels at which the holdings have been described in
the form of finding aids or retrieval tools. In the same vein, Murambiwa and Ngulube (2011) indicates
that the ability of archival institutions to provide information about their holdings and making them
available to users depends on having up-to-date finding aids and the absence of backlogs of archives
without description. Large volumes of unprocessed archives have been reported to be tormenting many
archival institutions, particularly those in Africa, thereby hampering improved access and usage levels.
Processing of archival material is irrevocably tied to archival reference services since finding aids are
a direct product of arrangement and description. Owing to huge backlogs of unprocessed archives, the
quest to enhance access to archival material has remained unfulfilled in the ESARBICA region (Mazi-
kana, 1999; Ayoo & Otike, 2000; Ngulube, 2002; Mnjama, 2008), particularly in Zimbabwe where 11
000 cubic feet of unprocessed records were identified (Murambiwa & Ngulube, 2011).
Prom (2010) indicates that processing is at the heart of what archivists do, yet it has been one of the
most under-analysed aspects of archival work, particularly in its relationship to access. Ngulube (2006)
also attests to the central role played by processing citing that backlogs of unprocessed archives affect
bibliographic access to records. The challenge of unprocessed archives is obstructing the many efforts
that are meant to ensure the availability of archival material to members of the public. Archivists are
therefore urged to eliminate or at least reduce the volume of unprocessed archives to allow bibliographic
access to their collection.
In most archival institutions, unprocessed archives may not be made available to researchers unless
very special arrangements have been made, some of which could be violating the laws that govern the
care of a collection at an archival institution. Prom (2010) indicates that processing is a critical archival
function which involves arranging and describing archival materials for use by patrons. The end prod-
ucts of processing are finding aids. These are the tools used by researchers to efficiently locate archival
material needed for their enquiries. Owing to the critical role of processing in making documentary
heritage available to the people, several scholars have considered it to be at the heart of archival work
(Prom, 2010; Ngulube, 2006).
Processing is indeed a critical archival task because it establishes both the physical and intellectual
control over an archival collection. The way an archival collection is processed can encourage or discour-
age the use thereof and affects the relationship of an archival institution with its donors, resource alloca-
tors and users (Prom, 2010). It is therefore essential that archival institutions at least have finding aids
that are adequate in providing bibliographic access to archival materials. This is particularly important
51

because inadequate finding aids adversely affect access to information; their absence shows that access
to the material is limited, difficult or even impossible (Ngulube, 2006).
REFERENCE SERVICES AND THEIR ROLE IN ACCESS PROVISION
Serving users is the sine qua non of archives administration, hence robust, detailed finding aids should
be in place to ensure the accessibility and use of archival materials (Greene, 2010, p. 190). Criticisms
regarding poor access to public archival material relates mainly to the paucity of finding aids and this
happens to be a major challenge affecting many archival institutions in Africa (Mazikana, 1999; Ayoo &
Otike, 2000; Ngulube, 2002 & Mnjama, 2008). In Kenya, new researchers are warned that they should
be prepared to spend longer hours in locating and identifying sources at the National Archives of Kenya
as the intricacies of the archive’s cataloguing and holding systems are not easy to comprehend (Mnjama,
2008). Several studies have attested to the situation that finding aids give researchers an understanding
of an archival collection in its entirety and enable the researcher to locate the portions of a collection
pertinent to their research (Coles, 1988; Roper & Millar, 1999; Mazikana, 1999; Ayoo & Otike, 2000;
Ngulube, 2002; Jimerson, 2003; Prom, 2003 & 2010; Mnjama, 2008; Onyancha & Ngoepe, 2011;
Schmidt, 2011; Senturk, 2011).
Effective finding aids should fundamentally be developed after a systems analysis and they should
provide the narrative portions that describe the background of a collection, such as how and when it was
formed, how the archival material was acquired and how the archival staff has arranged or ordered the
materials in the collection. Finding aids in most archival institutions have been criticised for lacking in
systems analysis (Cox, 2008). It has been alleged that archivists undertake their descriptive work apart
from and with a limited understanding of how researchers find and use archival materials. To this end,
Cox (2008) questions the utility of archival finding aids and warns that finding aids developed without
an inadequate systems analysis may not stand the test of time.
USER STUDIES AND USER EDUCATION
In addition to performing a systems analysis, archivists and information management professionals are
urged to solicit people’s information needs, their concerns and expectations, thus conducting user stud-
ies (Kim, Kang, Kim & Kim, 2014; Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016). User studies is an effective way of
gaining a better understanding of the expectations of information patrons and identifying hindrances
that may prevent people from accessing and using archives (Nimer & Daines, 2008). Saurombe and
Ngulube (2016) explain that people will visit archives only if they appreciate how archives may affect
their socio-economic and political transformation. To that effect, user studies have been underscored
as an effective aid to understanding reasons for use and non-use of archival holdings, hence allowing
archivists to improve on perceived weaknesses (Duff, Dryden, Limkilde, Cherry, & Bogomazova, 2008;
Yeo 2005; Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016). Archivists therefore need to identify their user clientele and
come up with tailor-made services that meet their needs and expectations (Jimerson, 2003, p. 14). In
this regard, Saurombe and Ngulube (2016) emphasise that users of the archives are the backbone of ef-
fective archival services, yet archivists seem to be preoccupied with records at the expense of the users.
52

Knowledge about users’ interests provides a sound basis for decision-making. It is appreciated that
most decisions to do with archival work are based on the institutional mission and its policies. However,
some conception of users’ interests is essential for coming up with archives’ products and services that
adequately serve the people while upholding the mission and values of the archival institution (Evans,
2007). User studies and user education are not common in many archival institutions, yet knowledge
about users is the nucleus of an archival institution in providing effective reference services (Eastwood,
1997; Yakel & Torres, 2003; Katuu, 2015). User education initiatives are essential to equip users with
an improved ability to make use of the archival resources for their own information needs.
The existing challenges of archives underutilisation may be overcome by looking beyond traditional
and conventional patrons, which typically includes historians, college students, university lecturers and
researchers. To that effect, Loewen (2008) laments archivists’ failure to reach out to existing and potential
patrons to understand their needs, concerns and expectations. However, the assumption that academics
and historians dominate the archives’ clientele was challenged by Jimerson (2003) who observed that
archives have a much broader clientele than imagined. Archivists should therefore come out of their
perceived shell and embrace new markets of potential archives users. Archival institutions wishing to
enhance access and usage levels of their holdings should engage, understand and respond to their audi-
ence. By engaging users, understanding their concerns and accordingly responding to their needs, to
the archival institution may retain existing users while attracting new patrons. The access mandate of an
archival institution is to understand the current clientele and anticipate the needs of the future patrons
(Loewen, 2008). Archivists are therefore called upon to invest their time and resources in user studies
and education as they enable them to understand their clients’ needs and therefore better serve them.
THE INTRICACIES OF BALANCING PRESERVATION AND ACCESS
The need to preserve records of enduring value may be traced as far back as biblical times, as stated in
Jeremiah (32:14): “The Lord Almighty, the God of Israel, says take these documents, both the sealed
and unsealed copies of the deed of purchase, and put them in a clay jar so they will last a long time”
(Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2014, p. 36). The primary function of a national archival institution is to preserve
historic materials and make them available for use (Schmidt, 2011). Similarly, Ceeney (2008) indicates
that the fundamental role of an archive is premised on record-keeping and access. It should therefore be
noted that preservation is done to enable access while access serves to justify the need for preservation.
In that respect Moyo (2012) indicates that archives exist to be utilised, and preservation without access
is meaningless. Ngulube, Sibanda and Makoni (2013) noted that there is a strong correlation between
access and preservation as the two cannot rationally be divorced from each other. In addition, Schmidt
(2011) and Ngulube, Sibanda and Makoni (2013) indicates that the aim of preservation initiatives is to
facilitate access to the information contained in archives for the present and future generations. This
implies that neither preservation nor use of the archival material should be compromised: the demands
of the current generation of users should be met without compromising the ability of future generations
to use the same archival material.
The custodial paradigm to the archival discourse has always led to the misconception that access and
preservation are in conflict (Haritz, 2001). Archivists have been known for prioritising preservation at
the expense of access (Hicks, 2005). Preservation is complementary to access in that the initiatives and
activities of preservation aim toensure that people have access to the archival material in an integral form.
53

Lack of preservation of archival material might spell disaster for users in that information contained in
the archival material might be lost to various forms of deterioration. Preservation and access are therefore
mutually dependant practices existing in harmony for the benefit of the current users, future users and
the archival institution. An archival institution’s ability to provide access gives it strong roots to stand
in the present society, thereby eliminating the need to explain why the present society should support
and maintain it (Haritz, 2001).
Most archival institutions have search room rules and guidelines that are meant to protect and ensure
the survival of the archival materials for future generations of users, without compromising the current
generation’s use of the same archival material (Schmidt, 2011). If there are no rules in place to guide
the use of archives, the archival material will be susceptible to damage. Once the physical fabric and
the contents deteriorate, the materials might become permanently inaccessible. As such, archivists are
challenged to ensure that both preservation and access needs are met. Preservation at the expense of
access and vice versa defeat the purpose for which national archival institutions were created (to keep
and make available a people’s documentary heritage).
Search room rules are good in that they serve to protect the archives and prevent people from misus-
ing, damaging and even removing documents (Roper & Millar, 1999). In fact, it is crucial for archival
institutions to have search room rules that adequately serve the interests and needs of researchers while
ensuring that the archival materials survive into the future. Reading room rules are essential to make it
clear to users how they are supposed to conduct themselves (Dunlop, 2009). Rules facilitate both intel-
lectual and physical access to archives as the rules seek to serve the interests of the users and the rights
of other interested parties alike (Jimerson, 2003).
LESSONS LEARNT
The extant literature attests that national archival institutions represent an information-rich resource
centre with the potential to attract a wide and diverse audience. They provide access to each nation’s his-
tory and connect people with the information contained in the archival materials in their custody. Public
archival institutions have the required expertise in managing and preserving information and making
it available to the public. Several archival institutions have however been faced with myriad challenges
that have resulted in relatively low visitor statistics. To this effect, the section that follows provides goals
and objectives to help archivists overcome the challenges of underutilisation.
Strategic Goals and Strategies to a Better Archival Future
Drawing from the lessons learnt, Table 1 presents some fundamental strategies and goals which have a
potential to creating a better and an exciting archival future. These are provided against the perceived
challenge(s) to be solved.
The strategic goals and strategies depicted in Table 1 help archival institutions to become more ef-
ficient, sustainable and effective. The elements captured in Table 1 are however not exhaustive, and ar-
chival institutions need to organise themselves appropriately to meet the needs of their diverse audiences.
It is understood that the funding climate is not favourable for many archival institutions, nevertheless,
archivists should appreciate that nothing is achieved without ambition, and that a degree of determina-
54

Table 1. Challenges, goals and strategies
Challenge(s) Strategies Goal

Hold government departments to account
for their record handling
Provide a government network for
Records management in many public Ensure that the needed records from
knowledge and information management
departments is in a deplorable state creating entities thrives and survives
leaders
Shape and deliver outstanding legislative
platforms
Provide a joined-up experience on site and
online
At many archival institutions, access is still Develop new and exciting public Inspire the public with new ways of access
largely restricted to physical visits programmes to your archival materials
Grow your audience, connect with new
users
Raise awareness on the importance and
There is a perceived lack of collaboration
potential of archives
between archival institutions and other Be an effective leader in sustaining and
Engage and collaborate with other archives
public information resources centres such developing the national collection
Encourage creativity, good practice and the
as museums and libraries
sharing of knowledge
Currently, the focus of many archives is Establish a renowned research centre to
Advance knowledge through exemplary
biased towards conventional archives users galvanise long-term research programme
academic liaison and outstanding
such as historians, college students and Respond to the changing needs of the
interdisciplinary research
university lecturers academic and research sector
tion and aggression is required particularly in fundraising activities to ease the financial burden and
facilitate the execution of duties.
Access to archives has many concomitant issues that need to be fully explored if the challenges of
under-utilisation are to be significantly addressed. Such issues include but may not be limited to audi-
ence research and user studies, digital or virtual archives, partnerships and collaborations. These issues
emerged in the discourse of this chapter, but need to be fully explored as they have a direct bearing on
the subsequent access and use of archives. Empirical evidence is required in particular to establish the
possible way forward as might be suggested by evidence found on a case to case basis.
CONCLUSION
Providing access to archives is undoubtedly the chief responsibility of any archival institution; lest it
becomes a mere cabinet of curiosities with no value and place in people’s lives. The remaining archival
functions are performed subsequently to ensure the availability of archives for use by members of the
public. Despite the indisputable importance of making archival materials available to the larger populace,
many national archives have for a long time mourned the underutilisation of their holdings. The situation
largely owes its existence to challenges such as the following:
55

• Access restrictions from legal instruments

• Weak archival legislations
• Absence of national policies on access to public archives
• Lack of user studies
• Lack of audience research
• Centralised access
• Escalating backlog of unprocessed archives
These stipulated factors represent some of the major challenges currently bedevilling archival institutions
and preventing them from fulfilling their goal of increased access to and use of archives. The situation
may be remedied through the development of unique strategic plans that address the challenges at hand.
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Schmidt, L. (2011). Using archives: a guide to effective research. Retrieved from http://www2.archivists.
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ADDITIONAL READING
Battley, B., & Wright, A. (2012). Finding and addressing the gaps: Two evaluations of archival refer-
ence services. Journal of Archival Organization, 10(2), 107–136. doi:10.1080/15332748.2012.726899
Chaterera, F. (2016). Managing public records in Zimbabwe: The road to good governance, account-
ability, transparency and effective service delivery. Journal of the South African Society of Archivists,
49, 116–136.
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val) performance. Archival Science, 2(3-4), 171–185. doi:10.1007/BF02435620
Ferriero, D. S. (2011). Making access easier. Prologue Magazine, 43(2). Retrieved from http://www.
archives.gov/publications/prologue/2011/summer/archivist.html
Hodges, A. E., & McClurkin, B. S. (2011). Archives and manuscripts processing manual. Arlington:
University of Texas.
Huvila, I. (2008). Participatory archive: Towards decentralised curation, radical user orientation, and
broader contextualisation of records management. Archival Science, 8(1), 15–36. doi:10.100710502-
008-9071-0
Jeremy, J., Woodley, E., & Kupke, L. (2008). Access and reference services. In J. Bettington, K. Loo, &
C. Smith (Eds.), Keeping archives (3rd ed., pp. 351–378). Canberra: Australian Society of Archivists.
Jimerson, R. C. (n.d.). Archives for all: The importance of archives in society. Retrieved from http://
www.aag.org.br/anaisxvcba/conteudo/resumos/plenaria1/randalljimerson.pdf
Access: The availability of records for consultation as a result of both legal authorization and the
existence of finding aids (Pearce-Moses, 2013). It is essentially the right, opportunity, or means of find-
ing, using or retrieving information.
Documentary Heritage: Recorded history in any format, from papyrus scrolls and clay tablets to
film, sound recordings and digital files.
Preservation: The various measures that are put in place to guard against any form of deterioration.
Processing: The act of arranging and describing the archival collection.
Reference Services: All the tasks and processes involved in assisting patrons to get the information
they want from the archives (Coles, 1988 & Singh, 2004).
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62
Chapter 4
Customer Services at the
Library Archives of the National
University of Lesotho
Makatleho Amelia Mafube
National University of Lesotho, Lesotho
Segomotso Masegonyana Keakopa

University of Botswana, Botswana
ABSTRACT
This chapter provides an assessment of customer services at the Library Archives of the National University
of Lesotho (NUL). It set to find out whether the services delivered to customers in the archives meet
customers’ information needs. The population of this study were students, archivists, administrators,
lecturer/researchers, the public and NUL Library management. The study employed both qualitative and
quantitative approaches in the case study design and collected data using questionnaires, interviews,
observations and document analysis. From the data analysis, the study has revealed that customers us-
ing the Archives at NUL are not fully satisfied with the services offered. It has also emerged that there
were no archive policies in place relating to creation, distribution, maintenance and access. It has been
observed that there were inadequate and inappropriate facilities necessary to provide quality services
at NUL Archives Unit. At the end it is recommended that archives policies that will guide in effective
and efficient service delivery in the organisation be developed.
INTRODUCTION
Archival institutions, the world over, play a central role in preserving records of permanent value and
making them available for use. They permit continuity and consistency in the administration of the
historical materials which need to be preserved for future use or for future generations (Bradsher, 1988;
The Society of American Archivists, 2005). The authors agree that in a democratic country, archival
institutions engage in documenting the responsibility and accountability of the government to the general
public and further indicated that the archives have a scholarly commitment to preserving knowledge.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch004

Customer Services at the Library Archives of the National University of Lesotho
In this way, archival institutions provide citizens with a sense of national identity. They establish and
protect individuals’ property rights and privileges, educating, entertaining and enriching people’s lives by
providing them with appealing and tangible history. According to Penn, Pennix, and Coulson, (1994), in
order to effectively carry out their mandate, achieve high productivity and create an efficient relationship
between service providers and their clientele; archival institutions should define the purpose and scope
of their organisational mission, thereby being user-friendly to the customers and employees (Penn et al.,
1994). Narrating stories and providing evidence for the past activities, archives also document people’s
identity and constitute a valuable source of information for research. They are a recorded memory which
forms part of communities’ cultural, official and unofficial historical documents (National Preservations
Office, 2002). Therefore, archives are valuable to nations, organisations, communities and individuals.
To fulfil their responsibilities, the archives identify, acquire, maintain, and preserve records of en-
during value as well as chronicle the continued existence of the institution. Where an Archives service
has been set up in a University, it serves as the institutional memory of that university, thus playing an
important role in the management of the institution’s information resources (SAA, 2005). The Society
of American Archivists (2005) observed academic archives as performing several basic services to fac-
ulty administrators, student-governing bodies, campus units, alumni, development, physical plant and
public relations for administrative purposes. Academic archives provide administrative, research and
educational services. By performing these functions, archives clearly establish their role in contributing
to the information needs of their institutions and those of the larger research community. As a source
of information about a particular institution, archives serve almost all the interested groups regarding
educational and research services. Through an appropriate curriculum, the archives also support teach-
ing and learning, thereby facilitating the research of the faculties, students and other scholars through
access to information (SAA, 2005).
Taking their mission from the institution, the archives serve the educational, research, fiscal, legal
and service missions of the parent institution. They also identify and preserve essential evidence, thus
promoting the mission of the institution internally and externally in particular community
In archives, an efficient customer service aims for customers’ satisfaction with services and their return
for such services in future. In the archival institutions as organisations providing services, their customers
can be defined as patrons or users provided with satisfactory services for the purposes of research and
other information activities (Senturk, 2011). So, customers expect to be satisfied with the provision of
services. On the other hand, satisfaction as viewed by Kotler (2004) is a person’s feelings of pleasure or
disappointment from comparing services’ perceived performance in relation to one’s expectations. In
addition, satisfaction as defined by Hensemark and Albinsson (2004) is seen as an overall customer’s
attitude towards a service provider, or an emotional reaction to the difference between what customers
anticipate and what they receive in with regard to the fulfilment of some need, goal or desire. However,
several studies have reported on various challenges facing customer services in archives generally and
the academic archives, in particular.
In this view, happy customers pass positive feedback on to others who, in turn, would frequent the
service centre, leading to customer loyalty (Mnjama, 2010). The customers who are not satisfied with
services can seek information elsewhere through a plethora of archival service devices and platforms
at their disposal twenty-four hours and seven days (Nicholas & Herman, 2009). If archivists and other
information professionals neglected their customers, other information service providers would come
in handy. This is because the archivists who fail to cater for customers’ information needs will become
irrelevant to their clients.
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Furthermore, archival services have also been viewed by others as associated with feelings of ac-
ceptance, happiness, relief, excitement and delight (Hoyer & Maclnnis, 2001). On this basis, customer
satisfaction can be viewed as the degree to which a customer perceives that an individual, organisation
or an institution has effectively provided services that meet customers’ needs (Kotler, 2010). However,
dissatisfaction arises when customers’ expectations are overlooked in relation to the quality of the service
(Kotler, Bowen, & Makens, 2013).
In Africa there is evidence showing that most archival institutions have weak institutional capacity
and there is still absence of comprehensive archives and records management policies, guidelines and
practical standards which is affecting access to archives (Ngulube & Tafor, 2007; Kilasi, Maseko, &
Abankwah, 2011). According to Mazikana (1997), in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa,
Swaziland and Lesotho, a backlog of uncatalogued material has been in existence and growing almost in
every repository, thus making customers unable to access the enlisted materials available in the archival
facilities. Mazikana (2007) further argues that the biggest barrier to customers’ accessing information
contained in records and archives was the poor state in which they were kept.
In addition, there is a growing concern in most archival institutions in the East and Southern African
Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (ESARBICA) that customers in most University
Archives are dissatisfied with using archives effectively and efficiently because, for a very long time,
archivists were thought to have paid little attention to customer care (Mnjama, 2010). As a result, services
offered in archives fail to satisfy customer information needs. In Lesotho, Molapo (1996) observed that
the challenges facing NUL Archives Unit include: lack of policy, no purpose- built infrastructure and
budget constraints. Mazikana (1998) observed that Lesotho, like other ESARBICA member countries,
had a problem of backlog of uncatalogued archival material. Ambrose (2012) indicated the long-standing
shortage of staff, the feature which may compromise customers’ satisfaction if this situation still persists.
The National University of Lesotho Library
In Lesotho, there are three archival institutions namely: the Morija Museum and Archives and the Lesotho
Royal Archives in Matsieng which was established in 2013/14. The third is the National University of
Lesotho’s own Archives Unit established in 1979 and is the focus of this study. This Archives is a unit
or section within the main Thomas Mofolo Library (TML) of the National University of Lesotho on the
Roma campus. The services provided are intended for all readers and they are available to all customers
upon request. The reference Librarian or an Archivist is always on call to assist anybody wishing to find
information from this unit.
NUL Library can be called the ‘information hub’ of the university. All the information needs of the
university are catered for by the Library. Its history is well articulated in the 2014/15 National Univer-
sity of Lesotho Calendar. It suffices to note that NUL Library is as old as the university itself and it is
also known as Thomas Mofolo Library was named after one of the most prominent nineteenth-century
citizens of the Kingdom of Lesotho, who is the author of some of the widely read literary works in the
country. Today, NUL Library comprises the main Library situated on Roma main campus and the Insti-
tute of Extra-Mural Studies (IEMS), based in Maseru from where part-time students and their lecturers
are catered. Like in any other higher learning institutions, the main function of the Library is to support
both teaching and learning in the programmes offered by the various faculties of the university.
64

The location of this study is the National University of Lesotho Archives Unit, the section within the
main Library of NUL. From its inception, the Unit was established as to be a repository for the retired
(non-current) records of the entire University offices in order to support the University’s continuing
administrative, historical, fiscal and legal values. Secondly, it was intended to promote research efforts
of the university, thus fostering scholarship (Molapo, 1996). It also preserves a special collection of
historical material of Lesotho, research papers by the members of staff and some prominent historians
whose works focus on the history of Lesotho. The collection of rare textbooks is also housed in this
unit. Other important resources available here include: Dissertations, publications of the university, a
collection of both local and external newspapers. Non-book materials such as photographs, maps and
architectural drawings and charts, machine-readable records such as microfiche, microfilm, magnetic
tapes and videotapes are also available for use as indispensable reference sources (Molapo, 1996).
In order to meet the research and information needs of its customers, the University Archives Unit
collects publications and papers of businesses and international organisations to which Lesotho is af-
filiated. It also keeps different documents including the publications and papers of parastatals, business
and international organisations as well as private papers and records of the Christian Council of Lesotho,
Dr Ngakane’s papers and William Scott’s records (Molapo (1996). The public and private papers avail-
able in NUL Archives Unit are indicative of attempts made to support the research needs of students,
lecturers and the general public. To satisfy its clientele, NUL Archives Unit is expected to effectively
and efficiently plan, organise, control and manage its resources instead it has failed to fulfil its mandate
(Ibid, 1996). According to NUL Library Board annual reports, for the past three years (2014/15/16), the
visitations in NUL archives have declined (Library Board Report, 2015/16). The Library Board Statisti-
cal Reports also indicated that there was a decline in the use of archives resources since 2009 to 2015.
This study attempts to find out whether services offered by NUL Archives Unit meet the information
needs of the customers.
Academic archivists have been struggling with the acquisition of faculty papers, with undergraduate
students processing the backlog in the unit. Similarly, the employees of the unit have been grappling with
volumes of records accumulating from as far back as 2008, when the researcher joined NUL Archives
Unit. Significant backlogs of unprocessed records thus continue to plague archivists. Since 2014, NUL
Archives s were working hard on digitising archival collections but with limited professional staffing
in the area.
Preparing finding aids, investigating user needs, doing community outreach are some of the things
to be done. However, staff has not done much on these activities as they spend most of the time doing
library work at the cost of archival activities. Further, noticeable has been lack of professional standards
geared towards resourcing NUL Archives Unit, resulting in services inadequately supporting research,
teaching and learning. These issues motivated the study to investigate the ways and means of providing
adequate archival services at NUL Archives Unit.
Statement of the Problem
Customer service can break or make an information system. It is key to its utilisation and justification of
its existence. As observed in the background, a large number of archival institutions in the ESARBICA
region have actually retrogressed and are in dire straits (Mazikana, 2007). With ever diminishing resources,
some of the archival institutions are suffering badly and have had to curtail the services offered. The
65

signs of stagnation or decay are evident in some archival institutions of ESARBICA. Some challenges
as observed by Keakopa (2007) and Ngulube and Tafor (2006/7) include shortage of staff; inadequate
funding; poor infrastructure; lack of archival policies and poor standards. This unsatisfactory situation
affected efficiency and effectiveness in provision of access services. Kilasi, Maseko and Abankwah
(2011) revealed that customers of archives complained about short working hours and lack of digitised
information. NUL Archives Unit as observed by Molapo (1996), is not an exception as it is facing simi-
lar challenges. NUL, Library management confused operations of the library with the operations in the
archives as they found the set-up in the library similar to that in the archives, which should not be the
case. The Archives Unit was seen as more of storage for the records dispatched and “dumped” from
various university offices without any policy guidelines. However, this particular study was interested in
assessing customer services in the archives and its effectiveness as this seems to be one of the concerns.
The first author of this chapter observed this scenario while working as a Trainee Archivist. One of
the main observations made was dissatisfaction of customer services in NUL archives: Customers ver-
bally complained of long queues, awkward and limited working hours, and slow service delivery. These
are some of the challenges that motivated an investigation on assessment of customer services at NUL
Archives Unit as stated earlier by Ambrose (2012) and Molapo (1996). The first author’s experience as
a Trainee Archivist at NUL Archives Unit, attest to the deficiency in customer service.
The researchers wish to fill this gap by assessing the quality of customer services in NUL Archives,
since to the best of the researchers’ knowledge; no such research has been conducted in the Kingdom
of Lesotho. Considering the unique nature of the Archives Unit within the main library, the researchers
assumed that the findings of the study would raise awareness about the importance of archives.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to assess customer services in the library archives of the National
University of Lesotho with a view to finding out whether the services provided met customers’ informa-
tion needs. The research questions that guided data collection included the following:
1. What are the customer services provided in NUL Archives Unit?

2. What are the management’s perceptions of customer expectations of services provided in NUL
Archives Unit?
3. What are the service quality standards and specifications based on the management perception of
services provided in the Library archives?
4. What is the availability and quality of physical infrastructures used for providing reference services
in the archives?
5. What are the challenges facing customers in the archives?
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section gives a summary of the general literature on academic archives and customer service. It
also looks at archival developments in the ESARBICA region.
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The Concept of Academic Archives
Academic archives in colleges, universities and other educational facilities are typically located within
libraries, and duties may be carried out by archivists (Maher, 1992). According to the Mission statement
of the Kennesaw State University Archives (2007), academic archives exist to preserve institutional his-
tory and serve the academic community. The Kennesaw State University Archives further indicated that
academic archives may contain materials such as the institution’s administrative records, personal and
professional papers of former professors and presidents, memorabilia related to institutions and activi-
ties, and items the academic archives wishes to remain in a closed-stack setting such as rare books or
copies of theses (Kennesaw State University Archives, 2007) Academic archives can, therefore, change
according to customers’ experiences and consumption situations (Nadiri & Hussain, 2005).
Many archival institutions rely on repeat customers to keep their doors open. Making sure customers
are happy with archival resources or services is key to generating long-term customers, so information
providers should be provided with customer training, easy-to-follow instructions and online or telephone
support to ensure the customers find the most out of the archival services. New customers should be
contacted, ensuring that they use archival resources correctly and enjoying the services offered. Assign-
ing customer service representatives to key clients and using customer service management software can
help the unit to develop closer relationships with customers. In this way, the unit would be responding
to customers quickly to reduce their frustration and maintaining good relations. These are some of the
strategies that NUL Archives could use.
In addition, SAA (2006), argues that a key theory of customer relations includes being proactive
rather than being reactive in managing one’s relationships, the archives contacts with customers should
not be limited to handling complaints or questions from clients. It is important to survey customers on a
regular basis, with phone calls, online questionnaires or focus groups so as to learn about demands from
the archive unit. Service providers should find out customers’ rationale for using archival resources from
the archive unit and their competitors; they should also inquire about benefits obtained, and learn about
potential contribution of the archives stakeholders’ towards improving customer services in the archives.
Customer Service in the Academic Archives
The guidelines on the services offered in the academic archival institutions are well articulated by the
Society of American Archivists (henceforth SAA) (SAA, 2006). This society indicates that academic
archives provide administrative, research and educational services. By performing these functions, ar-
chives clearly establish their role in contributing to the information needs of their institutions and those
of the larger research community.
In addition, academic archives perform several basic services such as administration; research; outreach
and publicity which all contribute to customer services. For example, administrators, faculties, student-
governing bodies, and other campus units can be provided with information on the history, policies,
procedures, and decision-making processes of the institution, its academic and support programmes and
services, and individuals while they were there. Providing copies of documents, images, and other items
is another administrative service that can be provided; providing finding aids; finding aids to facilitate
access to specific information; retrieving and returning of archival documents (SAA, 2006).
67

They also help sustain universities by serving as a repository for treasured items from former students’
school days; by providing students, alumni, and their friends and relatives with unique items, images,
and information; and by helping celebrate anniversaries to strengthen emotional ties to their college or
university. In terms of research services, in the guidelines on the services offered in Archives should
serve its customers with reference services following requests; and provide guidance on possible sources
of information and on how to use them (SAA, 2006).
Outreach activities, which often support the social and cultural side of an institution, may translate
into funds for or service to the institution. There are many possible types of outreach. Each archives’
resources and archivist’s imagination and ability will shape how they use opportunities such as: general
or subject handout brochures on the archives; attractive and clear directional signs to guide users to the
archives; meetings and programs by ‘Friends of the Archives’ groups, if space permits; exhibitions or
displays of subjects or items in the archives and exhibit brochures (SAA, 2005).
For example, the absence of rules and guidelines for what should be kept for how long in the archival
units was also perceived as a challenge in Tanzania and Swaziland. The kind of the archival clientele
requires services online, most archives’ holdings which were still not digitised in Swaziland and Tan-
zania, resulting in the decline of archival usability. The authors also indicated that archivists were not
exploiting the information and communication technologies (ICTs) in meeting customers’ information
needs (Kilasi, Maseko, & Abankwah, 2011).
METHODOLOGY
This study used both qualitative and qualitative approaches. Within these approaches, it employed a case
study design. The population for the study included: the senior management of NUL, lecturers/research-
ers, faculty administrators, students and archives staff in order to obtain the bigger picture regarding
customer services in NUL Archives Unit. This study employed non-probability sampling techniques.
Students were conveniently sampled from a total of 10,000 students. NUL students who visited the unit
during the holidays were selected as data was collected during this period. In addition, 35 lectures, 12
administrators were selected from all faculties: three members of NUL senior management; 5 NUL
Archives staff members out of 8 and 5 members from the public, including the media, historians, politi-
cians, retirees and lawyers.
The data was collected using a variety of data collection tools and these included the questionnaires,
interview guides, observations and documents analysis. The questionnaires for this study had both closed-
and open-ended questions. Open-ended questions ensured solicited opinions, views, attitudes and impres-
sions of the participants. Close-ended questions solicited quantitative information. The interview guide
was also used to collect data from the senior management, archival staff and the faculty administrators.
Before the interviews were conducted, arrangements and appointments were made with the participants.
The study also observed physical facilities, the flow rate of customers, actual staff work performance
in order to establish a correlation between responses from interviews and interactions with the service
providers using check lists. The study observed the tools which the Archives Unit’s staff offered; avail-
ability of archival infrastructure; the set-up in the archives as well as the qualifications and calibre of
the staff.
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For this study, documents were also analysed to find out aspects such as facilities, management
records, strategic plans, maintenance records’ standards, policies, usage registers, annual reports and
other management-related documents of NUL Archives Unit. Reviewing these documents gave the study
more insight into the service performance in NUL Archives Unit. The qualitative data was interpreted
by deducing themes from and generating meanings of the respondents’ perceptions of the quality of
customer services provided by NUL Archives Unit. The quantitative data was also analysed by using
the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS).
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
The data in this section is presented and analysed as guided by the research questions.
Customer Services in the Archives Unit
The first question that was asked related to customer services provided at NUL Archives Unit. Some
students stated that the archives served them with research materials on the history of Lesotho and local
newspapers on current issues. Many students were unable to report on the services available from the
Archives Unit, which suggests that the archives section is not widely advertised to potential users. Un-
like students, the lecturers’/researchers’ responses indicated they had more knowledge about available
services such as access to rare archival materials, university records and administrative documentation
from the unit. Administrators on the other hand, mentioned services such as students’ files, govern-
ment policy and recreational service documentation. Regarding the Faculty Administrators, as the key
personnel to the university management, the researchers’ expectation from them was to provide more
information on administrative services, including the archives. However, their responses pointed to the
lack in strategies about core archival services such as education and publicity.
Hanson (2002) points out that providing services which customers prefer is a starting point for pro-
viding customer satisfaction. The author continues to state that the level of service quality indicates the
organisation’s ability to meet customer’s desires and demands. As such, organisations should improve their
services to meet the customers’ needs and requirements. If customers’ needs are not met, dissatisfaction
occurs. Once dissatisfied, customers spread a bad word-of-mouth about the services of the institution.
On this basis, the present study has revealed that customer services provided in NUL Archives Unit were
not satisfactory and as such, the archives need to work on improving its services to meet customer needs.
Management Perceptions on the Customers’ Expectations in the Archives
One of the questions asked related to management’s perceptions of customers’ services provided in NUL
Archives Unit. This study has discovered that NUL Library management is not aware of the customers’
expectations regarding the services provided in the unit. This means that there is lack of knowledge
about customers’ expectations; lack of a marketing orientation to quality services; poorly interpreted
information about customers’ expectations; a shortage of research on the quality of demand; and too
many layers between the front-line personnel and the top-level management. The measures which can
be taken by NUL Library management to overcome this situation would be to adopt strategic Customer
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Relationship Management Techniques so as to assess customers’ expectations, tastes and their informa-
tion needs, on the basis of which customers’ expectations could be fulfilled.
Customers’ Expectations on Service Delivery

Standards in the University Archives
Responding to the question on quality service standards based on the management’s perception and
quality specifications, the management said, ‘We are not aware of any service standards in the archives’.
This response may suggest lack of knowledge on archival standards specifications on the part of the
respondents. To overcome these challenges, managers at NUL Library should ensure that the institu-
tion clearly defines the level of service considered to be customer-orientated and meets the information
needs of the patrons.
Facilities and Equipment Available in the Archives
The other question asked was on facilities and equipment available in the Archives. In response to the
question on the availability of facilities so as to ‘ascertain the physical infrastructure and availability of
facilities used in NUL Archives Unit’, the students complained about the lack of equipment and material
thus considering them to be time-wasting during service encounters in the unit. For instance, they pointed
out only one computer for surfing the internet; no photocopying and printing facilities the feature which
is non-conducive to an academic environment. Similarly, the lecturers/researchers complained about
limited academic resources, particularly computers for the internet while the archivists were concerned
over the non-purpose-built structure of the unit, thereby restricting any due supervision of the archival
materials and use. As a result, there are numerous reports of theft and mutilation of archival resources.
On the basis of the above-stated situation, the study has found that lack of facilities is likely to result
in theft, mutilation and destruction of archival material, hence poor service delivery.
Service Delivery and External Communications
In response to the objective on service delivery and external communication in NUL Archives Unit,
students complained that there were no sign boards to show directions to the unit in the library. This
indicates that service providers in NUL Archives lack external communication strategies. As a result,
the relationship between service providers and customers is compromised. In articulating this point,
Awara (2010) analysed the crucial role played by the service provider-personnel in creating value about
and satisfying customers, the feature which necessitates customer retention. The study suggested that
effective strategies for customer retention should examine the relationships between service provider-
personnel and their customers. This would enhance effective relationships between service providers
and their customers, especially service organisations such as archives. One lecturer stated:
During my research in NUL archives unit, archives resources were non-existent online. I had to scan
physical copies of dissertations from there in my office. Again most dissertations were found in our offices
not in the archives unit. This for me demonstrates the absence of policy for collection and guidelines.
Lecturer X (12 June 2017)
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This is a very strong assertion that the absence of active archives policy adversely affects service
delivery in the archival institutions. In support of the lecturer’s position above, a certain administrator
observes: ‘You archivists need training to put information online instead of us, administrators to travel
from our respective offices to access archival information’ (10 June 2017).
This finding about the non-digitised information suggested that external communication between
archivists and customers in NUL Archives Unit was compromised and that the archivists are not proactive
about the information available for customers in the unit. The lecturer suggested that organizations should
communicate timely and accurately, and should be skilled in enhancing customer retention in order to
foster greater loyalty among customers. NUL Archives Unit should make use of good communication
skills and avoid ambiguous or fraudulent terms to confuse or mislead its customers.
Challenges Observed in NUL Archives Unit
One of the questions sought to find out challenges faced by NUL Archives Unit. So, when asked about
the challenges facing NUL Archives Unit, the lecturers and students stated slow service delivery, short-
age of skilled staff, limited working hours and lack of electronic information. This finding is similar to
the challenges identified by Kilasi, Maseko and Abankwah (2011) in their study on archival institutions
in Tanzania and Swaziland. Their study reported on the issue of too many non-digitised archival hold-
ings and declining archival usability in Tanzania and Swaziland. The challenges observed by the library
management and archivists included lack of policy and guidelines on items to collect for the archives,
a backlog of unprocessed archival materials as well as budget constraints.
This finding concurs with (Mnjama, 2010; Mazikana, 2007; Ngulube & Tafor, 2006). For example,
the study by Ngulube and Tafor (2006) revealed that weak institutional capacity and absence of com-
prehensive archives and records management policies, guidelines and practical standards have been
cited as the main challenges that negatively affect access to archives in some African countries. Ngoepe
and Keakopa (2011) in their study indicated that the main challenge in the archival institutions of both
Botswana and South Africa was lack of the governments’ recognition of the importance of archives.
On reviewing documents such as the Library Board Annual Reports, University Strategic Plan, poli-
cies, archives usage registers, journal articles and dissertations it was found that the service performance
in NUL Archives Unit. Asking about the tools they used to assess whether and to what extent to which
services provided in the archives met the customers’ information needs, the Archives staff reported to
have no measuring tools at all as in ‘We, archives staff rely on the complaints from the customers, that
is, the word-of-mouth’. They continued, ‘sometimes the lecturers/researchers complain to us, with the
students also complaining about short working hours, slow services and being denied access to materials
recommended by lecturers. Another indicator is the decreasing customers’ visits to the archives as shown
in the archives’ usage register. Although the Archives staff claimed having no tools for measuring the
services, the researchers interpreted their responses as indicative of the measuring tools. Nevertheless,
these measuring tools have been found to be unreliable for shedding light on the extent to which the
services provided in this unit could satisfy customers.
The author’s own understanding is that these tools are not reliable because they may not allow any
direct communication between the Archives Staff and their customers. In fact, they were unable to attest
to customers’ attitudes towards the services provided in the Archives Unit. Other measuring tools could
be the use of a suggestion box, assessment forms filled in by the customers and direct online communica-
71

tion. One of the respondent’s opinions: “One cannot know whether services provided to customers have
or have not met their information needs and requirements until service provider(s) asked customers”.
The study also looked at NUL archival policies, regulations and guidelines which govern the Archives
Unit. Surprisingly, these documents were unavailable. On this basis, the researcher concluded that without
such documentation, the service organisations, like NUL Archives Unit, have the customers’ services
compromised. Furthermore, the study observed the following tangibles: facilities, the calibre of staff
and infrastructure. Generally, the Archives Unit has been found to be poorly equipped, amongst others,
without computers and photocopiers, with the building undersigned for archival resources and services.
As noted earlier, there were only two unsuitably unqualified professionals and two para-professionals
coupled with almost all the collected items not digitised in the archives. There are piles of unprocessed
archival materials as highlighted by Mnjama (2010), and Ngulube and Tafor (2007). Also noticeable is
that the service providers take a long time to locate materials for the customers because of doing manual
work. Equally significant is the arrangement of archives in NUL Archives Unit, which has not been
complying with the two main principles of the archives, namely Provenance and Original order. Mc-
Causland (2003) demonstrated the importance of observing these two principles in the archival set-up.
The authors also looked at several Library Board Annual Reports, mainly focusing on the statistics
of the attendance of users of the Archives Unit in the library and as minuted at one of the previous meet-
ings. The weakness of the statistical information is that, the management assumes that a large number
of attendants in the archives indicate customer satisfaction, and few participants indicate customers’
dissatisfaction, which may not be the case. On one hand, large numbers may mean that there are no
other information resources for customers. Further, a small number of the participants may indicate more
competitors providing the same information. For instance, with the advent of technology, the number of
customers might have decreased in NUL Archives Unit. Another possible reason is the establishment
of the other two archival institutions such as the Morija Museum and Archives and the Matsieng Royal
Archives in Lesotho.
These statistics, according to the authors’ understanding, may not reflect the customers’ feelings and
attitudes towards services provided to them. This common aspect amongst archivists has been echoed
by Mnjama (2010) who asserted that most archivists in the ESARBICA region have long overlooked
the value of customer care in various archival institutions. This practice is echoed by Mazikana (2007),
arguing that most archival institutions in the ESARBICA region are treated as dumping place. Almost
the same situation has been reported about NUL. Here, the study observed that NUL Archives Unit
had over years had no policy discussions, proposals, projects and marketing strategies pertaining to the
archival issues. The observations, amongst others, followed the researcher’s perusal of the minutes of
2015/2016 of the Library Board. As noted above, this study discovered long-standing decline of customer
attendance since 2009 to 2015 in the Archives Unit.
During the research period, it was observed that Faculty Administrators, when cleaning their offices
to create a space and transfer all the unwanted documents to the archives. In the researchers’ opinions,
these administrators understood the archives to be a dumping place. In addition, one of the author’s ex-
perience as well as my observation as a trainee and a researcher has been that the Archives staff collected
almost everything for the archives without any collection policy in place. This is no way intended to be
an indictment against anybody in particular, but it is a mere assessment of the situation at the National
University of Lesotho.
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The study was confined only to NUL Archives Unit of the Thomas Mofolo Library in Lesotho. The
researchers had anticipated that the findings would be adequately representative of the entire National
University of Lesotho. However, the findings of this study should be tested including opinions from the
other archival institutions inside and outside the country.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, as has emerged from the data, the study, argues that the services provided in NUL Ar-
chives Unit are generally not satisfactory. On the whole, the respondents were not aware of the three
core functions of academic archives as in Administrative Services, Educational and Research Services
and Publicity and Public Programmes as espoused by the SAA (2005). As such, these phenomena sug-
gest that NUL as the tertiary institution in the Kingdom, through the Archives Unit, have not managed
to cater for academic information needs of their clientele: lecturers/researchers and students, and the
academic community at large.
Moreover, having identified differences between NUL management’s perceptions and customers’
expectations regarding services provided in the Archives Unit, the study concludes that, there might be
lack of knowledge of the customers’ expectations by NUL, thereby rendering the institution unable to
meet the customers’ information needs. The disconnect between management and customers’ expecta-
tions can have adverse repercussions for the management and service delivery in the University archives.
In the same way, responding to the question on facilities, the study noted limited facilities in NUL
archives such as one computer, no photocopying facilities and few trained staff members, It is, thus,
concluded that NUL management cannot match the demands and the supply of the customer services in
the Archives Unit. The shortage of facilities can prevent the availability of adequate facilities for reten-
tion and preservation of the University records so that they may be used for effective teaching, learning,
and academic research programmes.
Regarding the questions on service delivery and external communication in NUL Archives Unit,
the data has revealed lack of signage directing the clients to the unit. Under normal circumstances one
does not expect things to be run this way. This study concludes that NUL Archives Unit not only fails
to keep their promises, but they might also fail to communicate with the regular users and the outside
world about services provided in the archives.
Asked about the challenges facing NUL Archives services, the participants expressed, amongst oth-
ers, lack of archives policies with regard to the way records are created, distributed, maintained, used
and disposed of. Some complained of backlog of unprocessed materials, inadequate infrastructure and
unqualified personnel in the Archives Unit. This supposedly can tarnish the image of the institution and
loss of customers from NUL archives.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The study makes the following recommendations:
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1. Identifying and assessing the customers’ archival information needs. On the basis of the findings of
this study, it is recommended that the Archives Unit should decide on how best to meet such needs.
Premised on to Mnjama’s (2010) views, the archives should not only publicise, but it should also
resiliently provide customer-focused services, thus aiming at satisfying and retaining customers.
(Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2011, in Mnjama, 2010).
2. Noting the management’s perceptions of the customers’ expectations and lack of knowledge about
the services provided in the unit, this study recommends that NUL management should separate
the archives from other information services in order to meet the customers’ information needs
and operate as the registry, records centre, museum and/or the documentation centre.
3. Having observed a lack of archival policies, transparent and international procurement processes
in place, it is recommended that NUL Archives should establish, implement and enforce, a clearly
articulated framework of principles and standards of service delivery, thereby providing tools and
incentives, and solving long-term problems facing the university archives.
4. With the university having relevant paper-based archives and repository of the institutional opera-
tions, the study recommends that NUL Archives should be digitised and be well-suited for electronic
records and services 24 hours seven days. In this way, electronic records would be geared towards
more enterprising and customer-driven approaches to service delivery.
5. In dealing with the infrastructural constraints of NUL Archives, it is recommended that NUL should
purchase the standard equipment: printers, photocopiers and computers and develop a purpose-built
unit, designed and constructed to serve its purpose. This will curb theft, mutilation of records and
misuse of archival resources, all of which would improve customer service delivery.
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Academic Archives: A archival collection within a university or college.

Archives: A building or part of building where archival materials are kept. It can be collection of
records of enduring value of an organisation. An institution that keeps records of historical value can
also be called an archive.
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Chapter 5
Moving Forward and Making
a Difference in Archival
Institutions Through a
Multifaceted Approach to
Public Programming
Patrick Ngulube
ABSTRACT
Traditionally, archival institutions neglected building relationships with their constituencies and focused
on other operational functions. There are number of strategies that can be used to build such relation-
ships, including public programming. Effective public programming strategies depend on sound public
programming planning, appropriate research strategies, and ethical principles. It is evident that attempts
to build relationships between the archives and their constituencies are a recent phenomenon in Africa.
In fact, it seems to be an afterthought both to practitioners and scholars. Building relationships with
users will make memory institutions visible and successful. Public programming, with its focus on the
public that the organisation serves, is one of the tools that may be used by memory institutions such as
archives to bring the archives to the society and the society to the archives.
INTRODUCTION
Archival institutions are operating in a changing information environment that places a high premium
on the user. Having archival materials in their custody is no longer enough as there is an added concern
of facilitating the use of the materials in their custody (Cushing, 2018). Consequently, archival institu-
tions are re-examining and reconfiguring their operations, and adjusting their business model to suit the
changing environment. Archival institutions are under pressure to change their mission and the way they
interface with their users and potential users. This implies that archival institutions are increasingly mov-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch005

Moving Forward and Making a Difference in Archival Institutions Through a Multifaceted Approach
ing away from the custodial approach and creating “a place where people can meet each other, discuss,
talk, use information from archival materials” (Czajka, 2018, p. 40). Building relationships among us-
ers of archival materials on one hand and between users and the archival institutions on the other hand,
seems to be the current thrust of many archival institutions, both in the North and the Global South. This
entails building an understanding with potential users and users.
However, many archival institutions in the Global South seem to pay more attention to organisational
functions such as appraisal, acquisition, accessioning, arrangement and description than communicating
archives to their constituencies. No lasting relationships between the public and the archival institutions
can exist if the focus of archives is on traditional custodial functions with little attention being paid to
taking the archives to the people and taking the people to the archives (Ngulube, 2018a; Ngulube et al.,
2017). Promoting archives is important because all the archival processes are geared towards the noble
goal of usage. It was not until the 1980s that archivists and scholars in North America became concerned
with the communication of archives (Blais & Enns, 1991; Dionne, 2002). Although the classic Glossary
of archival and records terminology defines the term “outreach”, it neglects to define related terms such
as “advocacy”, “public programming” and “promotion”. These terms obviously have a contextual mean-
ing when it comes to their application to unique heritage assets such as archives. Public programming
is not even an indexing term in key bibliographic databases (Onyancha, 2016).
Coming closer home to Africa, the situation is not different. One can trace the genealogy of these
terms and the concerns to put the user at the centre of archival functions to the writings of Harris (1997)
and Ngulube (1999). This might be indicative of the fact that communicating and positioning archives
in relation to the public is considered of the lowest priority in the profession generally. Ericson (1991)
underscored this point in the following words:
Outreach and use come last; inevitably they become afterthoughts – something to be undertaken only
when all the rest of the work has been done. But for the past fifty years the rest of the work never seems
to have got done.
Communicating archives using strategies such as outreach and public programming should not come
to archivists as an afterthought. There is a need to balance the traditional activities of the archives with
communicating archives. Communicating archives should be integrated with other archival functions
such as appraisal, arrangement, description and preservation. That implies that it is high time archivists
moved away from the custodial mindset and promoted the exploitation of archives by the public. They
have a responsibility to communicate archives so that they are better known and accessible to users and
potential users. However, Cook (1991) cautions archivists against being carried away by passionate
embrace of public programming at the expense of other necessary functions. He stated that preoccupa-
tion with public programming, with its focus on the user and use, might “reveal the tip of a deep and
dangerous theoretical iceberg” (p. 124).
Despite Cook’s (1991) word of warning, public programming is gaining currency because of its
potential to build awareness of the holdings of the memory institution. The public becomes familiar
with the heritage assets at the memory institution through public programming (Mnjama, 2018). Public
programming activities also have the potential to raise the profile of the memory institution. In a nutshell,
public programming builds a relationship between the memory institution and its public. Building ben-
eficial exchange relationships through public programming will require memory institutions, particularly
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archives, to implement public programming strategies that are informed by organisational objectives,
sound research and ethical principles. This partly explains why users are central to public programming
activities. The knowledge of the user helps institutions to have a public programming orientation. Many
archivists appreciate that they should have a public programming orientation and be effective champions
of promoting their institutions, but they do not know how to do it well. The goal of this chapter is to
contribute to the discourse around making archivists good public programmers and advocates of their
archives, especially in the Global South.
The six objectives of the present chapter are to:
• Enable readers to conceptualise the promotion of archives

• Demonstrate tools and techniques used to provide outreach programmes for archives
• Describe the methods and practices of effective advocacy for a variety of archival agencies
• Address emerging technologies and their impact on public programming activities for archives
• Explain the role of events in public programming
• Consider ethical issues faced when undertaking public programming activities
The rest of this chapter is organised into nine sections. First, the conceptual grounding that explains
the link between marketing and the notions of public programming, advocacy, outreach, and blue oceans
is discussed. Public programming planning is then considered, after which a discussion of how research
may support public programming planning is put forward. Public programming communication channels
and the role of events in public programming are reviewed, followed by an analysis of public program-
ming partnerships. Ethical considerations in public programming are examined before, finally, some
areas for further research are suggested.
CONCEPTUAL GROUNDING
On the whole, this section focuses on the perceptions of archives, the concept of public programming,
outreach and advocacy, and the positioning of archives and the “blue oceans” strategy. When issues
around access, use and visibility of archives and awareness of their existence are raised, concepts such
as marketing, public programming, promotion, outreach and advocacy and reference services crop up.
These activities may assist archives to promote their activities. At the centre of these activities is the
exchange process between archives and their publics.
As noted by Pasquier and Villeneuve (2018, p. 20), the exchange process is supported by marketing
tools and processes such as:
• Segmentation and positioning, processes for analysing market actors (clients, competition, inter-
mediaries), and their behaviour
• Acquiring and managing market information
• Establishing marketing strategies
• Marketing mix – price, communication or distribution
• Systems for controlling and piloting marketing activities
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The attainment of these goals and processes depends on archives having: vision, leadership, qualified
staff, appropriate placement and authority, good planning and program management systems, sound
archival methods and services, an adequate and reliable revenue flow, active outreach programs, and
objective outside evaluation and advice (Hackman, 2011, p. vii).
The existence of all these factors will ensure a strong institutional infrastructure for the archives. A
leadership with vision can put in place the necessary institutional infrastructure and position the archives
in such a way that they are visible and utilised. A qualified staff has the potential to perform in a highly
professional manner and facilitate the establishment of sound archival methods and services that will
ensure that users get value for money. An effective archive is a primary tool for effective advocacy. This
will prove the value of archives and persuade decision makers and other stakeholders to support the
archives. An effective archival service is likely to build a strong and lasting relationship with its sup-
porters and advocates. A professional and qualified staff is capable of building a case for the archives
and creating awareness of and interest in the archival holdings.
Perception of Archives in the Global South
The perception of archives as places where old government documents are kept has contributed to the
misconceptions of the value of archives by the public. A lack of understanding of archives as value
documents, buildings where archives are stored and also as institutions that administer and preserve
archives was recently exhibited by the government of the North West Province in South Africa, who
had the purpose-built archives structure turned into a call centre after pushing out the archivists and
archives and consigning them to offices that were not suitable for preservation the province’s heritage
and legacy (Ngulube, 2018b). Government invested money into protecting the nation’s social memory
only to backtrack after a few years and turn the building into a call centre. This demonstrates that archives
are not fully appreciated at the highest level, which makes public programming and advocacy essential
in the South African context.
Archives suffer from a lower profile than libraries and museums. Despite being valuable, few people
perceive archives as sources of information that may contribute to social and economic development,
and social cohesion, promotion of democratic governance, fostering justice and accountability, and
supporting the administration of justice. The perception of archives and their use hinges on developing
programmes and services which inform the public of their holdings through activities such as public
programming, advocacy and outreach.
The role of archives in society has been partially undermined by the fourth revolution. The fourth
revolution is information driven and puts a premium on knowledge, with the internet being one of the
major drivers. The internet has dramatically changed the information provision landscape. The digital
landscape provides people with alternative sources of information, which tends to relegate archives to
the periphery, partly because of the archivists’ approach to managing and administering archives. Among
other things, public programming activities must be geared towards making people aware “that archives
are places to which they may come for information” (Ericson, 1991, p. 119).
Public Programming
Public programming underscores the fact that the ultimate goal of any archival endeavour is use. In the
words of Ericson (1991):
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...if, after we brilliantly and meticulously appraise, arrange, describe and conserve our records, nobody
comes to use them, then we have wasted our time (p. 116).
Archives should be used if they are to realise their value to society. Public programming activities
such as educational programmes, external programmes, or public service are some of the strategies that
archival institutions may utilise to facilitate the use of archives. Public programming activities meet the
users’ needs and help the institution meet its objectives. In that regard, public programming should be
included in an archival organisation’s strategic goal and objectives (Mason, 2009). This will ensure that
the public programming strategy is not formulated and implemented in isolation.
Public programming activities should be linked to other archival functions if they are to be executed
successfully. Along with other archival functions, public programming is the archivist’s professional re-
sponsibility. This is underscored in the Universal Declaration of Archives and the International Council on
Archives Principle of Access (International Council on Archives, 2012). Interest in public programming
activities is growing owing to the capabilities of information communication technology (ICT), especially
web technologies, as a communication tool, and recognition that archival functions and institutions are
more likely to be supported if they are known. The influence of ICT is reflected in the evolution of
public programming 1.0 to public programming 3.0, which is the subject of the next part of this section.
Public Programming 3.0
In terms of marketing (Constantinides & Fountain, 2008; Kotler, Kartajaya, & Setiawan, 2010), archives
in general and public programming in particular have evolved through three stages over the years. Pub-
lic programming has changed from public programming 1.0 through to public programming 2.0 and
public programming 3.0. Public programming 1.0 was rooted in the custodial tradition and centred on
the product, just as marketing 1.0. Creating a relationship with the users and potential users of archival
holdings was secondary. The assumption was that since the archives had been arranged, described and
preserved, the users would exploit them. Thus, the archivists relied on users to find the archives. The
product-centric approach ignored user studies that are fundamental to creating user-centred programmes
and creating and capturing the “blue oceans” described later.
Archives in the Global South can no longer afford to be public programming 1.0-oriented because of
pressure to provide open access to the majority of the hitherto disadvantaged citizens as a result of the
legacy of colonialism and other factors. Furthermore, dwindling budgets are forcing archival institutions
to review and reconfigure their relationship with users and potential users.
Public programming 1.0 was superseded by public programming 2.0 as result of the information age
(Theimer, 2011a, 2011b). The information age brought about many technological changes that chal-
lenged the archival profession. Users became more sophisticated than before as they could access many
information resources. The change may also be attributed to the growth and maturity of the archival
profession. Public programming 2.0 led to a focus on user orientation. The need to differentiate users,
satisfy their needs and retain them became important during this stage. Segmentation, with its emphasis
on the philosophy of going first to those who can benefit from the archival services and products, was
also used to deal with the diversity of the users. Building a relationship with the users was the mainstay
of public programming 2.0 (Theimer, 2011a, 2011b).
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According to Kotler, Kartajaya, & Setiawan (2010), as in the marketing environment which have
witnessed the growth of the marketing 3,0 phenomenon (Kotler, Kartajaya, & Setiawan, 2010), one may
safely argue that equally the growth of web technologies and social media will lead to the birth of public
programming 3.0 in the context of archives. Nowadays, many archival institutions are using social media
platforms such as blogs, Twitter, YouTube, Facebook and other social networking sites to interact and
reach out to users and potential users (Saurombe, 2019; Washburn, Eckert, & Proffitt, 2013). Archival
institutions are taking advantage of the low cost of these platforms, their ability to spread information
and innovations widely, and their ability to facilitate collaboration and building partnerships.
Value proposition also defines public programming 3.0. Users attach great importance to the value
that they get from products and services based on the core values of the archival institution. The value
proposition of the national and provincial archives in South Africa is described in Table 2, Appendix.
Archival institutions are attempting to understand the users’ needs and desires and try to “unlock the
soul’s code” (Stephen Covey (2004), as cited in Kotler, Kartajaya, & Setiawan, 2010, p. 35). Users’
needs are increasingly based on the desire to improve society and make the world a better place to live.
Outreach
The terms outreach and public programming may be used interchangeably since both terms denote ac-
tivities that bring heritage collections closer to both known and imagined publics or users, and “attract
their interest in learning more about those collections” (Theimer, 2014a, p. iv). Outreach is the term
used in North America to describe activities that promote archives to the public. Australians prefer the
term public programmes, based on the argument that the term focuses on the public and that the naming
of the activity should clearly reflect that. Both activities promote and support other archival functions
such as collection development, preservation, reference services and research.
In the United States, outreach was not regarded as a core function of the archives until the 1980s
(Theimer, 2014b). Outreach is becoming increasingly important, especially in North America, as a result
of web technologies, the dwindling funding opportunities and the desire of professionals to “open up”
the archives to potential users. Although web technologies are pervasive in the Global South, archivists
do not use them optimally.
Table 1 shows that although the selected countries have websites, they do not harness the full capabili-
ties of web technologies. Archivists are not taking advantage of networking sites such as Facebook and
Twitter to make their activities visible. Furthermore, outreach activities are not an essential professional
concern of archivist, particularly in Africa. To perform outreach activities, any archival institution should
have appropriate answers to the following questions (Theimer, 2014a):
• What is the mission of the archival institution?

• What is it that the archival institution wants to achieve?
• Who does the archival institution want to reach?
• Why is the archival institution targeting that group?
• Where is the archival institution going to serve the target group?
• How does the archival institution want to reach them?
• What format would best appeal to the users?
• How will we know it has succeeded?
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After answering these questions, archivists should critically evaluate whether outreach activities
would serve to promote the use of archives as recommended by Shaffer (2009). Failure to evaluate the
outcomes of the outreach programme will result in fruitless expenditure. Outreach activities can include
exhibits, media coverage, conducting public programmes oral history programmes, workshops, special
events, seminars, publications, tours and social networking. Libraries and museums seem to place more
value on outreach than archives do (Barrett, Cannon, & O’Hare, 2009).
Public libraries have taken public programming to another level by employing conversation-based
programming to achieve inclusion of marginalised groups (Johnston, 2018). The conversation-based
programming strategy uses conversation groups or circles and language cafes to reach out to people who
may not be proficient in the language used in the public library collections. Archivists in the Global
South can use the same strategy to achieve social cohesion and inclusivity in their diverse archival
spaces. This public programming model may integrate storytelling in indigenous languages and other
languages represented in the archive.
Advocacy
Advocacy supports public programming. Advocacy and public programming intend to build a relationship
between the archival institution and the users and potential users. While public programming focuses
on outreach, publicity and reference services, advocacy focuses on convincing the target audience. Ad-
vocacy entails building relationships through community involvement. In other words, advocacy may
be viewed as a public relations exercise that aims at promoting the mission of an archival institution.
Increasingly advocacy is also targeting underserved communities (Garaba, 2014). Archival institutions
that do not advocate for their holdings and collections struggle or fail to fulfil their mandate and eventu-
ally decline (Hackman, 2011; Pederson, 2008). Advocacy is conducted “intentionally” and strategically
in order to educate and engage individuals or organisations to support archival work (Hackman, 2011,
p. vii). Advocacy should influence governments and communities to support the archival endeavour.
Table 1. Use of networking sites by selected archival institutions (Synthesis of websites)
Country Website Facebook Twitter

National Archives of Angola Yes No No
National Archives of Botswana Yes Yes No
National Archives of Kenya Yes No No
National Archives of Lesotho No No No
National Archives of Malawi Yes No No
National Archives of Mozambique Yes Yes Yes
National Archives of Namibia Yes No No
National Archives of South Africa Yes No No
National Archives of Swaziland Yes No No
National Archives of Tanzania Yes No No
National Archives of Zambia Yes No No
National Archives of Zimbabwe Yes Yes Yes
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It is about building beneficial relationships with the public so that they go out there and advocate for
archives. High-level contacts are also essential for advocacy to succeed.
Advocacy should be part and parcel of all archival functions. According to Hackman (2011), ad-
vocacy is about building relationships with those in a position to affect future decisions on archives.
Such relationships are critical to the success of any advocacy activities. Advocacy may also include a
proposal for the placement of archives if they are not strategically positioned. The placement of archives
within government structures has been a subject of discussion in the professional circles of the East and
Southern Africa Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (ESARBICA). Positioning,
in the sense of achieving a strong position on the part of an archival institution, is discussed in the next
part of this section.
Advocating for archives has the potential to raise the value of archives among various communities,
which in turn will influence them to allocate more resources to archives and exploit them for their vari-
ous needs. Conducting advocacy “intentionally” ensures allocation of resources, with advocacy plans
facilitating the judicious expenditure of resources. Bellardo (2011) and Hackman (2011) describe some
useful advocacy approaches:
• Constantly scan the environment for changes that may affect your programme and then adjust how
and to whom you direct your advocacy;
• Use effective, quality, and prompt service as one of the best advocacy tools;
• Start close to home for media coverage, including in-house newsletters;
• Make good use of good and bad news, and use the opportunity to craft a credible advocacy
message;
• Never assume that your advocacy efforts are enough;
• Treat every oversight body as a possibly ally;
• Know when to act for maximum impact;
• Impress people inside and beyond the organisation through communication;
• Personalise communications with people whose support an archive’s needs, and make follow ups
and reinforce contacts; and
• Seek the opinions of those whose support you need: “effective advocacy means not only influenc-
ing others but also being open to being influenced by others” (Bellardo, 2011, p. 93).
Positioning and Creating Blue Oceans
Technological advances are giving organisations an opportunity to produce and create new products and
services. The impact of changing technologies has not spared memory institutions. Memory institutions
can position themselves better by responding and harnessing the capabilities of technologies to promote
their holdings and collections. This will position them to be major players in the information society
and the fourth revolution.
In order to position themselves well, memory institutions should also embrace the blue ocean strategy,
which is about growing demand and breaking away from the shrinking market that is dominated by a lot
of competition. This implies a movement from competition-based red ocean strategies, which are based
on the military ethos of “…confronting an opponent and fighting over a given piece of land that is both
limited and constant…” (Mauborgue & Kim, 2005, p. 6). On the other hand:
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Blue ocean strategy challenges companies to break out of the red ocean of bloody competition by creat-
ing uncontested market space that makes the competition irrelevant (Mauborgue & Kim, 2005, p. x).
Red ocean boundaries are defined and known, and the competitive rules of the game are known
(Mauborgue & Kim, 2005, p. 4). There is always a need to swim effectively and successfully. The major
problem with red oceans is that they are becoming increasingly bloody. On the other hand, blue oceans
create new opportunities through innovation. Blue oceans represent an untapped market space that
needs to be created. Just ask yourself: How many businesses were unknown 20 years ago? How many
unknown industries are likely to exist in future? It should be borne in mind that industries never stand
still. It cannot be business as usual.
Memory institutions are in competition with each other because they are all in the business of pro-
viding information and preserving social memory. Furthermore, they all serve an educational purpose.
The focus should not be on beating the competition, but on systematically creating and capturing blue
oceans. Memory institutions should strive to create an uncontested market space that makes competition
irrelevant, in line with notion of blue oceans espoused by Mauborgue and Kim (2005).
Opportunities for public programming always exist for every memory institution. The creation of
blue oceans requires creativity, preparation and persistence on the part of memory institutions. This will
set them apart from competing institutions and give them a competitive advantage. Such positioning in
the “blue oceans” may create a niche market for the memory institution. The multiple-niching strategy
is viewed by Kotler and Andreasen (1996, p. 207) as “the most effective and safest”, in contrast to “red
oceans” that are dominated by market leaders, market challengers and market followers. The question
that begs an answer is: How can archival institutions create blue oceans? The answer partially lies in
public programming planning, which we turn to in the next section. Public programming may assist
archival institutions to identify new opportunities and create blue oceans.
PUBLIC PROGRAMMING PLANNING
Public programming enables memory institutions to assess and develop capacity to build a relationship
with their constituencies based on the available resources. Public programming planning is essential for
the success of any public programming endeavour. A public programming (PP) plan provides a road
map for all future public programming activities of the institution, including the following.
• Efficient allocation of resources, especially financial resources, is possible if there is a PP plan.

• The matching of PP activities with other resources is also possible if there is a plan.
• The PP plan also has the potential to raise the profile of the institution and make the institution
visible.
• The PP plan provides a tool for controlling and monitoring progress of PP activities.
• The PP activities may increase the number of visitors to the institution and promote lasting rela-
tions between the institution and its constituents.
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Figure 1 outlines the steps in PP planning. The first step in the PP plan is the most important as it
ensures that public programming activities are nested within, and aligned to the institution’s strategic plan.
The PP plan should demonstrate the relationship with the institution. The second step includes the
review of community needs, offerings, competitors and segment of constituencies. This step establishes
the strengths, constraints, opportunities and risks that the institutions might face in promoting their col-
lections and holdings. It entails analysing the internal and external forces affecting the memory institu-
tion. This step leads to a deeper understanding of the two environments and facilitates the development
of public programming activities that are aligned to the needs of the memory institution’s publics. An
environmental scan may assist memory institutions to identify potential partners. This step may also
identify communities that do not have access to archival services and products.
The third step sets out goals and measurable objectives. A decision should be made as to which
group the PP plan would want to appeal to. This may involve segmenting the market and establishing a
niche area. The target group may be people that the institution is currently serving or new groups and
underserved users. The target group will partially determine the public programming tools and level of
sophistication. The strategy should be to change the public’s perception of the memory institution. It
must also position the memory institution in relation to competition. An example of a PP strategy is in
Table 2, Appendix.
Figure 1. Steps in designing a public programming plan

(Kotler & Andreasen, 1996; Kotler, Kartajaya, & Setiawan, 2010)
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The next step is to consider tactics and action plans to implement the PP plan. The PP activities to be
undertaken are determined and specific tactics are formulated – for instance, organising familiarisation
tours for the media, lobbying government to include heritage studies in the curricula of schools, devel-
oping strategic partnerships and mounting permanent and mobile exhibitions (see Table 3, Appendix,
for more examples of PP activities). The underlying principle should be that the activities should meet
the objectives of the strategy and the organisational goals.
Message development is an integral part of action plans to implement the PP strategy. For example,
the message for the Public Programming Strategy for National and Provincial Archives in South Africa
in Appendix is: “Archives: your memory, identity, heritage and culture.” This message was meant to
persuade, inform and motivate users and potential users about the value of archives. It was going to be
used by all archival institutions in South Africa to promote archives and win the support of their constitu-
encies. The message was driven by the mission of the archival institutions. It was meant to communicate
who the archival institutions are and what they do, and the value of archives to the public. Patterson and
Radtke (2009) advise that a message should be a short and simple declarative statement.
Resources such as personnel and budget must be mobilised to deliver the PP plan. Communicating
and monitoring the PP plan is the last stage, according to Figure 1. A communication action team to
facilitate effective communication of the public programming strategy might be required. When all is
said and done, the overarching question would be: Did the PP plan meet its objectives? Routine reports
and reviews can help to answer the question. PP audits that systematically and comprehensively examine
the archival institution’s public programming objectives and strategies will also be useful to assess the
implementation of the PP programme.
RESEARCH IN SUPPORT OF PUBLIC PROGRAMMING
This section is included in this chapter because it seems as if research does not play a significant role in
PP planning. Seemingly, non-profit organisations conduct limited market research (Kotler & Andreasen,
1996). On the other hand, Urrutiaguer (2018) observed that there is limited research on programming
strategies in public libraries relating to performing arts. That may also apply to PP research in archival
institutions in Africa. There is limited evidence of studies that report on PP planning. Thirteen studies
were identified in the extant literature covering PP research, comprising seven on South Africa (Koopman,
2002; Mukwevho, 2018; Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011; Ngulube, 2018a; Ngulube et al., 2017; Saurombe
& Ngulube, 2016; Van der Walt, 2011), two on the East and Southern Africa Regional Branch of the
International Council on Archives (ESARBICA) region (Saurombe, 2015; Sibanda, 2011), one cover-
ing Tanzania, South Africa and Botswana (Kamatula, Mnkeni-Saurombe, & Mosweu, 2013), one on
Tanzania (Kamatula, 2011), one on Botswana (Maphorisa & Jain, 2013) and one on Zambia (Njobvu,
Hamooya & Mwila, 2012).
It is apparent that where there is no empirical research, PP decisions are made arbitrarily and simply
based on guessing the answers. Research plays a critical role in gathering data to support the activities
of memory institutions such as PP planning. The quality of decisions made depends on the quality of
information gathered, its accuracy, relevance, and how it is applied. For instance, Urban (2005, p. 158)
underscored the importance of research in making advocacy decisions. Research into the PP environment
should be done properly using appropriate research methods and theories.
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Research begins with the identification and definition of the problem nested within a research ques-
tion. A good research question provides relevance, direction and coherence of the study from conception
to completion (Brownhill, Ungarova, & Bipazhanova, 2017). The purpose of the research and specific
objectives or research questions flow from the research question and “guide researchers in making de-
cisions about study design and population and subsequently what data will be collected and analysed”
(Brownhill, Ungarova, & Bipazhanova, 2017, p. 2).
PUBLIC PROGRAMMING COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Communication channels are key to establishing a positive relationship between archives and their pub-
lics. They are the heart and soul of public programming. Public programming communication channels
described in this section can be applied to memory institutions across the board with minor adjustments.
The communication channels should be mission driven and audience focused. Communication channels
that archivists, librarians and museum curators may employ to increase the visibility and utilisation of
their collections and holdings may be loosely classified as orthodox and digital. Public programming
activities may be exclusively traditional or digital. The hybrid approach that combines the traditional
and digital approach may be useful depending on the context and nature of the archival institution. The
traditional communication channels include:
• Guided tours of the archives to members of the public within and outside the community;
• Permanent and travelling exhibits to stimulate knowledge, use and preservation of archival materi-
als in the community; and
• Information seminars, press leases, publications, conferences, special events and festivals, public
lectures and workshops about the archives, and training programmes for students and the general
public.
The advances in information and communication technologies provide archives with digital commu-
nication options. The digital options are cheaper than the traditional means of communication (Mason,
2009; Sinclair, 2012). Their reach is great, with the potential to reach more users than traditional means
of communication. They provide flexible means of reaching out to potential users. Traditional channels
require a lot of time, resources and effort proportional to the number of clients being communicated to.
These tools facilitate sharing with ease, networking and real-time collaboration. They may also increase
the visibility of memory institutions and move holdings beyond their physical limitations and create the
blue oceans described above. Some of the digital options include:
• Websites: Many archival institutions have websites that project their purpose. Alongside web-
sites, archival institutions may host school heritage websites where school children can write
heritage stories and post their pictures;
• Social Media: Many archives are deploying social media to promote their holdings and engage
with the users. Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, LinkedIn and Instagram are some of the social net-
working sites used by many archival institutions (these are among the 15 popular social network-
ing sites) (eBizMBA, 2017);
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• Internet: Placing specific adverts and videos using user-generated content sites such as YouTube
and Instagram; e-mail campaigns facilitating interaction between the institutions and users; and
• Blogs: Maintaining regular entries of commentary, description of events and stories, and having a
functionality for users to leave messages.
The traditional and digital communication channels can be used side by side to build a beneficial
relationship between the archival institutions and their publics. These tools can be used to expand audi-
ences and build communities of users.
ROLE OF EVENTS IN PUBLIC PROGRAMMING
Many memory institutions use events to reach out to their constituencies (Cushing, 2018). Special cel-
ebration events such as International Museum Day, International Archives Day and International Library
Day can enhance the visibility and utilisation of these institutions. These days may be commemorated
at nationwide and province-wide levels. Specific themes and exhibits may be dedicated to each of these
events every year focusing on a certain target audience. In South Africa, for instance, the themes for
Archives Week in 2016 and 2018 were: “Archives for the protection of human rights, transparency and
good governance” and “Archives: our lives, our legacy, workers’ rights” respectively. The two events
underscored that archives play a crucial role in the preservation of national heritage, good governance
and social cohesion. To realise that mandate, archives must be inclusive, accessible and known.
Memory institutions may also take advantage of national days such as the commemoration of Heritage
Day and Freedom Day in South Africa. In Zimbabwe, archivists can take advantage of the International
Trade Fair that attracts many members of the public. Special events may be employed as a powerful
public programming tool for memory institutions in order to:
• Provide the public an opportunity to know their heritage assets

• Give the public a chance to experience the essence of the memory institution
• Create an opportunity for positive news coverage
• Improve the institution’s image
• Create networking opportunities
• Create new groups of users
Such events may also be used to celebrate and recognise individuals and archival institutions that
have played a leading role in the promotion of the use of archives and making archives visible.
PUBLIC PROGRAMMING PARTNERSHIPS
According to the International Council on Archives [ICA]:
Archivists should promote the preservation and use of the world’s documentary heritage, through work-
ing co-operatively with the members of their own and other professions. (ICA, 1996)
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Archivists should cooperate with other memory institutions to facilitate the use of archival holdings.
Memory institutions should invest in building partnerships. The need to create partnerships is captured
in the public programming implementation plan in Table 4, Appendix. Partnerships and collaboration
can bring many benefits to a memory institution. Partnerships provide opportunities for resource sharing,
fundraising and promotion. In an article entitled “The Oregon archives crawl”, Diana Banning, Mary
B. Hansen and Anne LeVant Prahl, who were Portland-area archivists, demonstrated how 36 regional
and heritage organisations in Oregon formed a partnership to create awareness among people unfamiliar
with the value of archives as a cultural resource (Banning, Hansen, & Prahl, 2014).
Partnerships can be either formal or informal. The partnerships may be among memory institutions
such as libraries, archives, museums and art galleries. Partnering has the potential to attract large com-
munity grants and the community’s goodwill. Community partnerships may provide a pool of volunteers
and potential donors of money, goods and other services. Community partners may also donate materials
of cultural and archival value.
Partnerships may also be forged with the business community and academic institutions. Academic
institutions may provide interns and volunteers to assist in various public programming activities. For
example, the University of South Africa is working with archival institutions in southern Africa to enable
students to work on their programmes and support public programming activities by supplying research
and development information. In Zimbabwe, the National University of Science and Technology is part-
nering the National Archives of Zimbabwe to clear backlogs of unprocessed records. The role of each
partner should be clearly defined and communicated to all parties in order for the partnership to work
smoothly for the benefit for all. The partnership should be entered into if it:
• Supports the memory institution’s mission and vision statements

• Helps the memory institution to achieve its long- and short-term goals and objectives
• Serve as an important tool to make the memory institution visible through marketing, public pro-
gramming, advocacy and promotion
Building relationships through public programming also implies that the archival institution should
value the feedback from the users and potential users. This may lead to the co-creation of public pro-
gramming initiatives. Co-creation is a new way of creating services and experience through a network of
partnerships (Prahalad & Krishnan, 2008). The public programming initiative is not a service by itself.
The users add value to the public programming initiative and personalise it according to their needs
and desires if archival institutions work with them. Customisation of public programming activities is
possible through co-creation and partnerships.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PUBLIC PROGRAMMING
Ethics is “knowing what ought to be done, and having the will to do it” (Hall, 1992, p. 12), bearing in
mind principles such as accountability, integrity, commitment to excellence, loyalty, fairness, reputa-
tion, concern for others, respect for others, keeping promises, honesty and abiding by the law (Yeh et
al., 2005). The topic of professional ethics is not widely discussed in the archival literature. Equally,
professional ethics in public programming seems to be a neglected subject. Ethics have an important
role in all archival activities, including public programming. Ethical considerations must inform public
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programming efforts because value judgements are pervasive. There is always a need to value one option
over others. The section on value propositions outlined in Table 3, Appendix, encapsulates the need for
integrity when building a relationship with key constituencies.
Conducting public programming involves many actors, such as archival institutions, users, creators
and archivists. The actions of all these constituencies have ethical implications. The building of relation-
ships between and among archivists, archival institutions, creators and the public depends on trust and
the level of professionalism. In line with the International Council on Archives [ICA] (2012), the South
African Society of Archivists [SASA] (1993) underscores the impotence of ethics in archival activities,
stating that:
The archivist is responsible for ensuring the availability and use of permanently valuable archives by
identification, acquisition, description and preservation. Accountability to the archives creator, employer
and user should shape the performance of these tasks.
Accountability is a major tenet of ethical behaviour (Ngulube, 2016). Archivist must act in a respon-
sible manner and make decisions they can live with and defend. The ethical question that arises regarding
public programming activities relates to the effects on society of what is promoted and advocated. The
other aspect to the ethical issue deals with the treatment of the people with whom a relationship is being
built through public programming. The role of culture in influencing ethics should not be underplayed.
As Bartels (1967) observed: “Contrasting cultures of different societies produce different expectations
and become expressed in the dissimilar ethical standards of those societies” (p. 23). This word of caution
is still applicable in the current situation. This implies that we should not universalise ethical standards
because they are social constructions. Ethical standards should respond to the contexts in which they
are applied.
Deceptive public programming is inimical to building relationships with users and potential users.
Public programming should not be manipulative or intrusive. The programme should not discriminate
against people along racial, religious, ethnic, gender, disability and class lines, for example. Duties and
responsibilities towards users and potential users should be consistent across the board. Fairness should
guide all the programming activities of the archivists. The ICA code of ethics emphasises the need for
archivists to “provide an impartial service to all users” and to “avoid using their position to unfairly
benefit themselves or others” (ICA, 1996). Archivist should also guard against dishonest promotion and
advocacy. They should be honest and should not promote programmes that they cannot deliver on. In
other words, archivists should create honest, non-misleading and socially desirable public programming
messages. This means being a faithful representative of the users’ interests (Urban, 2005) by providing
“open, honest, and complete information” (p. 178).
In any context, the question that should underlie public programming activities is: What is morally
right and wrong, or what is good or bad about the public programming activities? For instance, is it good
or bad to promote the archives to the people whose history is not covered by the holdings? The moral
thing to do is to get the content fixed before promoting the archives to the relevant group.
The other question that arises in many contexts may be: Should archivists promote archives that
do not reflect the diversity of the society they are operating in? The answer is yes. Remember that the
components of an archive include the physical record, the building and the institution. The archivist may
promote the building as a tourist and educational attraction, and the value of the institution to society.
The integrity of the public programming strategy should be a driving force.
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An ethical archivist must demonstrate professional excellence by ensuring that there is intellectual
and physical accessibility to archives. In other words, there must be guides, finding aids and catalogues
to facilitate access. Differently abled people should also have reasonable access. Archivist may achieve
professional excellence by “continuously updating their archive and sharing the results of their research
and experience” (ICA, 1996). An ethical archivist should also address inclusivity in the archival holdings
so that public programming does not raise challenges for the institution. Archivists should consider the
strategies that may help them to best serve their constituencies.
The possible areas for further research are many. The following list gives an indication of some of these.
• Describing public programming trends and how they have influenced the management of memory
institutions
• The influence of social media on PP activities
• The use of past and current data and information to plan PP activities
• Impact of technological developments on PP
• The extent to which memory institutions collaborate with higher education institutions and make
use of the research that has already been conducted by these institutions is not known
• Assessing the outcomes of PP activities
• The level of awareness and usage of memory institutions
• The extent to which “friends groups” sponsor and promote archives
• Users’ attitudes and behaviour patterns in relation to memory institutions
• Archivists’ perceptions of ethics in relation to the PP in memory institutions
• The extent to which constituency orientation has influenced acquisition priories in memory
institutions
• Considering the situation in other memory institutions and finding out what outreach strategies
would be most effective in archives and how can they be implemented
• The extent to which conversation-based programming may be used by archival institutions to
achieve social cohesion and inclusivity in their diverse archival spaces
• Using the conceptual framework provided by Hackman (2011), which includes vision, leadership,
qualified staff, appropriate placement and authority, good planning and programme management
systems, sound archival methods and services, an adequate and reliable revenue flow, active out-
reach programmes, and objective outside evaluation and advice, to assess the effectiveness and
efficiency of public programming activities in context
CONCLUSION
The implementation of effective and efficient public programming efforts will largely depend on archi-
val institutions having a clear vision, leadership, qualified staff, good planning, sound archival methods
and services, an adequate and reliable revenue flow, active outreach programmes, and objective outside
evaluation and advice. Lesson learnt from marketing of services may assist archives to build relationships
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through these activities. Public programming dictates that archival institutions should aspire to have
superior services and products that add value to users and potential users. Public programming should
begin with the users and potential users, and their needs and wants. Public programming planning that
is based on organisational objectives, research and ethical behaviour will be key to identifying the needs
of the users and potential users.
Archivist should have a public programming mind-set in order to take archives to the people and
people to the archives. Archival institutions should subscribe to industry journals and read technical
literature so that they remain abreast with developments and trends in the profession. They should also
use advisory bodies as a tool of public programming. The support of advisory bodies may come in handy
when making recommendations for the allocation of resources and lobbying for support. Friends groups
and professional associations may also be lobbied to promote archives.
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Advocacy: The act of influencing decision making and planning through suggesting or supporting an
idea guided by professional standards and a code of ethics. Both individuals and groups can undertake
advocacy work in a wide range of fields.
Batho Pele Theory: The underlying ethos is that in delivering public service, delivery people must
come first, as espoused by the ten principles of the model.
Outreach: The process of identifying and providing services to constituencies with needs relevant
to the repository’s mission, especially underserved groups, and tailoring services to meet those needs
(Pearce-Moses, 2005).
Promotion: Making the content of archives more widely known and accessible to users.
Public Programming: Public programming activities aim at creating a positive relationship between
the user and the services and products of the institution.
Public Programming Audit: A systematic and comprehensive examination of the memory institu-
tion to determine if the promotional and outreach activities meet the objectives of the organisation with
a view to recommending changes.
Ubuntu Theory: Derived from the Nguni Bantu word “ubuntu”, meaning “humanity”, the theory
covers morality, having a positive disposition, empathy and other aspects related to being humane to-
wards others.
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APPENDIX
Archives Marketing / Public Programming Strategy for National and Provincial

Archives in South Africa (2015–2017) (Ngulube, 2018a, pp. 94–95)
Table 2. Strategy
The Archives mission, which supports the vision of the Department of Arts and Culture, can be summarised as
follows:
Archives Mission
• Preserving national archives heritage for use by the government and people of South Africa
• Promoting efficient, accountable and transparent government
The objectives of this marketing campaign are as follows:
1. To enhance the visibility of the archives to 20% of SA by April 2017
Marketing
2. To communicate the content of the archival holdings to 20% of SA by April 2017
Objectives
3. To develop officials responsible for public programming
4. To promote positive perceptions of archives to 20% of SA by 2017
Target Market This marketing campaign will target South Africans of all races from the age of 14 upwards.
This marketing campaign will focus on market development, where the aim will be to capture that segment of the
Focus
above identified target market that did not know about the Archives.
Our value proposition to our target market will be the fact that we can provide them with unique, authentic, cost-
Value Proposition
effective and reliable and evidence-based information to satisfy any of their information needs.
Core Our value proposition indicates the quality of our information. In that regard, we will differentiate ourselves
Differentiation from our competitors by highlighting that quality to our target market and by employing quality differentiation
Strategy approaches.
We would like to position the Archives as a professional institution that houses quality, unique, authentic,
reliable information and that embraces the values of integrity, trust, accountability, honesty, identity, morals and
Positioning transparency. These are the same values that our customers also embrace, and so to connect with our target market
and position the Archives as desired we will also embrace these values and attach them to this marketing campaign
and everything we do.
To achieve the above-mentioned objectives and align with our core strategy and positioning, our marketing
campaign will be implemented as follows (more detail available in the Key Performance Indicator (KPI) section):
Promotion:
• We will develop
communication material
that includes the message:
“Archives: your memory,
Place: identity, heritage and culture.”
Product: • We will improve the visual • We will convey our
• We will package our content for the benefit of appearance of the Archives message to our target market
Marketing Mix our target market and in line with our strategy. (offices, outreach and online via various channels which
• We will develop a corporate identity. facilities). include (but are not limited to)
• Our Archivist will be presentable in order to • We will improve the the media, our website, social
reflect the identified value proposition of the visibility of the archives networks, school outreach
Archives. on maps and in cities and programmes and proximity
surrounding areas. messaging services.
• Access to these channels
will be through the
partnership we will create
with various relevant
stakeholders.
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Table 3. Strategy implementation plan
Key
Performance Initiatives Measures Targets
Indicator (KPI)
• Permanent exhibitions
• 4 permanent exhibitions
• Mobile exhibitions • Number of permanent exhibitions
• 1 mobile exhibition
• Landmark signs of the Archives • Number of mobile exhibitions
• Discussions complete by when?
Enhance • Standard and branded outreach • Discussions on the erection of
• Erected landmarks
visibility material and facilities (outreach landmarks
• Website 80% complete by next
toolkit) • Percentage complete on the website
workshop
• Visually appealing website • Number of outreach programmes
• 3 programmes per year
• Community outreach programmes
• 1 general toolkit
• Design/develop a toolkit that • 2 toolkits addressing different
addresses different customer needs needs
Content of the • Design/develop packages in line • 1 toolkit on commemorative
• Number of toolkits developed
Archives with commemoration events events: national and local event
• Develop a general toolkit on • Archives career brochure
accessing the Archives ○ All completed in March
2017
• 2 workshops or training
opportunities per year (ESARBICA
2017, OHASA 2016?)
• Workshop • 2-day public programming
Development
• Training workshop
of officials • Number of workshops, training,
• Mentorship programmes • Mentorship programmes (internal
responsible mentorship programmes
• Social networks and external) – student work
for public • Active social network group
• Qualifications in public shadowing
programming
programming • Facebook pages
• Ongoing activity on social network
page (National Archives Facebook
page)
• Develop advertising and
communication material (brochures, • Number of advertising and
articles, radio talks, etc.) communication materials
• Establish partnerships with • Number of partnerships with
Promotion • 2 articles
stakeholders (radio, Unisa radio, stakeholders
of positive • 2 press releases
community radio, newspaper, etc.) • Active NARSSA Archives
perception about • Active NARSSA newsletter
• Publish material to print media newsletters
Archives (resuscitate)
• Revive the Archives news • Number of press releases per
publications workshop (e-connect, NARS website
• Organise press release for and Unisa radio)
workshops
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101
Chapter 6
Collaboration on Public
Programming by Memory
Institutions in Botswana:
Factors for Consideration
Olefhile Mosweu
ABSTRACT
Public memory institutions such as libraries, archives and museums (LAMs) are mandated to preserve
the cultural and documentary heritage of their nations for posterity. Such preservation is not an end
in itself but the means to make holdings in their care, regardless of format, accessible to the public.
However, studies have revealed that although LAMs are annually funded and they may also have rich
accessible collections, they are underutilised and generally invisible. Funding from national coffers has
dwindled since the global economic recession and the LAMs experience difficulties in attracting and
retaining users. This chapter seeks to determine strategies deployed by LAMs to increase usage of their
collections, establish the benefits of LAMs public programming and highlight challenges encountered in
public programming. Also described in this chapter are some factors to consider when memory institu-
tions undertake public programming initiatives in a collaborative manner. The data collected through
desktop research was analysed using content analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Public memory institutions are mandated to provide a service to the public. They are entrusted with
the responsibilities for collecting, preserving and making available the nation’s cultural heritage (Dato,
2005). Specifically, public memory institutions referred to are libraries, archives and museums (LAMs).
The mandate of LAMs is normally given by legislation. Collections held by LAMs are preserved so that
they are made accessible to the public. However, the collections in LAMs need to be used by the public
to justify their existence lest they be deemed worthy of non-existence in the face of budgetary constraints
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch006

Collaboration on Public Programming by Memory Institutions in Botswana
especially in developing countries. By their nature, public memory institutions serve as a window of
the past through stories, physical objects, records, and other documentary heritage preserved (Council
of Canadian Academies, 2015). In addition, they provide society with a sense of history, identity and a
feeling of connectedness. However, if collections in their care are accessible but not used by the public,
their existence serves no purpose. As part of their service offerings, LAMs undertake public program-
ming activities which are geared towards making potential users of their services to actual use them.
In the context of this study, the phrase has been adopted to mean all activities undertaken to promote
awareness of services offered by LAMs. Therefore, words such as publicity, advocacy, outreach and
marketing are taken to have a similar meaning and are therefore used interchangeably. The objectives
of this study are to determine public programming strategies deployed by LAMs, establish the benefits
of collaboration in public programming by public memory institutions and highlight challenges faced
by public memory institutions on public programming. Put forward are some factors to consider when
memory institutions undertake public programming initiatives in a collaborative manner.
PUBLIC PROGRAMMING BY LIBRARIES, ARCHIVES AND MUSEUMS
Libraries, museums and archives play a prominent role in the preservation of their nations’ cultural
heritage and history. IFLA (2001) defines a public library as an organisation established, supported and
funded by the community, either through local, regional or national government or through some other
form of community organization. According to Reding (2005), public libraries play a significant role in
society. As collectors and managers of heritage, they organise knowledge in the books they continuously
collect by cataloguing, classifying and describing them. That is not an end in itself as they provide ac-
cess on an equal basis to citizens and residents. Basically, libraries expose past and present knowledge
and lay it down for the future. Without access and use of library collections, the mandate of the library
ceases to exist. Libraries provide access to their collections on an equal basis and without due regard
for race, nationality, age, gender, religion, language, disability, economic and employment status and
educational attainment (IFLA, 2001).
The word archives have different meanings. Archives can mean a place where records with continu-
ing value are kept (Duranti, 2007). Archives are “materials created or received by a person, family, or
organisation, public or private, in the conduct of their affairs and preserved because of the enduring value
contained in the information they contain or as evidence of the functions and responsibilities of their
creator, especially those materials maintained using the principles of provenance, original order, and col-
lective control (Pearce-Moses, 2005:30). Without an (s), the same author defines the word archive as the
act of transferring records from the individual or office of creation to an archival repository authorized to
appraise, preserve, and provide access to those records. In the context of this chapter, the word archives
is taken to mean a place where archival records are kept for posterity. Archives are therefore valuable
to nations and regions, organisations, communities, and individual people. They serve as custodians of
recorded memory and form an important part of our community, cultural, official and unofficial history
(UK National Archives, 2016).
The online American Heritage Dictionary (2015) defines a museum as “a building, place, or institu-
tion devoted to the acquisition, conservation, study, exhibition, and educational interpretation of objects
having scientific, historical, or artistic value.” The International Council on Archives in Dillenburg (2011,
p. 8) declares that a museum is “a non-profit- making, permanent institution in the service of society
102

and of its development, and open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates
and exhibits, for purposes of study, education and enjoyment, material evidence of people and their
environment.” The two definitions resonate well and have a commonality at least in the context of this
chapter. In Botswana, the national museum is a publicly funded public institution mandated to preserve
the cultural heritage of the nation, amongst which are recorded information in various forms such as
audio-visuals, text and objects. Public programming by museums sustains their relevance to communi-
ties. It enables them to be responsive to the needs and interests of local community members, providing
space for community engagement and dialogue and helping participants to develop skills to support
individual and community goals (Simon, 2010).
CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND ON PUBLIC

PROGRAMMING BY LAMs IN BOTSWANA
Public programming by memory institutions is a normal undertaking as it is an activity that promotes

the performance of the mandate of such institutions. LAMs in Botswana are not an exception. BNARS
does undertake public programming to promote the use of archives in its holdings (Maphorisa & Jain,
2013; Kamatula, Mnkeni-Saurombe & Mosweu, 2013; Ndabambi & Morapedi, 2014). The department
undertakes public programming as a strategy to increase the use of its archival resources because when
potential users of archives are aware of the archives, they are likely to consume archives reference
services (Ndabambi & Morapedi, 2014). The National Museum also undertakes public programming
through mounting exhibitions in national fairs and also its mobile museum unit which regularly visits
the rural areas. The National Library does the same through village reading rooms which are spread
across the country.
GOALS OF PUBLIC PROGRAMMING
LAMs exist to preserve cultural memories. These can be in the form of objects and documents. The
underutilisation of cultural and documentary heritage in LAMs has seen focused efforts to attract users
(Ngulube, 1999; Kamatula et al., 2013). They have collected data in a variety of forms to establish the
efficiency of service, client use and satisfaction (Lo, But & Trio, 2013). Public programming is amongst
the central features in LAMs in the endeavour to attract users to access public memories in their midst
((Maier, 2003; Saurombe, 2016). According to authors such as Diamant-Cohen and Sherman (2007),
Lester (2001), Brown and Pollack (2000) and Yakel (2005), reasons for the collaboration of LAMs for
purposes of public programming include:
• To attract new audience groups and expand the reach of the library and museum
• To improve public perceptions of museums and libraries as traditional staid institutions
• To identify new ways to encourage cultural heritage and preservation
• To foster of best practice from the museum and the library
• To share physical resources such as space and materials
• To share policies for preservation and conservation of collections
• To share expertise
103

• To share staff training costs

• The experience of collaborative work itself
COLLABORATION ON PUBLIC PROGRAMMING BY

PUBLIC MEMORY INSTITUTIONS GLOBALLY
LAMs may appear different and have evolved from different paths (Hedstrom & King, 2003; Duff,
Carter, Cherry, MacNeil & Howarth, 2013). However, their general mandate is similar in that they are
all involved in collecting, conservation, research, and public service (Duff et al., 2013). The commonali-
ties call into question their differences in professional practices, training, and organizational methods
that largely constitute and differentiate them. The overarching and common purpose of LAMs is the
acquisition, organisation, preservation and presentation of cultural and scientific heritage of society. This
makes their collaboration on public programming a sensible undertaking (Allen & Bishoff, 2001). This
becomes particularly apparent because they all manage information. Buckland (1991; 1997) considers
objects held in museums to be documents because they provide information about the type of object,
its context and its relationships to other objects. The author argues that information has three meanings
(Buckland, 1991:351). The first one is:
• Information as a Process: Information refers to the act of informing.

• Information as Knowledge: Information is regarded as that which reduces the act of uncertainty.
• Information as a Thing: Information is used attributively for objects, such as data and docu-
ments, because they are regarded as informative.
From the point of view offered by Buckland (1991), LAMs are similar institutions in that they man-
age information and can be regarded as information systems in the wider sense. In essence, they are a
set of human and technical resources, procedures, methods and know-how that together perform one or
more specific information functions, being the collection, storage and provision of access to documents
(Navarrete & Owen, 2011). In addition to the aforementioned, Buckland (1997) also sees documents
as objects because in contemporary times, interest in multimedia has shown that not all phenomena in
Information Science are textual or be text like. There is therefore a need to deal with various phenomena
that may be observed and these include events, images, processes, objects and text.
Memory institutions such as LAMs are mandated to preserve society’s documentary and cultural
heritage. Their collaboration on public programming is necessary to make their collections more visible
(Ngulube & Sibanda, 2006; Yarrow, Clubb & Draper, 2008), and even lure users to use their collections.
Collaboration comes from Latin words com and labore which means “to work together”. It is a mutually
beneficial relationship between two or more people to achieve common goals by sharing responsibility,
authority and accountability for achieving results (Chrislip, 2002). The recent past has seen collaboration
between LAMs being encouraged due to the mutual benefit of these institutions and the communities
they serve (Vander Berg, 2012; Yarrow et al., 2008; Marcum, 2014).
The dwindling usage of cultural and documentary heritage held by public memory institutions has
often resulted in efforts by the institutions to go all out and attract users to consume their service. The
documentary and cultural heritage in memory institutions suffer from underutilization (Ngulube, 1999;
Wilson, 2005; Kamatula, 2011; Kamatula et al., 2013). Individually, it is common for LAMs to undertake
104

public programming. These memory institutions are legally obligated to undertake public programming,
or it happens because of popular demand to not only preserve their holdings but also make them acces-
sible to the public (Maier, 2003; Saurombe, 2016).
Saurombe (2016) avers that national archives in the Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Branch of
the International Council on Archives (ESARBICA) region do undertake public programming through
seminars, workshops, exhibitions, tours, television programmes, radio, word of mouth, websites, public
lectures, brochures, newsletters and school tours. Libraries also undertake public programming and out-
reach programmes such as organising reading camps and the provision of free internet access to users
and makes monthly visits to public schools as a way to attract and retain users (Dwyer, 2013). Museums
are not to be left behind as the National Museum of Australia provides guidance for public program-
ming through a policy on public programming. The policy outlines the Museum’s approach to public
programmes and the framework within which public programmes are managed (National Museum of
Australia, 2005).
LAMs in countries such as New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri
Lanka, and Philippines collaborate in areas such as metadata activities, online image services, web
archives, microfilming of archival material, compilation of national bibliographic database, restoration
of books and organised exhibitions and research on cultural heritage (Dato, 2005). In addition, there
are collaborative projects by LAMs in Canada, the United States of America (US), United Kingdom,
Germany and Norway just to mention a few. The projects covered areas such as development of online
databases of LAMs, digitisation of collections, multi-site exhibits using materials from LAMs and a
common portal for making LAMs collection available online (IFLA, 2008).
Public Programming by Archives
Gregor (2001, p. i) defines public programming as “a function performed by archives in order to create
awareness of archives within society as well as to promote their use and educate their sponsors and users
in how to use them”. For Bance (2012), it refers to the function of educating people about the existence,
services and documentary resources of archival institutions. The underlying factor illuminated by the
definitions is that without knowledge of the products and services offered by archival institutions, archival
resources they endeavour to make accessible to the public will not be utilised (Cook, 1991; Nesmith,
2010; Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011).
National archives contribute to the economic, social and political development of a country. That
said, archival scholars agree that such a role has not been brought to the fore because national archives
repositories do not make their presence felt to the public (Venson, Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2014). Conse-
quently, the people who are supposed to benefit from the services of archival agencies have not enjoyed
such benefits as they do not know that such institutions exist. However, well-functioning archives provide
benefits to society by using the power of archives to promote accountability, open government, diversity,
and social justice (Jimerson, 2008). The same author likens an archival agency to a temple to reflect
its power of authority and veneration, a prison because it wields the power of control, and a restaurant
to signify the power of interpretation and mediation. These are seen as the trinity of archival functions
which are selection and preservation of archives, and providing access to them.
Archives have used different methods to encourage usage of their services as part of archival pro-
gramming (Kamatula et al., 2013; Kilasi, Maseko & Abankwah, 2011; Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016a).
These include, but are not limited to:
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• Establishment of “Friends of the Archives” programme

• Opening on the last Saturday of the month to encourage use of archives by members of the public/
researchers, etc.
• Use of the website
• Calling and conducting meetings with users
• Visiting and inviting learning institutions
• Newsletters, radio and television talk shows
• Reports on user satisfaction
• Public media (Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016b)
There is a connection between public programming and the utilisation of archives. Hamooya (2009)
reported low usage of archives at the National Archives of Zambia because of low awareness of potential
users. Botswana and Zimbabwe experienced a reduction of visitors to the archives over a period from
1998 to 2001 (Murambiwa & Ngulube, 2011). Kamatula et al (2013) also found that in Tanzania, Bo-
tswana and South Africa, public programming became necessary to attract and retain users of archives.
Studies in the ESARBICA region have concluded that there is lack of understanding of archival services
among citizens (Kamatula et al., 2013; Garaba, 2015). Public programming initiatives could contribute
to tackling these weaknesses (Saurombe, 2016).
Public Programming by Libraries
Information centres such as libraries and archives have for long periods suffered from image and vis-
ibility problems. This necessitated them to view marketing and outreach as an important undertaking
(Gupta & Savard, 2010). This kind provided some disconnect between the library and the public which
the library was to serve. It is also worth noting that Librarians have not always been the best promoters
of their vocation and the services rendered by libraries largely because they were not keen to do the mar-
keting (Brewerton, 2003). That said, public libraries have been established to serve a purpose, normally
documented in legal deposit law. For example, in Botswana such as law is known as National Library
Services Act (Government of Botswana, 1967). It sets out roles and responsibilities of public libraries.
Amongst them is providing information services to the public and devising strategies to promote their
services to potential users.
The information age has brought with it opportunities and challenges for public libraries. The chal-
lenges have hinged on challenging the library as one of the many sources of information such that it
is no longer the number one option for information services (Kennedy Hallmark, Schwartz, & Roy,
2007; Jain, 2014). Competition for patrons is rife. Information is readily accessible online and other
sources, forcing libraries to blow their own horn. According to Jain (2014), librarians and information
professionals constantly debate and recognise the importance of marketing library services, and have
even devised strategies to market their products. New technologies such as social media are now used
for public programming by libraries (Jain, 2014). Some of the common methods of marketing libraries
include exhibitions, seminars, talks, special events, publications, posters and fliers (Sheffield, 2006).
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Public Programming by Museums
Museums have a long history that is traceable to the 3rd century B.C when the first known museum
was opened in the University of Alexandria in Egypt in the 3rd century (Arinze, 1999). They are now
found all over the world. Museums collect objects and materials of cultural, religious and historical im-
portance, preserve them, research into them and present them to the public for the purpose of education
and enjoyment. Hein (2004) posits that museums are a form of social investment for society. Although
their influence on society seems partially acknowledged, they are powerful institutions. For instances,
during the Balkan and Iraqi wars, they were seemingly targeted because they are the centres of cultural
preservation. Opposing sides attacked museums. For the Iraqi war, failure to protect museums had dev-
astating consequences beyond the loss of precious artefacts (Hein, 2004).
The important and valuable heritage held in museums need to be protected and made accessible to
the public. Chaterera (2015) indicates that heritage in their custody makes museums to be relevant to
the society in which they exist. Regrettably, in Zimbabwe, Murambiwa and Ngulube (2011), and Hub-
bard, Mukwende and Nyoni (2013) reported low usage of the cultural heritage in the national museums.
Chaterera (2015) notes that museums should ensure that they remain relevant and meaningful to the
society they purport to serve and that can be achieved through effective communication and outreach
programmes which should be taken as a matter of priority. Public programming is undertaken to attract
museum users to come and use heritage in their holdings and a variety of initiatives are used. To put
this into perspective, Wallace (n.d:11) points out that:
Extended hours, more staffing, customer-service training, community outreach, more programming,
audio tours, computers and other interpretive aids—the cost of better accommodating and engaging
audiences must seem daunting to most museums. But, as many are discovering, when done in conjunc-
tion with other efforts to make their institutions more visitor centred, the payback and rewards make
these investments worthwhile
The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has not escaped museums as they
have also used them to reach out to the public. Commonly known as web 2.0 technologies (Thorman
2012 & O’Reilly, 2005), social media has become a very key tool in public programming. A variety
of social media networks such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Wikipedia, Hi5, LinkedIn, MySpace,
Podcast, Google+, Flickr, Blogster and Tumblr have been utilised publicize museum offerings to the
public (Thorman 2012 & O’Reilly, 2005; Chaterera, 2015). Social media platforms such as Facebook
and Twitter have been successfully used for LAMs public programming across countries such as the US,
Canada, Australia, South Africa, Ireland and the UK (Russo, Watkins, Kelly & Chan, 2007; Crymble,
2010; Sinclair, 2012). As a platform, Web 2.0 has afforded museums and opportunity to communicate
with the public, inform them of their activities and solicit their ideas to enhance their service delivery,
thus crowd sourcing (Chaterera, 2015).
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Researchers such as King, Keohane and Verba (1994), Ennis (1999), Ngulube (2018a), Ngulube, Mathipa
and Gumbo (2015) as well as Grant and Osanloo (2014) all agree that a theoretical framework is a criti-
cal aspect in the research process. According to Pettigrew and McKechnie (2001), research anchored
on a theory is taken seriously and respected. Accordingly, the collaboration continuum model (CCM),
developed by the Online Computer Library Center was used as a lens to understand aspects of collabo-
ration on public programming by public memory institutions (Zorich, Waibel & Erway, 2008) such as
libraries, archives and museums from a review of literature and attempt to come up with a framework
for public programming by public memory institutions in Botswana. The collaboration continuum model
is depicted at Figure 1.
CCM from the left starts with contact, cooperation, coordination, collaboration and convergence
(Zorich et al., 2008). Basically, the model suggests that for LAMs to fully collaborate (e.g. convergence),
they start with contact where groups first meet to open up a dialogue and explore commonalities in
activities and needs. At this stage, organisations meet and get to know each before they can cooperate
(Froese-Stoddard, 2014). Then it moves to the stage of cooperation where LAMs work informally on
an activity or effort that offers a small, yet tangible benefit (Zorich et al., 2008). A simple event like
hosting and planning a joint event by LAMs is a form of cooperation. The next stage in the continuum
is the coordination stage where a framework to work together is formalised such that collaboration ac-
tivities are scheduled and roles and responsibilities are understood by partners. Both cooperation and
coordination rely on formal and informal agreements (Zorich et al., 2008). Coordination comes about
because joint projects have become too complicated to administer on an adhoc basis, and reporting and
accountability become necessary (Froese-Stoddard, 2014). Then comes the stage of collaboration where
the work of collaborative partners has gone beyond agreements such that the partnership is a shared
and practical undertaking whereby there is transformation in the operation of the LAMs. It therefore
surpasses mere information exchange to create something truly new that could not have been achieved
by either institution on its own (Zorich et al., 2008; Froese-Stoddard, 2014). The last stage in the con-
tinuum is called convergence. At this stage, LAMs extensively collaborate such that it is a norm and has
matured into a critical and reliable mode of working together such that collaborative efforts have been
made the mission of LAMs with undisputed commitment to make them successful (Zorich et al., 2008).
Figure 1. Collaboration continuum model

Source: Zorich et al., (2008, p. 11).
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The convergence stage is signified by collaborative practices that are engrained in the organizational
culture (Froese-Stoddard, 2014).
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Literature shows that LAMs do collaborate but the amount of research into collaborative experiences
of these institutions is limited (Tanackoviae & Badurina, 2008; Rubichi, Pagano, & Verna, 2014). It
has been impossible to find a lot of published research on collaboration of LAMs in Botswana gener-
ally, let alone specifically on public programming the memory institutions. An exception is the study
by Kamatula et al., (2013) which focused on the role of archives in promoting heritage management
amongst the national archives of Botswana, South Africa and Tanzania. The study found that in Botswana
there was some collaboration between the national library and the national museum but without any
formalised and structured framework to guide such collaboration. It is against this background that this
chapter seeks to establish strategies used by LAMs in public programming in Botswana, highlight the
benefits of public programming and determine the challenges they face determine when they conduct
public programming activities. In order to facilitate collaboration on public programming among the
memory institutions, some factors deemed amenable to enable such collaboration are also put forward
for consideration.
STUDY AIM AND OBJECTIVES
Based on a review of available literature, the main aim of this chapter is to develop a framework on col-
laboration for public programming by memory institutions in Botswana. This is achieved by pursuing
the following objectives:
1. To determine public programming strategies deployed by LAMs to increase usage of their collections.
2. To illuminate the benefits of collaboration in public programming by LAMs.
3. To highlight challenges encountered by LAMs in public programming.
4. To develop to develop a framework on collaboration for public programming by memory institu-
tions in Botswana.
METHODOLOGY
This study adopted a qualitative research approach situated within the interpretivist research paradigm
(Jupp, 2006; Creswell, 2014). Secondary data was collected through a review of literature which was
analysed through content analysis. A variety of sources such as journal articles, books, dissertations,
policy documents, unpublished material and Internet sources were consulted for relevant data. It is
common for researchers in Information Science to collect secondary data through a review of literature
(Khumalo, Bhebhe & Mosweu, 2017; Ngoepe & Nkwe, 2018). For example, Ngoepe and Nkwe (2018)
employed it in their study of the appraisal approach adopted for digital records in the context of the Na-
tional Archives and Records Services of South Africa’s appraisal policy guidelines and approach to the
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preservation of digital records. The literature reviewed centred on the challenges and benefits of LAM
collaboration in both developing and developed countries (Ngoepe & Nkwe, 2018). Kemoni (2009) also
utilized it in his review of literature on electronic records and empirical studies dealing with management
of electronic records in the ESARBICA region. This chapter seeks to determine strategies deployed by
LAMs to increase usage of their collections, illuminate the benefits of LAMs public programming and
highlight challenges encountered in public programming.
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The findings of the study are presented in accordance with the research objectives. Firstly, public strat-
egies deployed by LAMs are presented, followed by the benefits of public programming. Lastly, the
challenged of LAMs public programming are highlighted.
Public Programming Strategies by BNARS
BNARS is mandated by the National Archives and Records Services Act (Government of Botswana, 1978)
to make archives accessible to the public. Its public programming activities are part of this mandate. The
department has an outreach programme which it uses to market its services (Ngoepe & Keakopa, 2011).
Onyancha (2016) observed a decrease in visitation to BNARS between the years 1998 and 2001, and he
suggests that efforts need to be put in place to create awareness about the archival resources so that they
are used as expected. Some of the strategies used in archival public programming by BNARS include
fairs, shows and exhibitions, media adverts, public lectures, guided tours, radio interviews, publications,
workshops and seminars, presentations, print and social media (Ngoepe & Keakopa, 2011; Maphorisa
& Jain, 2013; Ndabambi & Morapedi, 2014; Saurombe, 2016). Workshops and presentations are deliv-
ered to secondary schools and these are tailored to satisfying curriculum requirements for students and
these are mostly for subjects related to archives such as History, Social Studies, Setswana Language,
Religious Education, Music, Moral Education and Agriculture (Ndabambi & Morapedi, 2014). Some of
the archival resources from the archives are used to prepare educational packs which are used by teach-
ers as teaching aids. The same are also used to enhance presentations in workshops delivered to various
local government and non-governmental organisations. These platforms have positively contributed to
the increase in the use of archival documents in the archives search room as well as an increase in the
archival holdings through legal deposit and donation of private papers (Ndabambi & Morapedi, 2014).
Public Programming Strategies by the National Museum and Art Gallery
The national museum also undertakes public programming in an endeavour to get people to visit and
use its services. According to Kubanji (1999, p. 1), museums enable “societies to sustain ways of keep-
ing in custody memories, objects and valuables that explain their existence, that is, their history, social
structure, economic status, cultural beliefs, along with traditional institutions and their functions, and
developments thereof.” Mazonde (1998) notes that Botswana’s National Museum is better placed to
sustain preserved societal memory and culture through undertaking field research, field collecting and
public programmes, including displays of art work in the art gallery. In recognition of this important
societal role played by the museum, it undertakes public programming activities which include a visit to
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rural schools as part of its educational programme (Mazonde, 1998). Due to the vastness of the country,
the National Museum in Gaborone, (the capital city of Botswana), has a vigorous extension programme
that reaches out to communities outside the city so that such communities can also benefit from the
collections stored in the urban centre (Kubanji, 1999).
Specifically, the museum has a Mobile Museum dubbed “The Voice” and a weekly radio programme
that airs museum services. These extension services contribute to the slogan Museum wa rona o a tshela,
translated – Our museum is a “Living Museum.” Through displays at the museum, visitors are made to
experience feelings of enrichment with new knowledge about their people and land such that they would
want to return again to see new additions to the museum’s collections (Kubanji, 1999). That aside, the
National Museum also actively engages other sectors of the economy such as land developers and Land
Board members about the necessity to preserve sites and monuments for the future, using radio programmes
and Kgotla (public) meetings (Mazonde, 1998). Although Grant (2016) acknowledges that the National
Museum’s three prong public programming strategy which includes publications (quarterly magazine,
booklets, weekly radio programme and its mobile museum have internationally been applauded as an
interesting innovation in its early days, it needs to be revamped by “bringing it together in a focus which
better reflects the Museum’s enormous and probably unrealistic responsibilities for almost everything
which includes art, archaeology, historic monuments, ethnography and botany.”
Public Programming Strategies by Botswana National Library Service
Botswana National Library Service (BNLS) also undertakes public programming across the country.
Libraries in Africa have been berated because of the low use of library services by the majority of the
population (Dent & Yannota, 2005). According to Pacheco and Paberza (2010), Botswana National
Library Service (BNLS) manages 95 public libraries with a mandate to provide information services to
citizens, including 24 branch and 3 community libraries and 68 village reading rooms. Public program-
ming is a regular feature of BNLS. Village reading rooms are a form of public programming meant to
reach a wider part of the country. Outreach programmes include Mobile Libraries and the Book Box
Service (Baffour-Awuah & Morwadi, 2001; Pacheco & Paberza, 2010). According to Pacheco and
Paberza (2010), public programming by BNLS sought to transform public libraries from mere book
warehouses which did not users’ information needs to information centres capable of equipping users
with skills necessary for social and economic inclusion in the information society.
BENEFITS OF COLLABORATION IN PUBLIC PROGRAMMING

BY PUBLIC MEMORY INSTITUTIONS
Collaboration on public programming can bring benefits to LAMs. According to Yarrow et al (2008,
p.3), the following are the actual benefits; strengthening their public standing; improving their services
and programmes; meeting the needs of larger and more diverse cross sections of users in a more effec-
tive way; supporting lifelong learning or community development; optimising services provided and
the broadening the customer base in the community enabling universal access to community resources.
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Strengthening of LAMs Public Standing
The collaboration of LAMs can enhance their public standing and actually strengthen it. LAMs suffer
from low standing. According to Harris (2000) and Mason (2009), historically, archival institutions
have been seen as places where old documents, photos and genealogical records are kept for posterity.
Consequently, they are lowly regarded when there is a need to find out information (Mason, 2009). Col-
laboration by LAMs can change these perceptions from being looked at as elitist, closed and traditional
(Gibson et al., 2007). Undertaking projects together can raise awareness of LAMS. Projects that receive
proper marketing can have more of an impact on communities due to their ability to increase visibility
of the memory institutions (Diamant-Cohen & Sherman, 2003). In a study that assessed the extent to
which NARSSA fulfilled its mandate of taking archives to the people, it emerged that 80% of respondents
disagreed that NARSSA had branded itself enough to attract a public eye. Brown (2010) and, Ngoepe
and Ngulube (2011) opine that branding is essential as it appeals to the emotions and perceptions of the
public in terms of what they think and say about an organisation both in public and private. Branding
thus affects the reputation of an organisation such that it can either be regarded highly or lowly because
of the reputation it has created in the eyes of the public.
Increased Access to Usage of Collections
The use of a combined website can increase access to LAM collections. LAMs have individually created
an orderly world within their respective domains through the power of shared practices and standards
(Waibel & Erway, 2009). In the physical world, their collections remain fragmented despite the modern
potential user’s expectation that the world of information be accessible from a single online search.
The information super highway, the Internet therefore provides an opportunity for public programming
by memory institutions. LAMs can leverage on the popularity of social media tools such as Facebook
etc. to attract users to access their collections in websites through such online networks. For example,
Facebook dominates the networked world and is used by multiple users therefore it provides an outlet
for public programming.
Increased Knowledge of Services Offered by Memory Institutions by the Public
Public programming is known to create greater awareness of the services provided by memory institutions
as a consequence of the utilization of various strategies geared towards attracting users to the archives
(Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011). In the context of luring users to the National Archives and Records Services
of South Africa, strategies such as behind-the scenes tours, presentations by archives staff, lectures and
panels by researchers and authors, fairs, movie series, receptions to mark important archival events,
press releases, press reviews, press conferences, exhibits, interactive kiosks, social media (e.g. Face-
book) and handouts proved useful in luring users to NARSSA. According to scholars such as Kamatula
et al., (2013), Onyancha (2016), Saurombe and Ngulube (2016b), Maphorisa and Jain (2013) as well as
Ngulube (2018b), the broad activities of promotion, advertising, public relations, advocacy, publicity,
marketing, and outreach fall under the realm of public programming. National archival agencies in Bo-
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tswana, South Africa and Tanzania all use the stated public programming activities to attract and retain
users to use their archives (Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011; Kamatula et al., 2013; Maphorisa & Jain., 2013).
The emergence of ICTs as tools for public programming has ushered in a new era where they are used
to create awareness of holdings of archival institutions (Onyancha, 2016).
Shared Resources
The collaboration of LAMs allows scarce resources to be shared for the benefit of the collaborating
partners. The idea of “the whole becomes greater than the sum of its parts” becomes a reality (Diamant-
Cohen & Sherman, 2003). Public programming can be made impossible by inadequate funding. The
pooling together of funds by memory institutions can ease the burden of going on it alone. LAMs are
often natural partners for collaboration and cooperation because they serve a similar constituency. They
more often than not serve the same community in similar ways such as providing support and enhance-
ment of lifelong learning opportunities, preservation of community heritage, and protect and provide
access to information (Yarrow et al., 2008). In the midst of lack of funds to mount public programming
initiatives, this collaboration can become fruitful because in that shared resources can result in a larger
pool of collections and more users (Bishoff, 2004). Thinking along similar lines, Gibson et al., (2007)
opine that “when we work together, we can gather material from several institutions into one magnificent
collection.” Clearly, if and when LAMs collaborate, the resultant shared use of resources can benefit both
of them individually and users of information resources they manage through improvements to access
to collections. Yarrow et al., (2008) observe that sharing resources allows for implementation of new
programmes or services that would be difficult for a partnering institution operating alone.
Increased Visibility of Memory Institutions
Memory institutions are mandated to contribute to national development by providing access to rich
heritage they manage. The collaboration of LAMs has been seen as a way to making them more visible
(Ngulube & Sibanda, 2006; Yarrow et al., 2008). Increased visibility of memory institutions in itself
becomes a public programming tool as potential consumers of information resources they manage
become aware of such a resource. The likelihood of actual usage is by extension increased. Over and
above the visibility of LAMs, they are challenged to provide access to consumers of their services as
per one of the International Council on Archives (ICA) Principles of Access to Archives which encour-
ages institutions holding archives to adopt a proactive approach to access (ICA, 2012). Although this
example may explicitly refer to archives, some libraries and museums hold archives. These need to be
accessible to the public and access and usage can be promoted through (Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011). In
some jurisdictions such as Botswana, books are in included the definition of records. In the context of
archival diplomatics, records arising from the conduct of business transactions are referred to as archival
documents, so in this study, both words are used interchangeably. In recognition of the role played by
public programming in the use of archives, Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011) aver that “public programming
holds the promise for archives to become visible and exploited by society.”
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CHALLENGES FACED BY PUBLIC MEMORY

INSTITUTIONS IN PUBLIC PROGRAMMING
LAMs are individually faced with a number of challenges as they perform their mandate. Research-
ers such as Ngulube and Sibanda (2006), Robinson (2012), Kamatula et al., (2013) and Saurombe and
Ngulube (2016c) collectively identified the following challenges associated with collaboration on public
programming by LAMs:
• Lack of commitment from participating institutions

• Unclear and misunderstood communication
• Lack of capacity
• Internal and external resistance
• Lack of funding
• Budgetary constraints
• Shortage of transport
• Inadequate staffing responsible for outreach and public programming
• Lack of marketing skills
• Wrong display equipment
• Poor attendance of programmes
Lack of Commitment From Participating Institutions
Walker and Manjarrez (2008) are of the view that commitment risk is a barrier to LAMs collaboration.
Commitment risk is the possibility that one of the collaborating partners may lack commitment to the
project. According to Innocenti (2012), this kind of risk could emanate from the fact that collaborat-
ing partners have different mission, culture, organisational and funding structure Gibson et al., (2007)
undertook a case study research on libraries and museums collaboration in England and the USA where
it emerged that in England there were differences in procedures and common working criteria (manage-
ment, staffing and organizational difficulties) while limited space, planning, communication, managing,
budget and coordination were the issues attributed to lack of commitment in the USA (Gibson et al.,
2007). What this says to LAMs who wish to collaborate in public programming is that they should be
aware of the issue of lack of commitment as a barrier. Undertaking research to inform collaboration is
therefore a suggested undertaking.
Lack of Capacity
Lack of capacity to start and sustain collaboration on outreach activities by LAMs has been identified
in literature as a barrier to successful collaboration (Yarrow et al., 2008). This kind of barrier is referred
to Walker and Manjarrez (2008) as capacity risk. It manifests in the form of problems related to financ-
ing, management, technical difficulties or other reasons. Lack of capacity can be overcome or reduced
by the efforts of LAMs through joint collaborative efforts in undertaking outreach and reaching out to
the consumers of their services. There is shortage of staff at BNARS. As a result, both archivists and
records managers their duties with publicity roles because the department does not have a fully functional
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Publicity Unit to undertake public programming activities (Ndabambi & Morapedi, 2014). Over and
above that, training opportunities to capacitate staff on archival services are hard to come by.
Lack of Funding and Budgetary Constraints
Inadequate funding and budgetary constraints have affected the operational capacities of memory institu-
tions (UK National Archives, 2016; Zaid & Abioye, 2009; Novia, 2012). As a result of inadequate fund-
ing, BNARS is not able to fund public programming activities widely to reach the whole country hence
there is more concentration on urban centres and while rural areas are ignored although the majority of
the population resides there (Ngoepe & Keakopa, 2011; Ndabambi & Morapedi, 2014). Although LAMs
may have desire to collaborate on public programming, lack of funds hampers such a noble idea. This
barrier to collaboration by LAMs is common in both developed and developing countries. For instance, in
the United States of America, the funding of LAMs has become an issue because of budgetary cuts from
both federal and state budget cuts (Novia, 2012). In Nigeria, archival services experienced significant
reduction in funding and this in turn further reductions in staff numbers (including professional staff),
and a reduction in time that can be spent on curatorial or collection activities as resources are focused
on maintaining front line services (Zaid & Abioye, 2009). Collaboration by memory institutions would
offer some route to access other funding sources to enable them to continue undertaking their mandate,
including engaging public programming activities. In the same vein, the Institute of Museum and Library
Services (2009) adds that within the context of economic downturn, it is uncertain whether the usual
funding streams from public coffers would be sustainable in the long term. In that case, finding alterna-
tive sources of funding become a necessity in order to continue being relevant to society.
Lack of Marketing Skills
One of the identified barriers to successful collaboration in public programming is a lack of market-
ing skills across memory institutions such as LAMs. Maphorisa and Jain (2013) undertook a study on
marketing of archival reference services at BNARS and found out that the department did market its
archival services. However, they seemed to be generally ineffective because prior to undertaking public
programming activities, the department did not undertake pre contact with the market so as to appreci-
ate who are their customers or users, and potential patrons were. Epstein (2006:3) notes that “too often,
entrepreneurs launch…marketing efforts thinking only about where they want to go, not where they’re
starting from, with unfortunate results.”
In the context of archives, (Cook, 1991) notes that taking archives to the people requires a change in
the mind set of archivists and relevant skills that would enable them to study their clientele and devise
means of reaching out to them. Without necessary skills, outreach efforts are negatively affected (Njobvu,
Hamooya & Mwila, 2012). The consequences of this include failure to get more citizens interested in
the archives. To circumvent this, Murambiwa and Ngulube (2011) advise archivists to acquire skills for
evaluating archives users’ needs for archival services. This will provide insights on how to improve their
service delivery. Saurombe and Ngulube (2016a) observe that obtaining information on user needs should
not be an end in itself as that information is also important in designing improvements to service delivery.
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FACTORS FOR CONSIDERATION BY BOTSWANA’S MEMORY

INSTITUTIONS IN PUBLIC PROGRAMMING COLLABORATION
LAMs are often natural partners for collaboration and cooperation, in that they often serve the same
community, in similar ways. They all support and enhance lifelong learning opportunities, preserve
community heritage, and protect and provide access to information (Yarrow et al., 2008; OCLC, 2011).
There is more good than bad for LAMs collaboration because through collaboration, the performance of
their functions creates a win-win for users and the institutions themselves (OCLC, 2011). Botswana has
publicly funded national LAMs. This study has shown that with collaboration, these memory institutions
stand to benefit individually and collectively more than be disadvantaged when operating in unison. The
following factors have been identified from literature and these are worthy of consideration by memory
institutions when they undertake public programming collaboratively. The training on collaboration,
shared resources, joint strategic planning, skilled expertise, supportive legislation, budgeting for public
programming and common vision kept on recurring as thematic issues in LAMs collaboration. A brief
explanation of the factors is as follows:
• Supportive Legislation and Policies: LAMs are established by legislation which should be op-
erationalised through policies that support collaboration by LAMs. Mission statements of the
individuals LAMs should reflect the desire and will for collaboration. The legislation provides a
mandate for the LAMs to undertake public programming as part of their national duties. Where
legislation is an impediment to facilitating public programming especially with the digital envi-
ronment in mind, such legislation can be amended to facilitate collaborative efforts.
• Management Support: The leadership of the individual LAMs should buy the idea of collabo-
ration and promote it within their individual institutions. It can be demonstrated through mak-
ing facilities available for joint collaborative public programming efforts, funding, approval of
operational policies and strategies and providing dedicated staff to be engaged in collaborative
initiatives. With visionary leadership at the helm, the LAMs would be better placed to achieve
collaboration as a long term project that would not only benefit the memory institutions but also
the consumers of services they offer. Management support goes beyond administrative leadership.
It extends to political support. For example, for legislation to be amended to facilitate public pro-
gramming better, the political leadership needs to be taken aboard.
• Funding: LAMs are publicly funded. Provision must be made to budget for collaborative public
programming initiatives by LAMs. With dwindling funding for LAMs, they can jointly ask for
funding from national coffers from the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning through their
leadership. The LAMs can also jointly seek funding from organisations outside government and
these would be organisations that support heritage management and are interested in the preserva-
tion of public memory. These organisations can be local and international ones such as UNESCO.
Developing viable business cases to motivate funding is likely to succeed when the LAMs speak
with one voice rather than as individual organisations.
• Strategic Planning: As individual organisations, LAMs should include joint public program-
ming activities in their strategic plans. This means that they should harmonise their planning such
that they can organise joint public programming initiatives and thus demonstrate that they have
a common and shared vision. The LAMs should appreciate that they stand to benefit jointly and
individually from collaboration.
116

• Use of ICTs in Public Programming: The advent of the Internet is an opportunity for public
programming, especially social media platforms and websites. If these are integrated they can
direct users of services provided by LAMs to the individual organisation on particular services.
This can be done through providing some links on the social media platforms such that if a user is
surfing the website of the Library, they can be able to crossover to that of the national archives. A
stable and reliable ICT infrastructure is a crucial element to support the use of ICTs in collabora-
tive public programming. In addition, a secure networked environment is crucial to the success of
such a partnership.
• Shared Resources: The sharing of scarce resources such as facilities and skilled human capital
to support public programming activities is ideal and can be operationalised. Sharing resources
in support of collaboration brings individuals together and helps to establish a culture of coopera-
tion. Resources are not limitless and if they are shared for a common good such as public program-
ming more benefits than impediments are likely to be accrued.
• Champion for Collaboration: Each individual LAM can formally appoint a dedicated member
of staff to lead public programming efforts in their individual organisation. The champion serves
as a change agent. The champion serves as an individual entrusted with coordinating collabora-
tive public programming initiatives and plays the role of ensuring that the vision for collaborative
efforts by LAMs stays on course. Ideally, the appointed champion should be a senior officer in the
organisational structure of the LAMs. These champions would serve as the cog wheels through
which public programming issues and initiatives run. Figure 2 presents an illustration of the pro-
posed framework for public programming by memory institutions in Botswana
These factors are more or less linked to the continuum collaboration model such that with these com-
ponents in place, the ground will be fertile for collaboration as these are embedded in the Continuum
model. Consideration of these factors in the context of Botswana is likely to promote successful and
positive collaborative efforts by memory institutions in Botswana.
This study has shown that collaboration on public memory institutions brings more benefits than disad-
vantages for the LAMs both individually and jointly. The current socioeconomic ground does currently
support the convergence of LAMs as that stage of collaboration takes time. This is particularly apparent
with the increased use of ICTs in the delivery of service across a wide spectrum of organisations. A
study on what it would take for LAMs to converge and offer their services to the public seamlessly in a
digital environment is a desirable prospect. LAMs in Botswana have a social media presence. One area
of study could be the impact of the use of social media on public programming. With collaborative public
programming, LAMs would need to work together and operational changes would be unavoidable. The
way memory institutions introduce and manage changes brought by collaboration is another possible
area of further research. Last but not least, another researchable area is the role of LAMs leadership in
supporting collaborating efforts by the memory institutions
117

RECOMMENDATIONS
In view of the findings of the study, the following are recommendations are put forward for consideration:
• An empirical study on necessary factors to make collaboration on public programming a reality

amongst the memory institutions.
• The use of social media to enhance public programming among memory institutions.
• The role of the political leadership in supporting the visibility of memory institutions through
public programming. This is particularly apparent because in Botswana, much emphasis is placed
on youth and sport matters rather than information resource and heritage management.
• Change management strategies necessary to support collaborative public programming activities
amongst memory institutions.
CONCLUSION
Although LAMs have different mandates as created by legislative requirements, in practice they offer
similar services i.e. that of making available for consultation the documentary and cultural heritage of
their societies. As individual organisations, LAMs have challenges of own and even when they work
together as collaborating partners, challenges would not completely be done away with. This makes col-
laboration on public programming a desirable prospect even more. This is because there are benefits to be
derived from collaboration on public programming. The benefits are for both the users of documentary
and cultural heritage held by memory institutions as individuals and the institutions themselves. It is
hoped that a consideration of the cited factors for collaboration on public programming by the memory
institutions would provide fertile ground for the organisations to work together for sustainable perfor-
mance of their individual mandates, which include public programming.
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Collaboration: Working together to achieve a common purpose. In the context of this chapter, it
means Libraries, Archives and Museums working together to achieve a common goal which is public
programming for purposes of luring potential consumers of services offered by the three institutions.
Cultural Heritage: It is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society
that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and preserved for the benefit of future
generations. It includes both tangible and intangible culture. Museums are normally entrusted with the
management and preservation of cultural heritage.
Documentary Heritage: A document which has recorded something with a deliberate intellectual
purpose. Through their support and content, documents reflect the diversity of peoples, cultures and
languages, and become part of the heritage of humanity. Libraries and Archives manage documentary
heritage.
Memory Institutions: Institutions such as Libraries, Archives and Museums whose collective mis-
sion is to manage the documentary and cultural heritage of their nations
Public Programming: Planned activities whose purpose is to promote services usually provided
by libraries, archives and museums. The promotional activities have also been referred to as outreach
programmes. The promotional activities include lectures, seminars, workshops, exhibits, displays, tours
newsletters and film shows. Public programming activities are meant to inform the wider community
about heritage assets and the need to utilise them.
124
125
Chapter 7
Use of Public Programming
Strategies in Promoting Access
to Documentary Heritage at
Zimbabwe National Archives
Forget Chaterera
University of South Africa, South Africa & National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
Antonio Rodrigues
ABSTRACT
Archival institutions have a potential to transform the socioeconomic and political development of a
people. It is therefore critical for them to be visible and accessible. To this effect, public programming
emerges as a critical archival function performed by archivists to enhance the visibility and utilisation of
archives. Through a grounded theory research approach, this study established that the National Archives
of Zimbabwe (NAZ) performs a plethora of public programming activities to improve the visibility of the
institution in the public domain. The potential of public programming activities to improve the utilisa-
tion of the archives at NAZ was found wanting as the institution lacked a planned schedule of outreach
activities. This explains why visits to the research room were dwindling, hence the need for archivists to
be proactive in reaching out to the people. The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate public program-
ming as the cornerstone to achieving better recognition and subsequent use of documentary heritage.
INTRODUCTION
Access and use is the goal of all archival institutions. The fact that archives are managed in order to be
used has created a greater interest in public programming (Ngulube, Ngoepe, Saurombe, & Chaterera,
2017, p. 74). The ability of an archival institution to provide access and use of its holdings gives it
meaning and relevance to society. The availability of archives for use provides people with a platform
to exercise their rights, thereby promoting accountability, transparency and good governance (Mnjama,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch007

Use of Public Programming Strategies in Promoting Access to Documentary Heritage
2008; Murambiwa & Ngulube, 2011). Government information is an important resource for the nature
of a country’s society, the debates and decisions that influence its social and economic policies and the
development of political priorities for the citizenry (Smart, 2011, p. 1). However, despite the certainty
of archival institutions’ need to provide access to their collections, many national archives are still un-
able to grant access to public records and archives (Mazikana, 1999). This is because archivists tend to
privilege preservation above access, making this a contentious issue (Hicks, 2005). To this effect, this
chapter argues for the need by national archival institutions to increase the consumption of their products
and services through various programmes and activities that will make known their collections to the
public (Mason, 2011; Kamatula, 2011; Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011; Onyancha, Mokwatlo, & Mnkeni-
Saurombe, 2013; Mnkeni-Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016). As such, the objectives of this chapter are to
• Demonstrate public programming and outreach as drivers for improved access

• Find out which public programming activities the National Archives of Zimbabwe has employed
to educate people about its existence, services, and documentary resources in their custody
• Establish how public perception influences people’s decisions to visit the archives
• Ascertain the use of digital technologies and the print media as public programming devices
Research Problem and Questions
Providing access to and use of the archives by members of the public is the chief reason for NAZ’s
existence, yet this assignment has remained unfulfilled for a long time (Mazikana, 1999; Mutiti, 1999;
Murambiwa & Ngulube, 2011). The utilisation of public archival material held at NAZ is relatively
low. This is due to a lack of vibrant public programming endeavours, backlogs of unprocessed archives,
reading room fees, opening hours, size of the reading rooms, and dysfunctional equipment (Murambiwa
& Ngulube, 2011, p. 92). Chaterera (2015, p. 24) adds the inadequate use of Web 2.0 technologies to
increase the awareness and subsequent access and use of the archives to the list of reasons for low public
utilisation. While all the identified challenges are critical towards the improved utilisation of documentary
heritage at NAZ, this chapter particularly focuses on public programming issues since the other matters
have been dealt with and disseminated elsewhere. As such, this chapter primarily sought to answer the
following research questions:
1. What public programming and outreach strategies has NAZ employed to reach out to society?
2. How often are outreach activities done?
3. Is there a prescribed schedule for outreach programmes?
4. Does NAZ have a budget specifically set aside for public programming activities?
5. Is there a specific section, unit or office that handles public programming issues?
6. What kind of audience does NAZ mainly target?
7. What is the public’s perception of NAZ?
a. Are people aware of the existence of NAZ?
b. Do they know what its functions are?
c. Do members of the public regard NAZ as an information resource centre?
8. Does NAZ use the print media and digital technologies to enhance its visibility?
126

ARCHIVAL PUBLIC PROGRAMMING: AN OVERVIEW
Public programming is a strategy that archivists can exploit to make the archives visible to society. The
urge to improve on the accessibility and use of public archives is ever growing among archivists. To
that effect, public programming emerges as an essential means for increasing the utilisation of archival
material (Kamatula, 2011). Of importance and interest to note is that public programming was, once
limited to the preparation of research guides and assistance to historians as they performed their research
(Blais & Enns, 1991). This perception dominated the management of archives for most of the twentieth
century. Although public programming is now regarded to be a crucial activity, the misconception of
public programming as a luxury continues to prevail (Kamatula, 2011).
There are four fundamental concepts to public programming. These are image, awareness, education
and use. Considering these fundamental concepts, public programming can therefore be referred to as
those activities that result in direct interaction with the public to promote the participation and support
needed to achieve an archival repository’s mission and mandate. Public programming is arguably the
clearest demonstration of archivists having embraced the view that use is surely the goal of all their
activities (Harris, 2002). In this chapter, public programming refers to those activities that are meant
to draw the attention of people and encourage the use of archives. It refers to the means that archivists
pursue to increase the awareness and utilisation of archival material by members of the public.
Public Programming and Outreach as Drivers for Improved Access
As stated in the introduction of this chapter, national archival institutions are in custody of rich infor-
mational material that have a potential to transform the socioeconomic and political development of
a people. Therefore, it becomes a cause for concern if the level of archive utilisation is low (Ngulube,
1999). To this effect, public programming emerges as a critical archival function that archivists perform
in an endeavour to enhance the visibility and public image of archival institutions (Gregor, 2001). Public
programming strategies are synonymous with outreach programmes. They are promotional activities that
are meant to increase the visibility of an archival institution and its public image (Jimerson, 2003, p. 14)
through educating people about the existence, services, and documentary resources available at archival
institutions (Bance, 2012). Archival institutions risk becoming meaningless and irrelevant to society if
the information material in their custody is not accessible and used. As such, it is imperative for archi-
vists to equip themselves with skills to retain existing archive users while also attracting new clientele.
To increase the consumption of their products and services, archival institutions are encouraged to
engage in programmes and activities that will make known their collections to the public (Mason, 2011).
The need for national archival institutions to increase their visibility and accessibility is not a newly
conceived notion. Kamatula (2011), Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011), Onyancha, Mokwatlo and Mnkeni-
Saurombe (2013), Mnkeni-Saurombe and Ngulube (2016) and Ngulube (2018) too, have emphasised
the need for national archival institutions to improve on their visibility, public image and accessibility,
lest their reason for existence becomes threatened.
It is the duty of public archival institutions to make their products and services visible and accessible
vis-á-vis the government’s constituency. Outreach programmes provide a unique opportunity to fulfil
this requirement and to improve the awareness and use of archival holdings (Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011).
In that regard, public programming becomes an essential means for increasing the utilisation of archival
materials. Despite the indisputable importance of public programming, the archival function has, for a
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long time, been lamented to be poorly executed, as public programming activities tend to concentrate
on certain areas leaving the wider community unaware of the archival services (Kamatula, 2011). Con-
sequently, the archivists are reaching out to the same people all the time at the expense of attracting new
users, hence compromising the increase in access and use levels.
Access and use levels of archival holdings can be increased only if the people who are supposed to use
the archival material are aware of where, when and how to find the archives. The door may be open but
can people find it and, if they find it, will they understand what it is and what they might be interested in
(Bacon, 2014, p. 153)? Such questions reflect the need by archival institutions to up their game in mak-
ing their products and services familiar to the larger community of existing and potential archive users.
Public Programming Activities Used by Archival Institutions
Public programming and outreach programmes among other activities have the potential to aid archivists
in taking archives to the people and drawing them to the physical and virtual habitat of the archives. It
is disappointing to note, though, that archivists across the world tend to concentrate more on acquisi-
tion, appraisal, arrangement and description at the expense of raising awareness about the documentary
heritage in their custody (Mnkeni-Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016, p. 25). Therefore, archival institutions
are challenged to engage in ways that make them visible, relevant and meaningful to members of the
public. The ways that archival institutions can employ include but may not be restricted to the following
• Brochures: A type of small magazine that contains information about the products and services
of the archival institution. It usually contains pictorial illustrations
• Guides: A mini book that provides the most essential information about the archival holdings
• News Releases: A document released by the archives, the media or press for reporting or
publication
• Curricular Exercises: Short practical training courses offered to the corporate world
• Exhibitions: A public display of archival material of interest following a particular theme or
subject
• Expo System: An expo is similar to an exhibition. The only distinction is that an expo system is
usually a global event that aims at educating the public, sharing innovation, promoting progress
and fostering cooperation amongst the local, regional and international community of users
• Workshops, Seminars, and Conferences: Meetings, gatherings and platforms that bring togeth-
er the participation of academics and practitioners from the archival science discipline and related
fields
• Participating in Festivals and National Events: An event that draws a national audience such as
the International Archives Day, Independence Day, Africa Day, National Unity Day, Zimbabwe
International Trade Fair, World Tourism Expo
• Engaging in Oral History Programmes; The collection of historical information from different
communities through interviews with people having personal knowledge of past events
• Clippings: An article cut from a newspaper release or a magazine
• Magazine Articles: A periodical publication containing articles and illustrations, often on a par-
ticular subject or aimed at a particular readership
• Internet Presence (Web 1.0; 2.0 and 3.0 Technologies): A global network that allows commu-
nication between and among people throughout the world
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• Leaflets and Pamphlets: A freely distributed printed sheet of paper or booklet communicating a
specific subject about the archives
• Handouts and Teaching Kits: A piece of printed information provided free of charge, particu-
larly accompanying a lesson
• Internship: On-the-job training for students undertaking studies in records and archives manage-
ment and other related disciplines
• Radio: Broadcasting issues on and about the archives for the public to listen to and possibly con-
tribute, depending on the nature of the programme
• Television: Visual broadcasting on and about the archives for the public to view
• Listervs: An application that distributes messages to subscribers on an electronic mailing list
• Publications: Journal articles and textbooks on and about the national archives
The above pinpointed public programming and outreach strategies hold the key to improved access
and use of archives. It is not everyone amongst the larger populace who has knowledge on what a national
archive is and why it exists (Bacon, 2014; Mnkeni-Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016). In that respect, it would
be futile for archives to ignore the potential clientele by not reaching out to the people and educating
them on what a national archive is and what it does. This means that public archives need to connect
with a diversity of people through providing them with a context and explanation of what the archives
is and does. In this light, public programming becomes particularly important in that promoting access
and use of archival holdings requires an active approach where both existing and potential clientele are
equipped with the full knowledge of the public archives’ operations, services and products.
Enhancing the Public Perception of Archival

Institutions Through Public Programming
Today’s archivists are faced with a serious challenge where many people have different views and thoughts
about public archival institutions. Many people do not use the archives because they lack knowledge
about the archives and are misguided in their understanding of the institution and its services (Sulej,
2014). There are people who are unaware that the information they seek is available at an archival insti-
tution and there are potential users who think that using the archives is time consuming and a daunting
process (Jimerson, 2003). Because so few people are aware that archives are open to the public, not
many people frequent the archives in search of information (Mason, 2011). Archives are therefore still
considered inaccessible to ordinary citizens and they are often perceived by many people as foreign
bodies isolated from the public (Mason, 2011). In the same vein, Ramos and Ortega (2006) indicated
that national archival institutions seem not to enjoy prominence in the public domain. Some people
barely know about the existence of national archival institutions and most people confuse archives with
museums and libraries and even think of archives as old buildings full of ancient dusty boxes (Ngoepe &
Ngulube, 2011). Sharing the same sentiments is Haritz (2001) who indicated that most people perceive
archival institutions as secret, dusty and chaotic while few regard them as open information centres that
are transparent and clear.
Despite the influential role played by the public’s perception over the existence of archives, archivists
seem to be hesitant and uncomfortable with the image and visibility issue. As such, archivists deliberately
tend to turn a blind eye to increasing their visibility in the public domain and resort to what they regard
as the core archival functions of acquisition, appraisal, arrangement and description (Mnkeni-Saurombe
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& Ngulube, 2016, p. 24). The importance of having people with a proper perception of archival institu-
tions is critical to increasing access to, and use levels of documentary heritage.
Digital Technologies and the Print Media as Public Programming Devices
Digital technologies present unique and bigger opportunities for archivists to make their institutions
known and subsequently boost the access and use levels of the archives. As such, they can serve as pub-
lic programming devices. Digital technologies refer to the electronic devices and systems that create,
store and process data. They include social media, online applications, multimedia, cloud computing,
interoperable systems and mobile devices. Web 2.0 technologies offer opportunities to archivists who
wish to enhance the levels of access and use of the material in their custody.
The internet offers an excellent means by which an archival institution can provide information about
its products, services, repositories and collections. However, the fear exists that the promise held by the
internet to enhance public awareness and use of the archives may never be realised because of the large
volumes of unprocessed records that characterise many archival repositories (Evans, 2007). The invis-
ibility of archives has often been attributed to their failure to take advantage of the many benefits and
possibilities presented by information communication technologies (Bradley, 2005; Mnkeni-Saurombe
& Ngulube, 2016).
The need for archival institutions to make use of the new technologies cannot be over emphasised. In
his work about making access easier, Ferriero (2011) recalled with aversion how people used to elbow
their way through the crowds to view historic documents and spend hours in the archives’ reading rooms
searching through boxes of old documents. Archival institutions therefore need to tap into the new tech-
nologies in providing access to their holdings. The social media space and the digital technologies can
make the archives’ mission of providing access to its holdings more efficient, effective, easy and even fun.
Web 2.0 technologies present a plethora of opportunities for the archives to boost their access levels.
For instance, Flickr and Tumblr allow users to share photographs of their interest from the national
archival holdings. Such a facility does not only enhance the access level but also seeks to improve
the quality of the archival holdings as users will have an open platform to air their views regarding an
archival collection. A study conducted in Kenya by Kemoni, Wamukoya and Kiplang’at (2003, p. 40)
revealed that the access level at an archival institution can be affected by the non-utilisation of digital
technologies. Ayoo and Otike (2000) reported similar findings when they revealed the under-utilisation
of digital technologies in national archival institutions as a major barrier to access of archives. The dif-
ficulties in identifying suitable hardware and software, the inadequacy of resources needed to purchase
the hardware and software and the absence of archivists with the requisite skills and knowledge in the
use of computer technology are some of the chief reasons for the non-utilisation of digital technologies
in developing countries (Kemoni, Wamukoya & Kiplang’at, 2003, p. 40).
The information landscape in which archival institutions operate are vulnerable to the many changes
that have been brought by the information and communications technologies (ICTs). There are fears that
information communication technologies seek to not only dominate the archival profession and practice,
but also pose threats to the old certainties with which information was acquired, processed, preserved
and disseminated for public consumption (Moss, 2008, p. 69). The proliferation in the use of ICTs does
not imply that archivists are to delve into the digital space without exercising due diligence. As Moss
(2008, p. 69) stated, archivists are to interrogate the extent to which ICT represents an epistemological
shift for it can be simply an extension of existing practices in a new order. Regardless of whether ICTs
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are presenting an epistemological shift or simply presenting an extension of existing practices, the use of
ICTs by archivists cannot be avoided, as digital technologies are indisputably powerful public program-
ming devices that can be used to improve the public image of archives.
The continued growth of digital technologies exerts pressure on archivists to embrace digital tech-
nologies lest archives become irrelevant, boring and dated places. The internet offers new and exciting
ways of presenting archival material to the public. Computers together with other devices such as mobile
phones, iPads and tablets have become an indispensable means of daily communication amongst the
population, which archival institutions regard as their existing and potential clientele. These communica-
tion technologies have generated a third form of communication besides the oral speech and the written
message (Haritz, 2001).
Quick web searches are replacing deep archival research and most archival materials are not online
mainly because of the perceived reluctance of archivists to embrace digital technologies (Hicks, 2005).
Archivists need to reposition themselves by way of adopting the use of digital technologies if they want
to make their holdings more visible and accessible and if they want to remain relevant to society (Mu-
rambiwa & Ngulube, 2011). It is essential for national archival institutions to use Web 2.0 technologies
as they have the potential to address new audiences and build new constituencies. For instance, the
National Archives of Singapore (NAS) created a2o as a one-stop portal for users to access documented
heritage information dating back to the 17th century (Beasley & Kail, 2009). The name ‘a2o’ is meant
to be an echo of H2O (water), an essential element for life. This portal places the National Archives of
Singapore on a global map, giving the archival institution international visibility. The portal provides
access to the cultural heritage collection in the form of photographs, maps and plans, oral history audio
files and other audio-visual recordings in multiple ways and several databases are offered that allow
users to search through the online archives. The site is a wonderful way for the National Archives of
Singapore to open Singapore’s cultural repository to a new generation of Singaporeans, while providing
current researchers with an easier way to explore their holdings.
Many archives in the East and Southern Africa Regional Branch of the International Council on
Archives (ESARBICA) region, Zimbabwe included, are working towards automating some of the infor-
mation about their collections and the finding aids in order to make them available online (Murambiwa
& Ngulube, 2011). However, one should acknowledge that Garaba and Ngulube (2010) have already
observed that countries that have attempted the move experienced massive challenges with critics argu-
ing that such developments are prone to information imperialism.
When used in innovative ways, new technologies permit archivists to better fulfil their archival ob-
ligations. The creative use of the social media space and other technologies provides archivists with a
firm foundation to offer better reference services, hence increasing the probability of retaining current
clientele while attracting new potential users (Nimer & Daines, 2008, p. 217). The emergence of tech-
nologies has brought inevitable changes that archivists have to embrace and use to their own advantage
for archival institutions to claim and maintain their relevance within the wider society. In today’s infor-
mation superhighway, people have become used to prompt access to information through web search
engines such as Yahoo!, Google, Surfwax, Bing, Ask, Webcrawler, Infospace and Dogpile amongst others.
Considering the number of search engines that can be used by people to promptly access information,
archivists can only remain truly relevant and abreast of users’ needs by responding to the call of the day
and start considering supplying information and other services online (Nimer & Daines, 2008). The
increased growth of digital technologies presents archivists with an opportunity to broaden and deepen
their public service and community ties while reducing the wear and tear on the original documents
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(Lyons, 2002). In that respect, Nimer and Daines (2008, p. 217) emphasised that it is important to allow
users to interact virtually with finding aids and archival digital content.
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES: RESEARCH APPROACH,

STUDY POPULATION AND SAMPLING
To solicit data for the above pinpointed research questions, a grounded theory research approach using
a methodological triangulation was employed. Grounded theory is an essential research approach that
presents possibilities for the development of theoretical frameworks from the data gathered and analysed
(Egan, 2002; Payne, 2016). It gives a researcher the tools to answer why questions from an interpretive
paradigmatic stance (Charmaz, 2012). The grounded theory research approach allows researchers to
discern what is happening in their data that is different from what has already been said (Locke, 2015)
and to explain phenomena through an inductive reasoning process (Villiers, 2005; Hussein, Hirst, Saly-
ers, & Osuji, 2014). The approach fundamentally guards against theoretical stagnation through theory
development grounded in scientific data (Charmaz, 2006; Phothongsunan, 2010). This chapter was drawn
from a larger study in which a framework for access and use of archives was developed, hence rendering
the grounded theory research appropriate.
Data collection instruments primarily included interviews with NAZ practitioners, NAZ web content
analysis and document analysis of the directors’ annual reports. Table 1 depicts the study population.
Sampling
It is odd to address the issues of sampling in a qualitative grounded theory study given that the focus
of data generation in qualitative research is on the process rather than an end of numbers (Edwards &
Holland, 2013). In that respect, the sample for the current study was arrived at through a theory-driven
process that was aimed at obtaining the data needed to provide answers to the research questions. As
Table 1. Study population
Number of
Section/Department/Unit of the Participant(s) Participants and Their Designations
Participants
Archivists and the Deputy Director of the Public
Public Archives and Research 3
Archives and Research Section
Records Management Officers and the Deputy
Records Services 3
Director Records Services
Audio-visual Unit Archivists 2
Oral History Unit Oral historian 1
Information Communication Technology (ICT) ICT specialist 1
The Editor, National Archives of Zimbabwe 1
The Director of National Archives of Zimbabwe 1
Members of the public were conveniently selected from the Registrar General’s birth certificate offices in Harare
25
(This particular place was targeted because it receives people from all corners of the country)
Total number of participants 37
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such, the focus for this study was not on the sample size but rather the coverage of the concepts relevant
to establishing the use of public programming strategies in promoting access and use of documentary
heritage. This is best described as theoretical sampling. The stance taken in this study was informed
by some of the pioneers of grounded theory research (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) who highlighted that
sampling in a grounded theory study does not proceed in terms of drawing samples of specific groups
of individuals or units of time but in terms of concepts, their properties, dimensions and variations.
Sampling in the current study was therefore theory-driven. Glaser and Strauss (1967) introduced this
strategy in the context of the development of grounded theory.
PUBLIC PROGRAMMING AND OUTREACH ACTIVITIES AT NAZ
Public programming and outreach activities are an indisputable means, which public archival institutions
can confidently rely on, to increase the utilisation of their holdings, hence justifying their existence and
significance. Given the indisputable importance of the need to ensure the utilisation of public archives,
this study investigated NAZ’s use of public programming strategies. Using data gathered from the inter-
views held with informants depicted in Table 1 as well as from content analysis of the directors’ annual
reports, Figure 1 provides a composite picture of the public programming status quo at the National
Archives of Zimbabwe.
Figure 1 depicts a plethora of public programming and outreach strategies in use at NAZ. Amongst
these strategies are exhibitions. NAZ has a permanent display in the Beit Trust Gallery, which is designed
to illustrate the country’s history from the earliest times by means of objects, pictures, documents and
paintings. This is supplemented by a series of special displays that are changed from time to time to
mark outstanding occasions and subjects. While this permanent exhibition is relatively appealing and
bound to attract people’s attention, it is unfortunate that its accessibility is only limited to those who
would have physically visited the archives. It was going to improve NAZ’s visibility if the exhibition was
to go online, as is the case with other national archival institutions. An example of such is the National
Archives of Japan (NAJ), which has presented its permanent and special exhibitions online. These have
provided NAJ with an excellent opportunity to highlight the significance of public records and its own
functions, hence promoting access and use of its holdings. Apart from the permanent exhibition in the
Beit Trust Gallery, NAZ has also mounted several other exhibitions in efforts to draw the attention of
both existing and potential clientele.
Table 2 depicts some of the exhibitions that NAZ has managed to display in the past years.
Public Perceptions of NAZ
The way people perceive an archival institution influences their decision to visit the archives. As such,
one of the objectives of this study was to establish the people’s knowledge of and perceptions towards
NAZ. 25 mini-intercept interviews were held with members of the public from various parts of Zim-
babwe who had come to seek services from the Registrar General’s birth and death certificate offices.
Nine of the 25 interviewees indicated that they had absolutely no idea of the existence of NAZ; three
vaguely indicated that NAZ refers to central government offices and the remaining 13 proved to be at
least knowledgeable about the existence of the institution.
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Figure 1. Public programming status the National Archives of Zimbabwe
Table 2. NAZ exhibitions
Year Exhibition Title and Comments

The first Chimurenga exhibition was mounted
The exhibition was to commemorate the passing of 100 years after the outbreak of the Chimurenga struggle in
1996
1896
The exhibition drew a lot of attention from members of the public
An exhibition was mounted to commemorate the passing of 100 years after the execution of Nehanda and Kaguvi
1998
The exhibition was an extension of the 1996 Chimurenga exhibition
2010 NAZ mounted a display for the soccer legends exhibition
Exhibition was in collaboration with the Spanish Embassy and the
75@30: Moments from the people’s National Art Gallery
2010
history The photo exhibition was so successful that NAZ decided to take it to
ZITF (Zimbabwe International Trade Fair)
The audio-visual unit mounted an exhibition at the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) intellectual expo. The title of
2013
the exhibition was ‘History of the archives’
The 13 respondents who had displayed knowledge about the existence of NAZ were asked if they
knew what the institution’s functionalities were. Three of the 13 alluded to NAZ being a museum; nine
generally cited that NAZ keeps records that are eventually used by researchers from various disciplines,
particularly historians. One of the interviewees said that
NAZ is a place that keeps records that are no longer wanted by government departments.
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The 13 respondents who had initially displayed some knowledge about the existence of NAZ were
asked if they had been to NAZ and only four indicated a ‘yes’ to this question. The four interviewees
were asked how often they visited NAZ. Three responded that they had been to NAZ only once during a
school trip while the remaining respondent indicated that he had been to NAZ several times. The single
respondent who indicated several visits to NAZ explained that
I used to visit the place quite often when I was still a student at the University of Zimbabwe in the late
1990s.
The same respondent also said
The truth is that NAZ is only known and used by college students and a few individuals who are into
research otherwise the generality of the people are not even aware of the existence of such institutions.
The findings on the public perception towards NAZ show that the institution is relatively invisible
to the wider society. This is probably because NAZ’s outreach and public programming activities are
mostly limited to the same crowd. Venson, Ngoepe and Ngulube (2014) shared similar sentiments about
public archive repositories in South Africa who are struggling to reach out to potential users. This could
also be a result of the institutions’ reluctance to employ wider reaching tools such as the print media,
radio and television. We discuss this in the section that follows. Archivists seem to be hesitant about and
uncomfortable with the image and visibility issue (Blais & Enns, 1990). As such, archivists deliberately
tend to turn a blind eye to increasing their visibility in the public domain and resort to what they regard
as the core archival functions, namely acquisition, appraisal, arrangement and description.
Use of Digital Technologies and the Print Media

as Public Programming Devices
The use of print media and digital technologies presents unique opportunities for practitioners in ar-
chival institutions to make their existence, products and services visible. Considering this notion, the
researcher sought to establish the use of print media and Web 2.0 technologies in promoting access to
and use of the archives at NAZ. When asked whether NAZ uses news releases as an outreach strategy,
the following response was offered:
News releases, radio and television are normally used when NAZ is marketing once-off and bigger events
such as the conference it held in 2015 (ESARBICA). Newspaper releases, radio and television airtime
require money and NAZ does not do commercial marketing.
The NAZ editor even questioned the idea of marketing national archives indicating that:
There is no need to market archives as archives by their sheer importance market themselves. Those
who are in need and hungry for information know that NAZ is the only authentic and rich information
resource from where their information needs can be met.
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Regarding the issue of internet presence, it was found that NAZ has a satisfactorily functioning
website. The web page offers quick links to the technical services of NAZ, the research section, library,
records service, publications, and the Ministry of Justice and Registrar General. The website also offers
people the opportunity to receive newsletters and emails with NAZ’s latest offerings and news. All that
people must do is to complete an online form and they will start receiving the updates. Conventionally
available are NAZ’s contact details (physical address, email address and telephone numbers). The website
also offers links to the online databases, quick reference services and allows researchers to prepare for
their physical visits to NAZ. The website has important information for prospective visitors, which they
should take note of prior to visiting NAZ. The information offered is particularly for foreign research-
ers and the general rules and regulations that govern access to and use of archival materials at NAZ.
Furthermore, the website allows people to make online control desk enquiries and bookings to visit the
archives. Also available on NAZ’s website home page is a visitors’ counter that shows the number of
people who would have consulted their site the previous day, the current day, week, month and every day.
NAZ has a relatively well-functioning website that offers an online database, quick reference ser-
vices and links to the various sections of the institution. Essentially, the information that is available
on NAZ’s website enables researchers to prepare for their physical visit to NAZ. The availability of a
website at NAZ implies that the institution employs one of the excellent means by which an archival
institution can provide information about its products, services, repositories and collections (Jimerson,
2003). This increases the opportunity of boosting the access and use levels at NAZ. Of importance to
note is that while NAZ’s website offers virtual finding aids, the actual archival collection is not digital-
ised and therefore not available online. Archive users must physically visit NAZ if they wish to consult
the archival collection. While offering a digital archival collection minimises the wear and tear on the
original documents, the current researcher supports the idea of NAZ not going virtual with its archival
collection. This stance follows arguments by Lyons (2002) who criticised digital access for depriving
the user of the exciting tactile experience of how archival repositories look and feel. Lyons (2002) fur-
ther argues that unlike a conventional paper copy, a document offered online cannot emit a document’s
scent and details such as light pencil markings, and a document’s size and texture may be obscured. It
is therefore worthwhile to highlight that NAZ is using digital technologies as complementary tools and
not as replacement to physical access.
Regarding the use of the social media space to communicate with members of the public, interviewees
from the automation section indicated that NAZ has a Facebook page and a Skype account. One of the
respondents was, however, quick to note that
Very few people use Skype that is why we mostly rely on Facebook to communicate with members of
the public.
Interactive visits were made to the site and a significant number of likes and followers were observed
on NAZ’s Facebook page. As at 29 June 2018, the NAZ Facebook page had 704 likes and followers.
It was a positive result to establish that NAZ is on Facebook and that it has a page and not a group.
Unlike a group, a page is authoritative, authentic and represents a real organisation as only an official
representation of the institution may create it (Chaterera, 2015). Nevertheless, it is not adequate for an
institution to merely create a Facebook page and then fail to engage the audience and make continual
updates. The presence of NAZ on the social media network and its ability to attract a relatively large
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following presents a unique opportunity for the institution to improve access, use and user satisfaction
dramatically.
Much as the use of Web 2.0 applications holds the potential to increase the utilisation of archives, it
is high time that archivists move beyond Web 2.0 applications and begin to think seriously of a broader
strategy dubbed archive 2.0 (Theimer, 2011b). The concept includes a comprehensive shift in archival
thinking and practice that is related to, but not dependent on the use of Web 2.0 tools such as Twitter,
Facebook, blogs and Flickr.
Archives 2.0 is an approach to archival practice that promotes openness and flexibility. It argues that
archivists must be user centred and embrace opportunities to use technology to share collections, interact
with users and improve internal efficiency (Theimer, 2011b, p60).
Archives 2.0 is important in that it takes this idea of a new generation of practice facilitated by
technology and applies it to the professional archival workflow (Eveleigh, 2015, p20). To this effect,
archivists are challenged to be more engaged with assisting users in interpreting collections and must
be cognisant of the new ways users are finding and using information. Archives 2.0 therefore implies
that it is not enough to just put records into an online database and hope that users find them. Instead,
archivists need to provide ways for users to interact with and use collections on the web.
Implications of the Public Programming’s Status Quo at NAZ
The existence of a national archival institution can only be justified if its holdings are being accessed and
used by the populace. It is the duty of an archival institution to make people aware of where, when and
how to find the archives (Bacon, 2014; Mnkeni-Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016, p. 36). As indicated in the
third principle of the ICA’s (International Council on Archives) principles of access to archives, institu-
tions in custody of archival materials are expected to employ pro-active approaches that will help ensure
that a broad section of the public receives information about the archival institution and its holdings.
Although the current study found that NAZ does not have a permanent or fixed office, department or team
that deals with outreach activities, it was a positive establishment to find that the institution undertakes
outreach activities particularly through the office of the editor in conjunction with the IT department.
The results of the study as depicted in Figure 1 indicated that NAZ practitioners are confident that
they have the required knowledge and skills to do public programming. Although public programming
was reported as not so frequent an activity, it is crucial to highlight the confidence in NAZ archivists that
they possess the fundamental skills to do public programming, which implies that the programmes are ef-
fectively done on the few occasions, which they are done. The knowledge and skills of archivists in public
programming is essential in making sure that the quality of programmes provided is not compromised.
The ways that have been used by NAZ to enhance its visibility and the subsequent use of its holdings
include participating in national and historical events, publications, broadcasts, internship programmes,
permanent and temporary exhibitions, career guidance, college and school visits. Brochures and flyers are
also available. It was further established that NAZ archivists participate not only in local and international
conferences, but have also organised and hosted conferences, workshops and seminars. Further efforts
were reported from the audio-visual unit that has managed to launch a mobile archives campaign. The
existence of outreach activities at NAZ implies that members of the public have an increased chance of
learning about the existence of NAZ and its services. The probability of NAZ boosting its access and use
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levels is therefore relatively high. This is so because outreach programmes provide a unique opportunity
to improve the awareness and use of archival holdings (Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011) and they are an es-
sential means for increasing the utilisation of archival materials (Kamatula, 2011). If properly done, the
result of outreach and public programming strategies is improved access and use of the archival holdings.
However, it is disturbing to note that although a sizable budget is allocated for public programming,
the money is many times not released from treasury due to financial constraints. Consequently, it becomes
difficult for NAZ to have a planned schedule for outreach activities. The activities are done as and when
the need arises, and if the resources are available. The responses obtained by the current study show
that the participation by NAZ is usually in response to national and provincial gatherings that would be
happening in the country. While this is obviously a commendable effort, the danger of concentrating
on events is that NAZ will be reaching out to nearly the same crowd all the time. Thus, they will be
preaching to the converted, hence denying themselves a chance to reach out to a new audience. This has
probably contributed to the dwindling visitor statistics as shown in Figure 2. The statistics were collected
from the director’s annual reports.
Figure 2 depicts the visits that were received in the Public Archives and Research section. Compared
to the statistics of the early 2000s, the figure shows a downward trend in visits to the research room.
The trend mirrors the finding of NAZ’s public programmes preaching to the converted, hence resulting
in low visitor numbers. In relation to this challenge, Kamatula (2011) indicated that public program-
ming activities are only concentrated in particular areas leaving the wider community unaware of the
archival services. To that effect, Chaterera (2016) challenges archival institutions to widen their targets
by not limiting their outreach activities to the same audience all the time. They should seek to reach a
new clientele. Sharing the same sentiments is Bacon (2014, p. 153) who asserted that national archival
institutions need to connect with a diversity of people and to increase their visibility and accessibility
by reaching out beyond specialised groups such as historians and genealogists.
Figure 2. Visits to in the Public Archives and Research section
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Public programming and outreach activities are an indisputable means by which archival institutions can
boost the utilisation of their collections. Such efforts, however, need to be complemented by other activi-
ties if the goal to utilise archives fully is to be realised. Apart from public programming and outreach
endeavours, other archival functions and elements also directly and indirectly affect the level of archives
utilisation. These functions include but may not be limited to processing, digitisation of archives and
virtual reality. An in-depth research of these aspects and of how they influence access and use of public
archives plays a critical complementary role in enhancing the utilisation of documentary heritage. Other
emerging issues that are crucial to pursue include the concept of Archives 2.0. This relatively new con-
cept needs to be interrogated in the context of particular archival institutions and it must be established
how this concept can be applied to the professional archival workflow.
CONCLUSION
Public programming and outreach activities are an indisputable means by which national archival in-
stitutions can make themselves known, visible and subsequently used by members of the public. The
success of an archival institution in its public programming and outreach endeavours largely influences
the ability of the institution to enhance its access and use levels, thereby giving itself a relevant and
meaningful position in society. From the findings of the current study, it can be concluded that NAZ
has the potential to enhance the access and use levels of the documentary heritage in its custody. The
institution has employed several pro-active approaches in making itself visible to the public and it has
practitioners who are capable of satisfactorily conducting public programming and outreach activi-
ties. Such positive findings were watered down nevertheless by the absence of a clearly defined team
or section that presides over such crucial initiatives (as the editor assumes this duty) and the financial
constraints that have resulted in budgets for outreach and public programming not being released. This
explains why NAZ did not even have a schedule or plan for outreach activities as the institution awaits
either invitations from government ministries or the availability of funds and other needed resources to
conduct outreach programmes. It is also the probable reason NAZ seemed to be reaching out to the same
audiences most of the time at the expense of other communities that are unaware of archival services.
To this end, the current study concludes that the status quo regarding the issues of outreach lacks the
vibrancy that is needed to boost access and use levels of the archives at NAZ. As such, the potential to
increase the access levels at NAZ is compromised and in need of urgent attention.
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Documentary Heritage: Refers to recorded history in any format, from papyrus scrolls and clay
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Public Programming: These are strategies that archivists may exploit to become visible to society.
Web 2.0: Refers to social media.
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Chapter 8
Trends in the Utilization of
the Holdings at the Bulawayo
Archives and Records Centre,
Zimbabwe (2014-2017)
Sindiso Bhebhe
National Archives of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Njabulo Bruce Khumalo

Independent Researcher, Zimbabwe
ABSTRACT
Archives are the cornerstone of democracy, good governance and the protection of rights, yet many people
do not understand their worth. Archivists have for years stressed that archives are central to community
development and progress. However, the actual use of archives has usually told a different story, which
has to be analysed to see how relevant archives are to their communities. This study sought to investigate
the patterns of the usage of archival material at the Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre (BARC)
from January 2014 to June 2017. The document analysis method was applied where research request
slips filled in by clients were analysed to show the level of usage of archives at BARC.
INTRODUCTION
Archives are very important as they embody the history and identity of society. Without archives and
records, members of the community may lose entitlement to their rights, their wealth, property, identity
and a sense of belonging. Thus, archives keep the past alive and provide citizens with a strong founda-
tion on which to build a solid present and future. According to Blais and Enns (1990-91) the use of
archives provides a justification for the continued sustenance of archives and unused archival records
provide little in keeping the past illuminated and alive. Archival records are thus worth more than being
relegated to gathering dust on shelves in repositories. Safeguarding citizens’ rights cannot be achieved
without archival records and thus Shaffer (2009) pointed out that the public use of government records
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch008

Trends in the Utilization of the Holdings at the Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre, Zimbabwe
represents one of the fundamental democratic principles of citizen inquiry and open government. Thus,
democracy and access to archival records are but two sides of the same coin as a society founded on
democratic tenets has to make use of archives which epitomise transparency, accountability, open gov-
ernance, democracy and good governance.
However, though public archives are memory institutions that offer information services to the public
and other interested organisations, very few people utilise these facilities (Kamatula, Mnkeni-Saurombe
& Mosweu, 2013). Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011, p. 3) also highlighted that only a small percentage of
the population is aware that archives are open to the public. The culture of oral traditions in Africa has
a bearing on archives as most people do not see the value of making use of archives. Without usage,
archival records just gather dust on shelves and the continued existence and funding of archives cannot
be justified. Low usage of archives also translates to the stagnation of the archival profession which has
to grapple with trying to advocate for the continued funding of a field whose cost benefit does not have
healthy statistics of usage to back the theoretical justifications of the importance of archives. Therefore
the major objective of the study was to investigate the patterns of the usage of archival material at the
BARC from January 2014 to June 2017. The sub objectives being to:
1. Determine the numbers and types of records requested for and retrieved for clients at the BARC;
2. Establish the number and types of records requested for and not available at the BARC;
3. Ascertain the number and types of records whose requestors were referred to other organisations;
and
4. Understand the implications of these metrics in relation to how archival research material can be
further marketed.
The rest of the chapter is organised into seven major sections. These are the background to the study,
literature review, access to records, problem statement, research methodology, findings of the study,
discussions, recommendations, future research directions and conclusion.
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The history of the establishment of the Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre (BARC) began in 1966
when, according to Matangira, 2016, a branch repository for semi current records was opened in Bulawayo
to cater for the western region covering Bulawayo, Matabeleland South and Matabeleland North Provinces.
Therefore, communities in the western part of the country have to use archives which normally should
have collections which are of interest to them. Furthermore, Matangira also noted that in the year 2001
a new purpose-built archives building was opened in Bulawayo, and in Zimbabwe only the Harare and
Bulawayo archives offer archival services. Before BARC had its own archival building, it used to send
archives to Harare for processing and public access. However, after the opening of the new purpose-built
archives building that came to an end. What that meant is that researchers in Bulawayo, Matabeleland
South and Matabeleland North have to travel to Harare for archival services. Unfortunately, this is still
the case with some of the NAZ provincial record centres. These other centres in the country only offer
records services and that is Mutare, Gweru, Masvingo and Chinhoyi Records Centres.
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The implications of this is that in Zimbabwe access to archival services are still largely centred in
Harare and of late now in BARC which opened its archival centre in 2001. However, it should be noted
that despite BARC having a relatively new purpose-built archive it is still taking slow steps towards
becoming a fully-fledged archive. One of the reasons being that the staff compliment to some degree
still resembles that of a record centre. The other issue being that despite the building having an audio-
visual section room this section has never been operational in the history of BARC (Bhebhe, 2011).
These factors tend to have a negative impact in the number of research inquiries that BARC is able to
successfully process for clients.
Bhebhe (2011, p. 14) noted that the establishment of these Record Centres came into effect after
independence in 1980 when the then Prime Minister Robert Gabriel Mugabe committed his govern-
ment to the decentralisation of archival services to provinces. The Ministry of Information, Posts and
Telecommunications (1986, p. 2) quoted him verbatim when he was opening the second session of the
second parliament on June 24, 1986. The Prime Minister said:
My Government will this year embark on the construction of a new records centre at the National Ar-
chives in Harare to centralize the storage of records. It is also intended to decentralise archival services
and extend record centre facilities to reach the larger urban and provincial administrative centres. This
year [1986] will thus see the opening of an archives centre in Mutare as the beginning of the decen-
tralisation process.
So this in 1989 led also to the opening of record centres in Gweru and Masvingo to cater for Midlands
and Masvingo Provinces and Chinhoyi Records Centre being established in 2000.
From this background it can be noted that National Archives of Zimbabwe has always put an effort
in trying to bring the archives closer to the people. It is therefore the thrust of this paper to evaluate how
efficient and effective have been some of these policy changes in the provision of archival services. In
this case special emphasis would be on the BARC.
In BARC the researchers are mainly researching on genealogies or what we can call family histories;
land claims; property rights; traditional culture of the local people; national identification and the general
history of provinces in Matabeleland among others. Therefore, this study would evaluate how efficient
and effective has been BARC in addressing some of these research inquiries from the researchers.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Archives are not meant to serve academics and historians only. Kamatula (2011) noted that archival
institutions have been perceived as places where only academicians and genealogists can obtain valu-
able information. Archives have the potential to service communities in a number of regards. Mnjama
(2010) noted that archives serve among other things, educational and research purposes. Carter (2006,
p. 216) also pointed out that “individuals may visit archives in order to hear the stories of their ancestors
and predecessors, to learn of past actions of their governments and to examine the activities of private
organisations.
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Archival records have to be used by communities as Ericson (1990, p. 117) highlighted that “if after
we brilliantly and meticulously appraise, arrange, describe and conserve our records nobody comes to use
them, then we have wasted our time”. Access in archives is one of the cornerstones of the profession as
Wales (2014, p. 36-37) citing National Archives of Australia argued that “there is little point in keeping
records unless they can be accessed by interested researchers”. Cannon (2009, p. 17) echoes the same
statements by stating that “an unused archive is a sad archive, indeed”. According to Harris (1993) usage
is the ultimate goal for processing archives with other functions just being tools that archival institutions
use to achieve this ultimate goal. Maphorisa and Jain (2013) thus concluded that archives are for use and
their continued existence can only be justified through the level of usage of their collections (Maphorisa
& Jain, 2013). Ericson (1991, p. 117) argued that:
The goal is in use. We need continually to remind ourselves of this fact. Identification, acquisition, de-
scription and all the rest are simply the means we use to achieve this goal. We may employ all these tools
skilfully, but if, after we brilliantly and meticulously appraise, arrange, describe and conserve records,
nobody comes to use them, then we have wasted our time.
Mason (2011) lamented that, for the most part, archives are not the first port of call when people seek
information and records. This had also been raised by Ngulube (1999, p. 19) who pointed out that the
public archives of the East and Southern Africa Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives
(ESARBICA) offer a range of products and services; however, ‘their level of utilisation is low’. Kamatula
(2011) posited that in many societies, archival institutions are perceived as places where only academics
and genealogists can obtain valuable information. Bearman (1995) also noted that few potential users
recognize archives as a source for records or know when they need records rather than just information.
Organizations such as the International Council on Archives were established to promote the frequent
use of archive repositories and the effective and impartial study of archival documents by making their
contents more widely known and by encouraging greater ease of access to archive repositories (Inter-
national Congress on Archives, 1985). Moreover, archivists and other curators must begin to develop
methods to assess the value of their holdings to current and future researchers (Cox & Samuels, 1988,
p. 39). Bearman (1995, p. 385) also noted the need to study users in order to understand how they ap-
proach archives.
ACCESS TO RECORDS
Access to records is the cornerstone to democracy and freedom of information. To Mnjama (2003, p.
184), under freedom of information (FOI) legislation, a citizen who requests information should be given
the opportunity to inspect documents and obtain copies of them or be provided with the opportunity of
viewing a film or videotape, hearing a sound recording, or receiving a transcript of a sound recording
or shorthand notes. However, Lowry (2013, p. 25) highlighted that access rights become ineffective if
records cannot be found when requested for, or if found, cannot be relied as authoritative. Taillefer and
Elliot (2015) pointed out that an increasing number of denials of requests for information or records are
on the grounds that the information or records cannot be found. Freedom of information implementation
will fail if the records subject to FOI requests cannot be found or if only some of the records are found,
leaving in doubt the status of the rest (Lemieux & Trapnell, 2016). Without proper records management
147

systems, democracy, good governance and other rights cannot be achieved. Thus, Banisar (2006) noted
that effective records management is the cornerstone of freedom of information and democracy.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Patterns of the usage of archives are rarely studied. Furthermore, researchers have not adequately sought
to investigate patterns of satisfied and unsatisfied requests in archives. Thus, archival institutions may
not be aware of records which are being requested for which are not in their collections. Such archival
institutions may go on for years failing to service requests for records which are of value to their con-
stituencies. Brown Jr and Yakel (1996) highlighted that the administrative use of archival records is an
understudied aspect of archival administration.
METHODOLOGY
This study applied document analysis which sought to reveal patterns of satisfied, unsatisfied and refereed
requests for records at the BARC. The researchers analyzed request slips which clients use to detail their
requests when requesting for records at the BARC. These requests were dated from the 3rd of January
2014 up to the 30th of June 2017. The researchers could not confirm the number of materials requested
as clients detail the subject of their searches and thus may go on to retrieve a number of files to satisfy
their requests. These details were not detailed in the request slips. Thus, the researchers used percentages
to represent requesters or requests.
Document analysis of these research inquiry sheets entailed coming up with metrics regarding differ-
ent research areas in which researchers were interested in. For example, some of the research interests
of researchers were on chieftainship disputes. Other researchers were concerned with family history etc.
These metrics on research interests were then studied in order to understand how the holdings at BARC
are accessed and the implications thereof.
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The findings of the study were derived from requests slip used by clients to retrieve records at the BARC.
The findings are presented thematically and these themes were derived from the objectives of the study.
Summary of Requests Received by the BARC (2014)
The BARC received a total of 56 requests throughout the year of 2014. Of the 56 requests, 5 (10%) requests
were not serviced as the records were not available. Furthermore, 11 (20%) requesters were referred to
either National Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ) in Harare, Gweru Records Centre, Gwanda Government
Offices and the Registrar General’s Office. Of the 56 requests, 36 (64%) requests were satisfied as files
were retrieved for requesters. Four (7%) of the requests were partially satisfied as clients got information
that was incomplete. The table below summarises requests made in the year 2014:
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Table 1. 2014 Records requested
Unsatisfied Requests in
Partially Satisfied Requests Referred to
Number of Requests Satisfied Requests Which There Were No
Requests other Agencies
Records
56 36 (64%) 4 (7%) 11 (20%) 5 (10%)
Source: Field Data 2018
Details of Records Requests Satisfied in 2014
In 2014, requests which were satisfied included deceased estate files, Chief Gampu and headman-ship
issues, Migrants, home-links and remittances, stone age, early iron age, Great Zimbabwe information,
photographs for museum exhibition (Battle of Intumbane 1980, 1981), declaration for title deeds,
Matopo National Park, Njelele, Mwari religion, natural conservation and nature, religion, sacred and
natural spaces, heritage management sources from the colonial era to today, historical narratives of Great
Zimbabwe and Matopo Cultural Heritage sites and road motor transportation. Furthermore, requests
were made for newspapers covering the following; Chronicle and Southern Eye July 2013 to September
2013, Zimbabwe history through newspapers Chronicle February 1995, October 1984, April 2002, July
2003, December 1978 and August 1998, Chronicle 1975 and Daily newspaper 1999 to 2002, Chronicle
March 1922 and Newspapers 1967, 1980, 1981, 1982. Furthermore, requests which were satisfied in-
cluded requests for Government Gazette 22/11/02, Government Gazette of 5th September 2003 number
27, Government gazette concerning land issue (208B of 2005), Government Gazette of 2003 and other
unspecified Government Gazettes. Moreover, acts governing procurement and Finance Acts 1998, 1994
were retrieved. Requests were also made for information on the scramble for Africa, colonisation of
Zimbabwe, the history of the Anglican Church, history of the City of Bulawayo 1870- 1980, Delineation
history, history of Courts, High Court Bulawayo, Tredgold Bulawayo, Rhodes and the Ndebele people
and Chief Faku Ndiweni, Mgandani’s death, Zimbabwe Rhodesia Government and some genealogy
information, divorce orders/decrees and deceased estate files.
Requests Which Retrieved Inadequate Records in 2014
Requests which retrieved inadequate information included research on Xhosa people in Zimbabwe,
historical records on Bubi/Nyathi, records on land issues in Bubi/Nyathi agriculture information and a
certain court case.
Requests Which Were Referred to Other Agencies in 2014
Requests which were referred to other agencies included chieftaincy issues on Chief Chivundura, traditional
leaders in the Midlands Province who included Chief Mudavanu, Matanga, Chinkuma, Mukhethi, Mphosi,
Mapiravana, Gwandiwa, Negobe, Chongoma. Furthermore, clients were referred to other agencies for
files which included a deed of sale, land issues in Matabeleland, birth and death certificates, genealogy
records, origins of Chief Tshovani Shangaan Tribe (Chiredzi), family pictures – pioneer column family
and a location of grave number in Gwanda.
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Details of Missing Records in 2014
Files which were missing included Maphungo family killed by whites in 1890s in Nkayi, Khumalo his-
tory in Emawabayini 1868 to 2014, Newsday October 2014, Law and Order Maintenance Act (LOMA)
and Medical aid industries of Zimbabwe and health insurance.
A total of 79 requests were made at the BARC in 2015. Of the 79 requests made, 51 (65%) were satis-
fied, while 21 (27%) were referred to other agencies and 7 (9%) were not found and clients were not
able to get the information they were looking for. Table 2 presents a summary of records requested for
in the year 2015.
Details of Satisfied Requests (2015)
In 2015, the BARC satisfied the following requests; delineation report for Khumalos, chieftainship of
Siabuwa (Binga District), Mambale/Seula area/ Headman of Mambale, Chief Mabhikwa, research on
functions of the National Archives of Zimbabwe, Statutory instrument of 1978 on the inheritance /ad-
ministration of the deceased estate, newspapers (Herald newspapers between 2000 to 2013, Newspapers
04/04/1965 and 29/03/1970, 18th of February 2007 and 30/07/2006 newspapers, Bulawayo Chronicle,
Business newspapers 1988 to 2003, 4 to 7 December 2005 Chronicle, Herald of 2002 October, Citizens
newspaper, Daily news, Northern news and Sunday mail, Hansard and newspapers on elections 2000 to
2005. Requests which were also satisfied included the 2003 government gazette, history on the Rhodesian
period 1940, research on the origins of the Bantu languages, the importance of phonetics and phonol-
ogy to teachers, theories of literature, cultural erosion, history of Bulawayo before 1900, state formation
(pre-colonial), early missionary work in Zimbabwe, history of buildings that is City Hall, Bulawayo
Club and High Court, history of Makhokhoba, Trade Union history, details of Rhodesia Railway Work-
ers Union, Socio-economic history of Matobo from 1960 to date, Zimbabwean history, history of the
liberation struggle, Post-Gukurahundi military clemency order, African history. Furthermore, divorce
orders, marriage, divorce, birth and death certificates were retrieved.
Requests which were satisfied also included deceased estates succession Act 26/1954, Geological
survey of Southern Rhodesia (1902), hospital records to prove that client was injured during the war in
1979, civil cases, traditional churches book (Quest for belonging), research on Matopo rituals, Umguza
irrigation scheme 1930s, small scale farming, aerial photographs 1950 to 1979 for Matabeleland, Rhode-
sian Railway review for year 1945, Gwayi Shangani reserve and the Fuel and energy policy in Rhodesia
during the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI).
Table 2. 2015 Records requested
Missing Records
Number of Requests Satisfied Requests Whose Requests Were
Requests Other Agencies
Not Referred
79 51 (65%) 0 21 (27%) 7 (9%)
150

Details of Requests Referred to Other Agencies
In 2015, cases which were referred to other agencies included research on Headman Nechiora under
Chief Muusha (Mutare Chieftainship), Chieftainship dispute of the Kona in Mbembesi, Census records
1907, genealogy and family history records, history of Makoni people, birth, marriage and death cer-
tificates, divorce orders, documents with some birth entry numbers, adoption cases, Immigration policy
development since colonial times and road infrastructure development and policy since 1950s, medical
records, a signed copy of unity accord, a map of Zulu 15 mining claims.
Details of Missing Records/Files
Requests which were not serviced and not referred to any other agency included Government gazette
for Springsvale estate and Maguya Lot 6, 7 and 8, Umzingwane District Matabeleland South, divorce
orders, family history documents, 1941 Court Case concerning citizenship issue, Somnene purchase
area plot 25 ownership issues since 1960.
In 2016, a total of 163 requests were made. Of the 163 requests made 106 (65%) requests were satisfied,
whereas 3 (2%) more requests were attended to but the information was inadequate. Furthermore, 27
(17%) requests were referred to other organisations such as NAZ Harare and creating agencies. Moreover,
27 (17%) requests were not satisfied as files being requested for were not found and such requesters were
not referred to any other organisation.
Details of Satisfied Requests (2016)
In 2016, the BARC serviced requests which included Citizen Newspapers covering (newspapers and
Lotus magazine 1957 to 1963, old newspapers, books, native commissioner reports, newspaper article
in which someone drowned in a tank of beer, Bulawayo Chronicle 1903 to 1904, Standard newspaper
June 2013 to December 2013, Bantu mirror newspaper) and other newspapers whose subjects were not
specified by the clients. Some other requests were for Founders High School History Magazine, Parade
magazine for 1960s, Ndebele chieftainship, Binga Chieftainship, Family tree and chieftainship, State
formation and pre-colonial history, history on a deceased Member of Parliament for Mpopoma 1974, social
history of Bulawayo, formation of Highlanders Football Club 1926, political history of Zimbabwe 1958
to 1970, colonial administrative structures, Native commissioner reports 1960s to 1979 about Bulilima,
Babirwa history, ZPRA male-female relations, Pioneers history and, history of prostitution in Shabanie,
Table 3. 2016 Records requests
Missing Records
Not Referred
163 106 (65%) 3 (2%) 27 (17%) 27 (17%)
151

history of locations, ZPRA ex-combatants and the vetting process, history on Papu Shangani, Eveline
High School History, Old Bulawayo Architecture, Matobo Dam, Bulawayo History, early Zimbabwe
contact with Persia, China, India, Portugal, 2009 to 2013 Unity Government, Kalanga history, Mbira
tradition, Lippert concession, Qongo family history, Heroes Acre history, Xhosa history. the scramble
and partition of Africa, colonisation of Africa, Bulawayo history, History of the Gumede clan, 2000 Land
reform, history of cattle ranching in Matabeleland since 1920s, Kezi District Administrator records on
irrigation, agriculture, etc., Government Gazette 2015, 2002 and some Government Gazettes whose titles
were not specified. Clients also requested for and retrieved Statutory Instrument 819 of 1979, Bulawayo
City Council regulations 2000, Cemeteries Act, Bulawayo cemeteries regulations 1967, Town Planning
Act 1945, Model building By-laws Bulawayo (building, roads and streets) by laws.
Moreover, the following requests were also satisfied Matobo Mission (Faith and land), Matopo
mission and Brethren in Christ church, African initiated churches, Jewish cemetery in Northend and
Deceased estate files inter alia. Requesters also retrieved divorce orders, death records, records on old
buildings’ preservation, research on archives and records management, Mzilikazi and other Ndebele
pictures, pictures of Goldfields buildings, civil records, deceased estate files, high Court civil case, old
Bulawayo Telephone Directories, NAZ Annual reports, Mental health patient record.
Details of Requests Which Retrieved Inadequate Information (2016)
In 2016, 3 requests met inadequate information. These requests included the history of gold panning in
Zimbabwe, Catalogue of Zimbabwe constitutions and traditional healers, prophets’ challenges up to date.
Details of Requests Referred to Other Agencies (2016)
Furthermore, BARC referred some requests to other organisations and agencies and these requests were
on mental health patient record, Bikita to Gokwe Chieftainship, Gambiza chieftainship in Chikomba,
Lower Gweru Chieftainship, Genealogical history, history of Dmetra farm in Chirundu, personnel re-
cords such as termination letters and CMED personnel files, records on Shropshire farm, Caveat search,
the history of mine ownership, old pictures of Bulawayo, water crisis in Beitbridge 1980 to 2015, birth
records, death notices, birth, marriage and divorce certificates. Some satisfied records included 1940s
Bulawayo High Court civil case – divorce order and deceased estate file less than 25 years.
Details of Requests Whose Files Were Missing
In 2016, 26 requests were neither satisfied nor referred to any other agency or organisation. These
requests included Africa Daily news 1963, a book by Thomas Morgan Thomas 11 years in Central
Africa, Seventh Day Adventist church history, white community Archives Immigration, refugees and
irregular movements, Chinese immigration, Forest Act, Meteorological Act, civil records, maintenance
ledger, Former prisoner record (LOMA), Government Notice 382/1970 and some Government Gazettes,
Lovemore Majaivana music, family history, clan history of Makawule, genealogy records, clan history,
photograph of a Rhodesian soldier, Shabanie mine, Women and mining in Gwanda, agriculture budget-
ing, Indigenous Knowledge systems in solving STIs and high school quiz questions.
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Between January to June 2017, a total of 118 requests were made at the BARC. 83 requests were satis-
fied between January to June 2017, whereas 2 requests were partly satisfied as the information retrieved
was not adequate. 24 requests were referred to NAZ Harare and creating agencies. 9 requests were not
satisfied as the files were not found. Table 4 shows requests made between January and June 2017.
Details for Requests Satisfied (January to June 2017)
The 83 requests satisfied between January to June 2017 included newspapers, Secretary’s reports on
Education, Makhado (Chieftainship disputes) delineation reports for Beitbridge, pre-colonial chiefdoms
and native commissioners reports, delineation report for Solusi area, Lupane, Umzingwane and Binga
chieftainship, deceased estate files (DRBs), divorce, marriage, birth and death certificates, government
gazettes, statutory instruments, records on Matobo National Park, Kezi Matobo District Administrator’s
land issues, Economic developments 1980 to 2015, Education Act, colonial history 1940s to 1950s, lib-
eration struggle assassination of key figures in ZANLA and ZIPRA, history of Mpilo Central Hospital,
liberation struggle (Magama and Mangena’s role), Hwange battle and Mbuya Nehanda, Female soldiers
in the liberation struggle, history of Zimbabwe, history of certain schools, Kalanga history, ZPRA history,
Bulawayo history, history of amaxhiba, Native commissioners reports for Matopo and Lupane, records
management books, books on oral history, Njelele shrine, telephone directories of 1911.
Details of Requests Which Retrieved Incomplete Information (2017)
Requests made by 2 clients were not satisfactorily serviced as they retrieved incomplete information.
These requests included a certain government gazette and some old photographs.
Details of Requests Which Were Referred to Other Agencies (2017)
Requests which were not satisfied covered the following; some, birth, marriage, divorce and death
certificates. Furthermore, some records on adoption cases, divorce orders, DRBs, family histories and
genealogies, an address of someone who came to Rhodesia in 1947, Hwange Nemananga chieftainship,
Chief Wonondo in Bubi District Umguza, St Paul ZPRA assembly point information needed for school
museum in Lupane, Staff files for ex-police, CMED and for an ex-teacher. These requests also included
a map of a farm of Crown land, Male Farm in Gweru.
Table 4. Records requests (2017 January to June)
Missing Records
Not Referred
118 83 (70%) 2 (2%) 24 (20%) 9 (8%)
153

Details of Missing Records (2017)
Requests which were neither satisfied nor referred to any other agency or organisation included some
death and divorce certificates, some civil records, LOMA cases, parental family trees, some government
gazettes, records of companies in garment production, license documents and a divorce order.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The study showed that the BARC was on an upward trend in terms of requests made and requests satisfied.
In 2014, 56 requests were made, in 2015, 79 requests, in 2016, 163 requests and from January to June
2017, 118 requests were made. Generally, from 2014 up to June 2017, even though requests are low, they
have been improving. Furthermore, requests which are partially satisfied have also been on a downward
trend from 7% in 2014 to 2% in 2017. Requests refereed to other organisations or agencies were at 20%
in 2014, rose to 27% in 2015, dropped to 17% in 2016 and returned to 20% in 2017. Missing records
also dropped from 10% in 2014 to 8% in 2017. The statistics show that BARC has been improving its
services as it has been able to satisfy more requests. Furthermore, the data showed that some clients do
not understand the area covered by BARC as they request for records which do not fall under Matabele-
land. These requests cover chieftaincy, family trees and genealogies which fall under Mashonaland and
Midlands Provinces. Furthermore, some requests were unsuccessful to retrieve because the requestors did
not have sufficient information which could be used to retrieve records. Furthermore, clients were also
requesting for records which were not yet accessible at the BARC as they were still less than 25 years.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The researchers recommended that the BARC should come up with public programming initiatives to
promote the use of its archival collections with more emphasis on the use of social media platforms
instead of relying on traditional marketing strategies such as exhibiting in Zimbabwe International Trade
Fair (ZIFT). National Archives of Zimbabwe can have its website showing public archive guides for
its Head Office in Harare and its Branch in Bulawayo which is BARC. Active Twitter and Facebook
accounts should be opened and maintained by NAZ so that even the younger generation can be drawn
to visit the BARC. Generally, the analysis of the metrics of this research is showing an improvement in
Table 5. Summary of requests from January 2014 to June 2017
Missing Records
Number of Partially Satisfied Requests Referred
Year Satisfied Requests Whose Requests
Requests Requests to Other Agencies
Were Not Referred
2014 56 36 (64%) 4 (7%) 11 (20%) 5 (10%)
2015 79 51 (65%) 0 (0%) 21 (27%) 7 (9%)
2016 163 106 (65%) 3 (2%) 27 (17%) 27 (17%)
2017 118 83 (70%) 2 (2%) 24 (20%) 9 (8%)
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the number of researchers that visited BARC from 2011 to 2017 but the argument is that more can still
be done by fully adopting social media tools in marketing BARC.
For emphasis the researchers of this article are recommending that the BARC make its clientele base
aware of the scope of records it covers and the regions to avoid clients travelling to the repository only
to be referred to other agencies or organisations. This can be done by having finding aids online for the
convenience of clients.
The other issue is that BARC has to tie its public programming initiatives to important cultural,
traditional, social and economic activities in the region for example BARC should be visible in the cer-
emonies where traditional leadership is being installed, funerals of custodians of traditional culture etc.
National Archives would also take the opportunity in these festivals and ceremonies to document the oral
testimonies and traditions for these group of people like as they did in 2016 and 2017 with the Shangaan
people. In this 4th and 5th edition of the Great Limpopo Cultural Trade Fair of the Shangaan people, the
NAZ documented their oral traditions. Such approach by NAZ should be encouraged to cover all tradi-
tional festivals in Zimbabwe so that archives become people’s archives and not being only for the elites.
Oral history is heavily used by BARC to document those minority groups which are perceived to
be absent from the national narrative. Some of such groups are the Tonga, the Venda, the Xhosa, the
Kalanga, the Nambya etc. These groups are mainly found in Matabeleland. What this means is that even
with this richness in cultural diversity the BARC would never be able to fully tap on that simple because
they do not have audio visual section which is meant for preservation of such records. Yes some of the
oral testimonies can be transcribed but for the oral traditions which are captured in video form may not be
accessible to the public and also be difficult to preserve. It is therefore recommended that BARC should
have an audio visual section which is operational. Our data analysis shows that one of the researchers
came to research on the music lyrics of Lovemore Majaivana however the researcher was not assisted
but referred to the Head Office in Harare because BARC does not have the audio-visual section.
When Record Centres were being established in 1986, it was one of the efforts to decentralise re-
cords services and later decentralise the archival services. The argument being that the archives and
records should be closer to the community which is being served. However, the picture that is emerging
in the present situation is that of an over-centralised archival system. This is not surprising because the
governing system in Zimbabwe is much centralised. This is despite the changes which were made in
Zimbabwe’s Constitution in 2013 which called for the devolution of Government power. That part of
the Constitution is yet to be implemented. What this means is that even if Government Departments are
talking about decentralising, this is not fully being implemented (Devolution and decentralisation mean
different things but here they were used interchangeable just for convenience).
The implication of an over-centralised national archive is that it is counterproductive (Wales, 2014,
p. 48). Wales (2014:58) mentioned that devolution of mainstream archives will lead to the incorporation
of local interests into the discourse of ‘authorised’ heritage and they would benefit from local input and
specialised regional knowledge. Referencing United Kingdom Inter-Departmental Archives commit-
tee, Wales (2014:59) argued that it has been “recognised that archival innovation flourishes at a local
level, as adapting to circumstances breeds new and creative solutions”. This is yet to be fully achieved
in Zimbabwe as Dube (2011:288) noted that “while NAZ has made some strides in decentralizing its
[records] services to the provinces, four of the provinces still do not have archives. As a result of this
and the failure to adapt to modern technology, access to public archives is only limited to Harare and [a
bit] Bulawayo provinces”.
155

It is therefore recommended that NAZ should ‘fully’ decentralise its archival services to all Provinces
not to partially decentralise as it is the case now. Instead of decentralisation, what is happening at NAZ is
mainly deconcentration which only distributes activities to provinces while authority and financial control
remain at Head Quarters (Bhebhe, 2011). What needs to be done is that the policy of decentralization
must be stressed and advocated at the highest level. Implementation of decentralization must be given
priority. Professional staff, in their adequate numbers, must be deployed to BARC so that the archival
services are run efficiently and effectively. Budget and financial control must go down to BARC in order
to cut the red tape when it comes to the management of archival programmes. Maybe after that more of
research inquiries would be satisfied.
Having highlighted the frequency in which different types of archival material are requested by research-
ers at BARC and interrogating the ‘why’question there still remains other very important future research
directions especially why some of the archival material is being requested more than the other. The other
issue is that the article only looked at BARC, however future research studies need to concentrate in all
heritage sectors by using comparative methods. For example, one of the envisaged studies would be the
“Trends and utilization of archival, museum and library holdings in collecting Institutions of Zimbabwe:
A case of National Archives of Zimbabwe, National Museum and Monuments of Zimbabwe, National
Gallery of Zimbabwe and National Free Library”. This approach of study can also be propagated
throughout the whole of Southern Africa or even the whole Africa.
CONCLUSION
This study revealed that most of the archival material at BARC is being underutilised as this is seen by
the low numbers of researchers that visit the institution. While there may be many reasons that lead to the
low numbers of researchers who visit BARC, the most obvious culprit of this, is the lack of innovative
public programming strategies. Some of the marketing strategies that can be used in order to increase
the usage of BARC holdings are those that incorporate the internet especially the use of social media
platforms. Also, the organisational structure of NAZ which is bureaucratic and over-centralised has a
negative impact in how BARC manages its daily archival activities especially on the issue of service
provision. A case in point being that the audio-visual section is only found in the Head Office in Harare
and not in Provinces.
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ADDITIONAL READING
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Research Inquiry Sheets: These are forms that are completed by the inquirer. The entries that need
to be completed by the researcher are name, address, telephone number, date and inquiry. The archivist
then completes the section with an entry on action taken.
159
160
Chapter 9
Raising Awareness About Public
Archives in East and Southern
Africa Through Social Media
Nampombe Saurombe
ABSTRACT
Archives serve as society’s collective memory because they provide evidence of the past as well as promot-
ing accountability and transparency of past actions. Appreciation of the archives should therefore result
in citizens linking these records with their identity, history, civic duty and cultural heritage. However,
research in east and southern Africa seems to indicate that very few citizens are aware of and use the
archives. Social media platforms have been utilized to raise awareness about the archival institutions
elsewhere. This study sought to find out whether the National Archives in east and southern Africa used
social media to raise awareness about archives. The study involved 12 national archives affiliated to
the East and Southern Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (ESARBICA) using a
multi-method research strategy. The findings indicated that social media platforms were not a preferred
option in outreach strategies, even though they were recognized as useful means to reach online infor-
mation seekers.
INTRODUCTION
The public archival institutions of east and southern Africa keep precious records and archives that are
of immense value to their societies (Ngulube, 2004). Bountouri (2017, p. 51) explains that “archives are
and should always be an active part of our culture and society. They document the history of mankind,
the financial and legal activities and cultural developments. They have to be open to our society”. De-
spite this fact, the public archival institutions are some of the least known and used cultural institutions
in east and southern Africa. (Saurombe & Ngulube, 2018). This calls for more efforts towards raising
awareness about the valuable holdings that these institutions keep (Kamatula, Mnkeni-Saurombe &
Mosweu, 2013; Venson, Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2014; Ngulube, 2018; Saurombe, 2016; Mnjama, 2018).
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch009

Raising Awareness About Public Archives in East and Southern Africa Through Social Media
According to Bountouri (2017), public archival institutions in east and southern Africa should strive
to be known and used by the communities they serve. These institutions can start public programming
initiatives to make their activities known to the communities. Public programming initiatives refer to
activities conducted by archival institutions with the aim of raising awareness about the archives in
society (McCausland, 2017; Mnjama, 2018). The literature indicates that a number of public archives
from east and southern Africa do conduct public programming initiatives. However, the number of us-
ers of these archiving services continues to decrease (Venson, Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2014; Sulej, 2014;
Saurombe, 2016; Mnjama, 2018). Garaba (2015) argues that there is a need for change, and this means
keeping up with trends to ensure that archival institutions can address the information needs of the com-
munities they serve.
Keeping up with trends in the current information society includes using new technologies (Ngulube,
2004). The use of social media in society, especially by organisations, is becoming a common trend (Hood
& Reid, 2018). Lately, more cultural organisations including archives use social media to do outreach
and encourage more participation from the public (Theimer, 2011; Bountouri & Giannakopolous, 2014;
Liew et al., 2015). Garaba (2015) is of the opinion that social media can enhance public programming
initiatives and have a greater impact than traditional outreach methods such as tours in the archives or
exhibitions. Bountouri and Giannakopolous (2014, p. 215) in line with Garaba’s (2015) argument state
that archival services can benefit from using social media because it enables direct contact with archi-
val users. In addition, social media provides archival institutions with the opportunity to improve their
services and public image as well as facilitating greater visibility of the archival institution.
A number of archival institutions have successfully used different social media platforms to market
their institutions. Hager (2015) and Williamson, Vieira and Williamson (2015) speak of social media
platforms such as, Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Flickr, HistoryPin and Instagram among others which
have been used to engage with their communities on cultural and historical content-related issues and
maintain contact with their patrons.
Most accounts on using social media to promote cultural and heritage institutions such as archival
repositories, museums and libraries originate from the western hemisphere. In this regard, research from
Africa, especially east and southern Africa is scarce, yet social media usage is a worldwide trend. In
light of this observation, the interest of this particular chapter lies in the use of social media in public
programming initiatives by the National Archives of east and southern Africa.
Overview of the National Archives Affiliated to ESARBICA
The National Archives in east and southern Africa is affiliated to the East and Southern Africa Branch
of the International Council on Archives (ESARBICA). The member states of this organisation are Ke-
nya, South Africa, Mozambique, Angola, Malawi, Namibia, Swaziland, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe,
Lesotho and Tanzania (ESARBICA, 2014). These archival institutions offer a range of services that are
related to these countries’ culture, identity and documentary heritage.
These institutions keep and preserve documents of enduring value that are of significance to personal,
social, civic, governmental and business-related matters; though they are not commonly known as infor-
mation providers in many communities (Kamatula, 2011; Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011; Saurombe, 2016).
This was also demonstrated in the choice of the main theme of 23rd ESARBICA Biennial Conference
held in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe in 2015. The conference theme was Archives uses, abuses and under-
utilisation (ESARBICA, 2015). This proves the need for public archival institutions in this region to seek
161

ways to actively raise awareness about these institutions in east and Southern Africa. Public program-
ming initiatives could significantly contribute towards this goal. Public programming initiatives are often
described as actions or activities implemented by archival institutions with the aim of raising awareness
about the archives and facilitating access to the archival holdings (McCausland, 2017; Mnjama, 2018).
These activities can range from lectures, exhibitions, tours, education programmes, seminars and other
activities. These programmes are often planned and designed to address the different needs of the various
users of the archives (Saurombe, 2016). As more citizens in east and southern Africa seek information
online due to the connectivity made largely possible by mobile networks and mobile devices (Lanerolle,
2013), this study investigated whether National Archives of the ESARBICA region used social media
platforms as part of their public programming strategies.
Mabweazara and Zinn (2016, p. 1) describe social media as “powerful technological tools for com-
munication, loosely summed up as technology used for interacting, creating and sharing information all
built on the ideological foundations of Web 2.0”. Social media is one of the key developments brought
about by using the internet. As from 31 December 2017, there were approximately 453,329,534 internet
users and 1,942,054, 452 Facebook subscribers in Africa and the number is increasing (Internet World
Stats, 2017). Though there are still challenges such as the digital divide in sub-Saharan Africa, it is appar-
ent that more people have access to social media through mobile networks. Lanerolle (2013) reports that
the number of people who own mobile phones in Africa surpasses the number of individuals who own
computers. Furthermore, these phones are internet capable, which makes it easier to access social media
platforms. According to Mutula (2013, p. 3), “…social media is influencing the information landscape
significantly with people of all persuasions irrespective of education, social status, age, profession, sex,
religion, political orientation adopting and using it in both developed and developing countries…” Social
media platforms have made it possible for people to interact, create and share information (Mabweazara
& Zinn, 2016, p. 1). Graham (2016, p. 24) asserts that ‘sharing’ is central to social media, instead of
watching, listening or reading, people are encouraged to share ideas, images, information and entertain-
ment with self-selected networks of friends, contacts and personal audiences. There are many forms of
social media. These include:
• Blogs and Micro Blogs: Wikipedia and Twitter

• Content Communities: YouTube, Flickr, Instagram and Pinterest
• Collaborative Projects: Wikis
• Social Networking Sites: Facebook
• Virtual game worlds
Bountouri (2017, p. 53) states that the common features of social media are:
• They are all interactive Web 2.0 internet-based applications.

• They consist of user-generated content such as posts, comments, photos or videos.
• Users can create service specific profiles for the website or application that are designed and main-
tained by the social media organisation.
• Social media facilitates the development of online social networks by connecting a user’s network
with those of other individuals or groups.
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Some of the commonly known social media platforms in the ESARBICA region include Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram and WhatsApp (Anduvare, 2013; World Wide Worx, 2017). As more archival institu-
tions in the ESARBICA region seek to become well-known among their patrons and potential patrons,
perhaps using social media platforms could contribute positively towards this goal.
Promoting Archival Repositories: Can Social Media Platforms

Make a Difference in the ESARBICA Region?
National Archives are not commonly known among the citizens in east and southern Africa. The National
Archives of the ESARBICA region are encouraged to develop and implement more public programming
initiatives in order for their institutions to become more visible and appreciated by their communities
(Kamatula, 2011; Venson, Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2014; Garaba, 2015, Saurombe, 2016; Saurombe &
Ngulube, 2018). In 2012, the International Council of Archives compiled a document of the ‘Principles
of Access’ (ICA, 2012) The principles state that archival institutions are encouraged to proactively raise
awareness about their existence and activities. The use of social media to promote public archival hold-
ings could be considered as a proactive action in this regard. Not much is known regarding the use of
social media in raising awareness about National Archives in the ESARBICA region. As more citizens
in east and southern Africa get connected to the internet via mobile networks and other means (Mutula,
2013), this study investigated whether the National Archives of the ESARBICA region incorporated
social media platforms in their public programming initiatives.
The objective of the study was to explore whether the National Archives of the ESARBICA region
used social media to raise awareness about the National Archives. In order to address this objective, the
following research questions were developed:
1. Are archivists in the ESARBICA region familiar with social media?

2. Which social media tools are used in the National Archives of the ESARBICA region?
3. For what purposes are these social media tools used for?
4. Are the social media used for outreach programmes?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using social media to market archives in the ESARBICA
region?
6. In cases where no social media were used, why not?
SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGIES: CONNECTING PEOPLE

WITH PUBLIC ARCHIVAL REPOSITORIES
Information communication technologies (ICTs) have impacted the different functions of archival man-
agement (Roberts, 2008). Roberts (2008, p. 329) explains that digital technology has enabled archival
institutions to prepare documentation and find aids, offer reference services, develop collection manage-
ment systems, distribute and publish information and digitise records. He explains that the digitisation
of records made it possible to “preserve the original record, make records more accessible and it serves
as a means of security in the event of loss”.
Similar to Roberts (2008), Garaba (2010) explains that the proliferation of ICTs hugely impacted
how people access information. Garaba (2010) argues that though ICTs have made information more
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accessible, one still needs to focus on other challenges such as the digital divide that still hampers this
development, particularly in Africa.
Jimerson (2011) comments on the impact ICTs had on archival practices, particularly that they eased
seeking and retrieval processes. Jimerson (2011) explains that archival institutions of the 21st century
compete with other information services such as cultural organisations, libraries and museums. In his
article, it is pointed out that these other information services strive to adapt their services with rapid
changes such as technological advancements to meet their customers’ needs. As a result, there was an
increased use of their services as compared to archival institutions. He therefore questions whether
archives are moving fast enough. Could these approaches be used to improve public programming ac-
tivities? To answer this, he advises archives to “enter into the information mainstream, to mould it to
our needs, and to be a part of the contemporary process instead of just a passive custodian of the past”.
More cultural heritage organisations use social media to disseminate information. However, Bountouri
and Giannakopolous (2014) and Garaba (2015) report that archival institutions have been slow compared
to libraries and museums in integrating social media.
Promoting Archives Through Social Media
Essays in Theimer (2011) provide numerous case studies on how different social media were used by
archival institutions to promote access to their holdings. A few are listed below:
• The use of a processing blog at the University of North Carolina to manage the expectations of us-
ers of a special photographic collection (Fletcher, 2011). The goal was to let users understand the
work that goes into processing a photographic collection before it is made available to users. This
initiative was considered as successful as it made their users appreciate what archivists do more.
Referring to the number of visits to the blog and the discussions or feedback on the various posts
in the blog it meant there was also an increase in the content of the photographic collection. Some
of the encountered problems included the amount of time involved in compiling substantive posts
for the blog and handling negative comments from readers (Fletcher, 2011).
• Posting of videos on YouTube at Iowa University, enabling access to a collection that was not eas-
ily accessible in the past. A special collection of digitised films based on the university, the State
of Iowa and the agriculture sector in this region were uploaded on YouTube. Fifty films, which
were viewed more than 52,000 times were then uploaded permanently broadening the visibility of
this repository. Also, these films led to fruitful partnerships with the local television broadcaster
and other cultural organisations. Issues such as minimal time to select and prepare or convert films
for uploading, dealing with spam and obscene comments and copyright matters were some of the
challenges experienced by this institution (Christian & Zanish-Belcher, 2011).
• The creation of virtual archives in Second Life at Stanford University. This has enabled this insti-
tution to teach archival literacy and facilitate browsing on a platform that is seen as more appeal-
ing to their student body. This allowed for more interaction in a three dimensional context. The
institution received overwhelmingly positive feedback which resulted in virtual seminars, newspa-
per articles and increased interest in the collection. Similar to the cases above finding time to run
the project was a challenge furthermore some of the staff felt that they lacked certain technological
expertise that could enhance the project further (Taormina, 2011).
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• The University of Alabama used Facebook to raise awareness about their special collections
among their student body. Facebook was used to promote lecture series, activities, information
about collections and endeavours of this particular repository. This enabled the repository to cre-
ate a network with other similar institutions as well, to communicate, explore and share informa-
tion or various matters regarding their collections. Facebook offered the opportunity to communi-
cate with a variety of users, with different political, religious and social inclinations. As a result,
the repository had to be mindful whenever posting details related to certain collections in order
not to offend some of their patrons. (Lacher-Feldman, 2011).
• Interaction among Jewish women with particular interests, who use the Jewish women’s archive,
became more feasible with using Twitter. This was seen as positive way of reaching out to a
specific audience and encouraging them to interact with the resources in this collection. Posts in
this case were on content from the institution’s website, questions for the public and success sto-
ries. This was seen as an effective means of pushing content to regular and irregular users of the
repository. Regarding posting content, this particular repository was of the opinion that posts on
Twitter should not only be done by one task assigned person. Including many voices enriched and
enhanced the dialogue between them and their users. The challenge here was that, not all their staff
were familiar with Twitter and how to use it for outreach (Medina-Smith, 2011).
These accounts outline the planning, implementation and challenges encountered when embarking
on using these different social media. Nevertheless, increased interaction, search visits and uses of the
holdings are reported as the benefits of using social media in the archives.
Crymble (2010, p. 127) argues that times have changed and more people seek information online.
Therefore, it has become a necessity for archivists to find out how their users and potential users seek
information online. This should help them to determine which online tools are most suitable (and af-
fordable) to disseminate information to society. Similarly, Garaba (2015, p. 218) emphasises that, “users
are voting with their fingers in cyberspace and the community expects its information sources to be
available online and increasingly regards anything that is not online as being irrelevant. Other informa-
tion providers such as libraries and museums have noted the importance of integrating social media in
their operational practices. They also view this as a way of linking up with the users of their services
and keeping them informed of their services and activities (Liew et al., 2015). These experiences could
benefit archival institutions wishing to incorporate social media in their public programming initiatives
(Liew et al., 2015). Bountouri (2017, p. 57) explains the following:
Social media is allowing archives to make their institutions more attractive and at the same time broaden
its audience especially with younger people who are using social media apps very often. Social media
encourages users’ active participation and assessment, it also allows archival institutions to collect
feedback and indirectly engage the audience in a dialog related to shared content.
Archivists as other information providers should be aware of the information seeking behaviours of
their users (Katuu, 2015; Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016). As information technologies rapidly change in
the current information society, archivists must be wary of the changing information needs of their us-
ers (Garaba, 2015). Though the digital divide is still a reality in Africa, there are a significant number
of people online (millennials) whose information preferences should not be overlooked (Garaba, 2015;
Saurombe, 2016).
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Ethical Concerns on Promoting Archives Through Social Media
Theimer (2011) reminds archivists not to get carried away and forget that technologies such as social
media are tools and not goals. In her opinion, archivists should take note of the benefits and limitations
and determine which tool will work most favourably in promoting access to the archives. Archivists
should also consider the option of using both traditional methods and technology to facilitate access to
their holdings. The benefits of applying Web 2.0 tools like social media in promoting access include
offering people new ways to connect, access and interact with the archives’ holdings. However, it is
critical to note limitations such as the digital divide, in case such initiatives disregard the fate of the
underclass, sub-literate and minorities. Jimerson (2011, p. 315) also lists the following as limitations of
using Web 2.0 tools such as social media:
• Finding a balance between the archivist gatekeeper and the user who wants direct accessibility and
control of what they see, when and how.
• The false notion that everything is available on the web. The quest for answers may require one
going beyond the web, namely visiting the archive.
• Technological Obsolescence: Rapid changes render software, equipment and skills useless with-
in a short period of time.
• Preservation of digitised information can be tricky due to the obsolescence of technologies.
• Privacy concerns.
The use of Web 2.0 tools such as social media to promote archives is a relatively new field of interest.
Further research will give more light on how to effectively use these tools to promote access to archival
holdings (Fereiro, 2011).
Though social media offers vast opportunities to promote archival institutions (Theimer, 2011; Boun-
touri & Giannakopolous 2014; Garaba, 2015), it is important to note that the ‘sharing’ of information
could lead to exploitation and misuse of information (Bortree & Distaso, 2014). Organisations such as
public archives need to be careful of what they share and how they share this information. Bortree and
Distaso (2014, p.158) state that “organisations need to know that social media is not a free for all space
but rather an extension of their brand. As such organisations must maintain the same standards online
as they do in their traditional communication programmes”. In most organisations, there are commu-
nication frameworks, guidelines or policies that they adhere to. Similarly, communication via social
media networks should be guided by social media policies that the organisation or the public archival
institution set in this instance (Bountouri, 2017). According to Wasike (2013, p.9), a social media policy
for organisations such as archival institutions will facilitate governance, provide access to vital infor-
mation, communicate with the public and promote civic participation. The use of standards in a policy
creates order for those who adhere to the standards. It will also help the institution to understand the
consequences of the improper and irresponsible use of social media. On a similar note, Sinclair (2012,
p 76) explains that a social media policy should also clearly point out how the content to be shared by
the archives is created and vetted.
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The Use of Social Media for Public Programming Initiatives Within ESARBICA
Kamatula, Mnkeni-Saurombe and Mosweu (2013) did a study on promoting documentary heritage by
the National Archives of Tanzania, South Africa and Botswana (members of ESARBICA). The findings
of this study revealed that social media were not categorically considered as viable means to enhance
public programming initiatives. Five years later in 2018, a quick search on Google revealed an active
Facebook page for the Botswana National Archives and Records Services, but the National Archives of
Tanzania and South Africa still did not use any social media platforms yet.
Sulej (2014) and Dominy (2017) report of the challenges faced by the National Archives of South
Africa on promoting archives in South Africa. Their discussions are based on the websites of this in-
stitution, social media is not mentioned as part of outreach strategies at this archival institution. The
only other ESARBICA member state that had a Facebook page is the Kenya National Archives and
Documentation Service.
Perhaps limitations such as the digital divide can be mentioned in this instance (Mutula, 2005, 2008).
Mutula (2005) reports that technological related challenges that cause the digital divide in sub-Saharan
Africa include inadequate infrastructure, high cost of access, inappropriate or weak policy regimes,
inefficient provision of telecommunications networks, financial constraints, ICT awareness, literacy
and information skills.
Ten years after Mutula’s (2005) account, a report by Facebook (2016) on the state of connectivity
worldwide states that though connectivity has improved worldwide, there are still approximately three
billion people who are not connected online. According to this report, a significant number of these
people is found in sub-Saharan Africa.
Primary barriers to connectivity are availability, affordability, relevance and readiness, which are mainly
affected by rurality and remoteness, low incomes, lack of education and low connectivity among peers
(Facebook, 2016). In 2015, 190 countries at the United Nations (UN) committed towards 17 sustainable
development goals (SDGs). In these SDGs, the UN emphasised the need for universal connectivity. Ac-
cording to the UN (2015), governments should strive to provide universal access to all their citizens as
digital technologies and platforms are key enablers in achieving SDGs in 2030. In recent times mobile
technology has made web access more affordable in developing countries (World Wide Worx, 2017).
The high cost of data that many people complain about contributed to the digital divide resulting
from using high cost equipment such as satellites and other systems. In recent times more affordable
infrastructure such as fibre optic cable is used to connect more people online (Mutula, 2008; Facebook
2016). Mutula (2008, p. 480) further explains that, the high cost of connectivity has prompted the es-
tablishment of major infrastructure projects across the African continent and between Africa and other
continents. Some of these projects include:
• East African Submarine cable system

• SEACOM-carriers project
• Multipurpose community centres
• Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Telecommunications projects
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These projects have to a certain extent enabled many citizens in east and southern Africa to access
and afford internet connectivity and use social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and others
(Anduvare, 2016). Most likely, as per Garaba’s (2015) argument, more people in the ESARBICA region
seek information online. Perhaps archival institutions in this region should embrace these social media
platforms to improve their visibility in society (Kamatula, Mnkeni-Saurombe & Mosweu, 2013).
RESEARCH PROCEDURE
The study followed a descriptive explanatory design within the positivist paradigm (Babbie, 2011; Neu-
man, 2014). The study explored whether the National Archives of the ESARBICA region integrated
social media in their public programming initiatives to increase their visibility in society. Permission was
sought from the ESARBICA Board to collect data from participants of the XXII ESARBICA Biennial
Conference that took place in Nairobi, Kenya. The selected participants were the directors of the National
Archives, archivists working at the National Archives and selected members of the ESARBICA Board.
The researcher was of the opinion that these participants would be able to provide a credible overview
about using social media in their public programming initiatives. The Directors of the National Archives
were requested to complete a questionnaire, while the selected archivists and ESARBICA board members
participated in face to face interviews. Furthermore, the ESARBICA Board provided their 2013-2015
strategic plan and reports from the respective member states that were analysed to determine whether
social media integration in public programming initiatives was a part of their strategy. Utilising multiple
tools in the research process is also known as methodological triangulation (Ngulube, 2015; Saurombe,
2016). The combination of data collection methods provided both depth and breadth in the findings of
the study.
There are many nations that are part of east and southern Africa; however not all of them are active
members of ESARBICA. Participants of the study were from 12 consistent members of ESARBICA.
The National Archives of Uganda was also present at the conference, though they are not categorised as
‘consistent’ according to the ESARBICA Board (2013-2015). They were also requested to participate in
the study and share details regarding social media use in their institution. Table 1 provides an overview
of the participants of the study.
The summary in table 1 indicates that all member states took part in this study, except one member.
Nine of 13 (69%) Directors of the National Archives completed the questionnaire while 8 out of 12 (67%)
archivists agreed to be interviewed. The national directors of Botswana, Angola, Malawi and Mozambique
did not participate in the study. Nevertheless, the information gathered from the national directors, the
archivists, ESARBICA board members and the country reports, which were prepared on the different
activities (including outreach). The activities that took place in these countries were enough to provide
an overview of social media use in the public programming initiatives in the region.
Data analysis of the quantitative data was conducted using Microsoft Excel, resulting in the findings
being organised in graphs. The information gathered from the interviews was read and categorised ac-
cording to themes that emerged from the discussion.
The findings of the study are discussed in the following section.
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Table 1. Summary of the composition of the participants
Director Completed ESARBICA Board Member

Member State Archivist Interviewed
Questionnaire Interviewed
Zimbabwe Yes Yes Yes
Botswana No Yes No
South Africa Yes No No
Namibia Yes Yes No
Swaziland Yes Yes No
Lesotho No No No
Tanzania Yes Yes No
Zanzibar Yes No No
Kenya Yes Yes Yes
Uganda Yes No No
Zambia Yes No No
Mozambique No Yes Yes
Malawi No Yes No
FINDINGS
This section focuses on the perspectives of archivists from the ESARBICA region, which are on using
social media to raise awareness about archives in their communities.
The Use of Social Media to Raise Awareness About the Archives
Garaba (2015) and Bountouri (2017) report that archival institutions have a lot to gain from integrat-
ing social media in their public programming initiatives. For that reason, the Directors of the National
Archives were asked whether they used social media to promote the National Archives. The majority of
the National Archives (7 or 78%) did not use social media. Facebook and Twitter were identified as the
preferred social media platforms by the two (22%) National Archives that used social media.
The Directors of the National Archives were further asked if they thought that visibility on social
media would influence the public’s awareness of the National Archives. Four (44%) stated that it would
have a positive effect while four (44%) other directors said the opposite.
Even though not all of the National Archives used social media, the Directors of the National Ar-
chives were asked if there were any advantages that they knew about using social media. Six (67%) of
the participants were of the opinion that social media could help the National Archives to reach a wider
audience. Most of the Directors of the National Archives (6 or 67%) agreed that social media could reach
more people. Two of the participants went further and explained that social media were more appealing
to the youth as well. The fact that most people access social media over their cell phones was pointed
out by two (22%) of the participants. When asked about the disadvantages, six (67%) declined to answer,
while three of the participants offered the following reasons:
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• Social media only reaches the elite.

• It allows distortion and manipulation.
• Some users may introduce petty issues.
Out of the archivists who were interviewed only one mentioned that they used social media to com-
municate and raise awareness about the archives. Facebook was the social media platform used by this
particular repository. Seven of the interviewees indicated that their National Archives had websites, while
one did not. This particular National Archives have a link within their governing National Department’s
website. The archivists shared similar views as the directors regarding the disadvantages of using social
media. One participant shared that:
There are a lot of challenges with regard to using social media as a tool of communication, we are talk-
ing about issues of privacy, and we are talking about public records. Do you know what to share out to
the public, there is also the question of how do you treat those records through social media?
Most participants had personal Facebook accounts. Two of the interviewees mentioned that they did
talk about National Archives on their pages; however, this was done in their personal capacities.
Since social media was not integrated into outreach in most of the National Archives of ESARBICA,
the interview participants were asked whether they used any other online means to market or raise aware-
ness about their institutions and services. All the archivists highlighted that their National Archives
websites were used to market different programmes.
The Directors of the National Archives who did not use social media were asked to give reasons why
their National Archives did not do so. The results were as follows:
• There are stringent procedures to be followed considering the fact that we belong to the Ministry
of Home Affairs (security ministry).
• Social media are used by people to share issues like politics and social issues.
• Lack of creativity (exposure).
• It is something in the pipeline.
• The archives need to get permission from the department which it falls under, the bureaucracy
prevents archives from establishing a Facebook page.
• High staff turnover.
• Financial constraints.
The ESARBICA Board members and the available country reports did not mention the promotion
of public archives by using social media.
DISCUSSION
From the findings, it is clear that social media is not effectively integrated in public programming initia-
tives in the ESARBICA region. The following discussion attempts to highlight the necessity for these
repositories to use social media, especially because the number of people with access to internet in the
ESARBICA region is increasing.
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Social Media as Integral Part of the Information Society: Can

the ESARBICA National Archives Ignore Reality?
Holmner and Britz (2013) as well as Kim et al., (2014, p. 29) argue that development in the informa-
tion society saw the increase of mobile based services over web-based services. This is also reflected in
Africa (Mutula, 2008), “with mobile internet in Africa rapidly overtaking fixed internet access” (Stork,
Calandro, & Gamage 2014, p. 76). In addition, though there has been an increase in mobile technol-
ogy and broad band availability, progress in this regard differs from country to country in southern
Africa (Holmner & Britz, 2013). Increased accessibility to social media can be attributed to the rapid
development of mobile internet platforms; as a result, many people can access information and perform
different transactions (Holmner & Britz, 2013). This is also possibly linked to e-governance initiatives
and strategies taking place in most African countries (Holmner & Britz, 2013). Onyancha (2010, p. 33)
describes e-governance simply as “being online and providing the public with relevant information”.
Naidoo (2012, p. 63) further explains that e-governance is a public sector strategy which uses ICTs
to improve information and service delivery. Also, e-governance encourages citizen participation in the
decision-making processes of the government and as a result, governments become more accountable,
transparent and effective. Though many African countries are striving to adopt e-governance strate-
gies, Komba and Ngulube (2012, p. 29) report that there are a number of countries that are still lagging
behind. This is because of lack of infrastructure, connectivity challenges, high cost of internet access,
illiteracy and other factors. Nevertheless, countries in the ESARBICA region such as Kenya, Tanzania,
South Africa, and Namibia are among some of the African countries that are progressing in developing
e-government systems (Chaterera, 2012).
Kallberg (2012) explains that many governments are implementing e-governance strategies. However,
they complain that archivists have seemingly taken a back seat letting other information professionals
perform their important roles. Kallberg (2012) is of the opinion that archivists must acquire the necessary
skills and take their rightful position in facilitating access to information in both paper and electronic
formats. As more African governments strive to provide information online, the ESARBICA National
Archives should also be actively involved in e-governance initiatives. Providing information about their
archival holdings and services and their benefits to society could result in public archives acquiring more
recognition in government, public and other spheres of society. Consequently, integrating social media
strategies in public programming initiatives could form part of these e-government systems.
Social media platforms offer archives an opportunity to facilitate access to information. Theimer
(2011) provides examples such as Facebook, Twitter, Wikis and Blogs as social networking services that
could be used by archival institutions. Kim et al. (2014, p. 30) agree with the ideas of Theimer (2011) but
caution archival institutions to understand that they do not have full control over what is shared due to
terms and conditions set by these social networking services. They further highlight that these platforms
can also cause problems such as distribution of malware, invasion of privacy, violations of intellectual
property rights and other problems.
Wasike (2013), and Hood and Reid (2018) seem to indicate that these challenges can be minimised
with using social media policies that govern what is shared, how it is shared and outlining steps of action
when such challenges arise. Kim et al., (2014) maintain that due to developments in the field of ICTs,
it is possible for organisations to develop their own social networking services via mobile platforms
on their own terms. For such reasons, Kim et al. (2014, p. 33) advise archival institutions to develop
their own social networking services. This will enable archivists, experts and users to interact within a
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controlled environment which is safer as compared to public platforms such as Facebook. This could
work for the National Archives in the ESARBICA region as people in this region have access to mobile
internet (Stork, Calandro, & Gamage, 2014, p. 76). Some of the archivists who participated in this study
were concerned about issues such as privacy, but most likely developing a customised archival social
network could alleviate their fears on control over information shared online.
Though more archival institutions and libraries are incorporating social media in their operations,
Liew et al., (2015) argue that most of it is experimental. In their opinion, there was very little research
done on evaluating the use of these platforms and determining their impact on attaining organisational
goals. They seem to echo the views of Ngoepe and Ngulube (2011) as well as Fereiro (2011) that more
research on using social media is required.
Social Media Strategies as Part of Public Programming

Initiatives at the ESARBICA National Archives
The lack of integration of social media in most public programming initiatives in the ESARBICA region
is worrying. As indicated in the literature (Mutula, 2008; Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011; Garaba, 2015;
Bountouri & Giannakopoulos, 2014; Bountouri, 2017), there could be a number of factors that have
contributed towards these institutions not using social media in their public programming initiatives.
According to these authors, some of the factors that may possibly be inhibiting the ESARBICA National
Archives from utilising social media include:
• The Digital Divide: Lack of network or connectivity

• Fear of Change: Most of the managers at the helm of the National Archives are from a generation
that find it difficult to keep up with all the current technological changes in the current knowledge
economy
• Shrinking budgets
• Lack of manpower to monitor interaction on social media platforms
• Lack of expertise
• Absence of social media policies and knowledge of legal matters with regard to sharing content
such as copy right laws
Some of these challenges are similar to those highlighted by the archivists who were interviewed.
Nevertheless, they should not prevent archival repositories from having a social media presence. Most
of the National Archives indicated that they had websites for their institutions, adopting social media
platforms does not have to result in eliminating these websites. Preferably, the social media platforms
could be used to generate more interest for the websites. As Garaba (2015) indicated, most information
seekers start searching online, archival institutions such as those in ESARBICA should seek ways to
reach out to online users and guide them to their holdings. Ngulube (2004) speaks of the challenges
archives in the ESARBICA region face about digitising collections. Garaba (2015) confirms that most
of the archival holdings in the region are still paper based. In such instances, social media platforms can
still be used to inform the public of what is available and how they can be accessed. These social media
platforms could also be used to inform the public of the efforts of these institutions towards digitising
collections and other initiatives aimed at improving the archives’ services. Bountouri and Giannako-
polous (2014) also state that social media platforms are great tools for marketing events. On occasions
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such as commemoration events, national holidays and other cultural-related events the archives can use
social media to reach out and inform the public of what they have planned for such occasions and invite
them to participate.
Not everyone knows how to seek and use information within archival holdings (Saurombe & Ngulube,
2016), social media platforms could be used to offer simple information literacy training to the public.
As more people access information online, the question, therefore, is what role do archival institutions
play in empowering people to access information in this environment? According to the United Na-
tions’ (2015) SDGs, it is clear that information plays a critical role in people’s lives. As more people
seek information, especially online information, institutions such as archival repositories, libraries
and other information providers should assist people to access information in its various formats. The
ESARBICA National Archives should therefore recognise current trends and adopt what is feasible for
their repositories and users.
A Social Media Strategy to Raise Awareness About the

National Archives in the ESARBICA Region
The National Archives in the ESARBICA region could learn from the experiences of other information
providers such as libraries and museums from within the region. Also, they could try to determine how
social media platforms could work for their organisations (Saurombe & Ngulube, 2018). King (2015, p.
6) claims that social media has enabled libraries to listen, make connections, get responses and extend
their reach into society. Most likely, archival repositories can achieve the same. As the number of online
information seekers increases, it is becoming apparent for archival repositories to ensure that their hold-
ings are also easily discoverable and accessible online (Augusyniak & Orzechowski, 2017). Section 2.1
of this chapter outlines some accounts from some repositories that have benefitted from using social
media. Examples of social media platforms that are used by archival institutions include (Williamson,
Vieira & Williamson, 2015, p. 491):
• Wordpress and Tumblr: Detailed written accounts

• Facebook: News and events
• Twitter: Current awareness service
• Instagram, Pinterest, Flickr: Photographs and short videos
• Linkedin: Professional information
• YouTube: Films and videos
Embarking on such a social media strategy requires proper planning to ensure that the social media
strategy is in line with the repository’s objectives, policies and the relevant legislation. Proper planning
also eases the implementation and evaluation process (Liew et al, 2015).
King (2015, pp. 33-35) offers some key guidelines for starting a social media campaign, they are as
follows:
• Set up a Channel: Select the best social media platform for your institution, bearing in mind the
different types of audiences that you serve. For instance, lengthy posts are not suitable for Twitter,
but great for Wordpress or Tumblr.
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• Set Goals: Determine why the repository needs a social media strategy. Reasons may vary from
reaching out to younger audiences, maintaining contact with regular patrons, marketing an event
and others.
• Listen: – Learn and understand how each social media platform functions.
• Create a Team: The accounts in section 2.1 indicate that social media projects require time and
creativity. Teamwork will make the project more manageable and provide a holistic overview of
the institution by allowing different staff to describe collections or events.
• Create Content: The team should plan and decide which content will be shared or promoted
on the platform. Some audiences may find it easier to relate to visual content rather than lengthy
written accounts. For such reasons, the team may decide to use different platforms to reach out to
the different types of users.
Encourage interaction with the public, let the repository ensure that there is always someone at hand
to respond to comments or questions.
• Use Analytics to Measure Success: Evaluating success is an important aspect of a social media
strategy. Social media analytic tools can be used to compile information for reports to determine
the effectiveness of the project. These metrics may provide details such as the number of likes,
number of followers, number of clicks, number of pages viewed, comments, mentions, messages
and other details.
In line with the guidelines by King (2015), the repository should focus on developing a strategy
that is suitable for their context. This will require the repository to have sound knowledge of their users
to determine which social media platforms will be most appropriate. Furthermore, proper knowledge
of the holdings and intellectual property rights is also important or else the repository will struggle in
determining what and how to share the content from the archival holdings.
Though social media usage has become a common trend in society, not much research has been done with
regard to use and its implications on public archival repositories (Liew et al., 2015, Kim et al., 2014).
Moreover, not much is known about the integration of social media in public programming initiatives
at public archival repositories in Africa. Therefore, as the use of social media in Africa, in this instance
east and southern Africa, increases due to factors as the affordability of mobile telephones and internet
connectivity, more archival repositories should consider incorporating them in their effort to promote
access to their archives. Research that focuses on such initiatives will help archival repositories to de-
termine how best to accomplish this task of adopting social media to promote their holdings effectively
and efficiently.
Social media, especially marketing or promoting organisations through social media is an extensive
and dynamic topic, it would not be possible for this chapter to exhaust all the factors related to promoting
archives through social media. However; it recommends that further research on the following factors
could be useful for archivists in east and southern Africa:
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• The Concept of Influencer Marketing: This is a social media strategy that focuses on how to
connect with new users and improve the relationship between the organisations such as archival
repositories and their existing users.
• The Influence of Social Media on Culture and Heritage: Information on culture and heritage
form an integral part of our public archival repositories. Knowledge of how social media influ-
ences people’s knowledge of their culture and heritage could help archivists to plan, design and
implement outreach initiatives that are appropriate for the different target populations they reach
out to.
• Ethical Matters: Most legislation and policies on communications and records keeping in east
and southern Africa countries are vague with regard to social media communication. Perhaps
research in this area could lead to the necessary amendments that will help organisations such as
public archives to have a clear direction on how to use social media.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Most of the National Archives in the ESARBICA region were reluctant to use social media. Reasons
given were linked to inexperience, bureaucracy, budgetary constraints and the lack of expertise to do so.
This is a phenomenon that was also discovered by Liew et al., (2015). These researchers in their world
wide study (Liew et al., 2015, p. 3) argue that archival institutions were slow to accept social media as a
tool that can enhance their operations. Sadly, it also confirms Garaba’s (2015) observations that we have
“Dodos” in the archives in this particular region as we are not adapting to change and current trends in the
present information society; yet other cultural organisations and information service providers have done
so despite similar challenges. Though the integration of social media in public programming initiatives
has many benefits (Bountouri & Giannakoplous, 2014; Bountouri, 2017), archivists must be wary that
they are just tools (Jimerson, 2011). These tools if not used wisely they can harm the institution rather
than promote it. Policies and legislation on social media or online information will help to govern what,
how and when information can be shared (Sinclair, 2012; Wasike, 2013).
The Directors of the National Archives and the archivists did acknowledge that social media could
help reach out to more people, particularly young people. These views are similar to those of Garaba
(2015) and Bountouri (2017). The National Archives of the ESARBICA region could benefit from
using social media as more citizens in this region get access to the internet and seek for information
online (Mutula, 2008; Facebook, 2016; World Wide Worx, 2017). In view of that, this study suggests a
number of recommendations that can encourage using social media in public programming efforts by
the National Archives in the ESARBICA region:
• Garaba (2015), Holmner and Britz (2013) and Onyancha (2010) report on the increased use of web-
based services in sub-Saharan Africa; due to this fact, the National Archives of the ESARBICA
region are advised to rope in social media to improve their visibility online. The archival holdings
do not necessarily need to be online, but rather social media platforms such as Facebook or others
could be used to inform the public of what is available and services offered at a particular archival
service.
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• Shrinking budgets are a reality that most archival institutions are faced with (Bountouri, 2017).
Bountouri (2017, p. 51) advises that social media platforms offer archival institutions a platform
to communicate how the budget was spent to meet their needs. This may further help to advocate
for more funding from authorities or donors who would like to contribute towards effective and
efficient archival services. Bountouri (2017) also explains that social media sites are more cost
effective than regular websites that demand constant attention and maintenance from within the
organisation. Social media sites are maintained by the social media organisation.
Advocacy is a skill that may be helpful in this regard, as it will enable the National Archives to re-
quest for support and justify the return on investment for provided support. Support could come in terms
of funds, expertise, training and other means that will make applying social media possible in public
programming initiatives.
• There is a common adage that says ‘the only constant thing in the world is change.’ In line of
the views of Garaba (2015), archivists in the ESARBICA region will need to update their skills
and training so that they can address the information needs of their online social media users.
Archivists should seek for opportunities to learn more about using social media in raising aware-
ness about the archives. This could be done through a number, of avenues such as attending con-
ferences on related issues and following blogs or online discussions of other information profes-
sionals involved in promoting their institutions. In addition, this could be done by participating
in workshops, joining professional groups involved in marketing archives or other information
providers, and referring to literature based on social media in the archives and other avenues.
• The National Archives should investigate the needs of their users on a regular basis. Information
gathered from such research could further justify the integration of social media into public pro-
gramming initiatives (Duff et al., 2008; Saurombe & Ngulube, 2016).
• Liew et al., (2015) report that institutions such as libraries and museums seem to have success-
fully embedded social media in their marketing operations. Perhaps, archivists could learn from
the experiences of these professionals. Collaboration initiatives could lead to join projects and on
the task training, such initiatives are cost effective and are more favourable than expensive training
programmes (Saurombe & Ngulube, 2018).
• To avoid problems regarding copy right and intellectual property rights, the National Archives are
advised to develop social media policies that will govern what, how and when information will be
shared (Wasike, 2013).
The National Archives of the ESARBICA region should strive to address the information needs of
the increasing number of online information seekers in this region. It may be a daunting task, never-
theless it is important that they remember that their mandate is to serve all their citizens regardless of
their different socio-economic backgrounds. The National Archives of the ESARBICA region should
consider integrating social media in their public programming strategies or the risk being redundant in
an ever-changing information society.
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Chapter 10
Use of Social Media
Platforms for Increased
Access and Visibility by the
Botswana National Archives
and Records Services
Tshepho L. Mosweu
ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses the use of social media platforms for increased access and visibility by the
Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS). A qualitative research approach is used
to illuminate efforts to use social media for marketing archival services by BNARS, and to closely ana-
lyze the benefits and challenges embedded in the use of social media for marketing and outreach by
archival institutions. This chapter also draws inferences from the study and proffers recommendations.
Primary data was collected through interviews of archivists who manage BNARS social media pages
while secondary data was derived from documentary and content analysis. The study reveals that while
BNARS was visible to users and potential users online, the legal and policy framework was found to
be lacking. Challenges associated with the use of social media pertained to issues of privacy, security,
data management as well as policy and the legal framework. The chapter adds literature on advocacy,
promotion, and public programming by archival institutions in the digital era.
INTRODUCTION
The use of social media platforms has nowadays been shown to be a more dominant way to reach out to
potential customers as acknowledged by Bountouria and Giannakopoulosa (2014) that social media is a
tool that has been widely used by the cultural heritage institutions. In the context of archival agencies,
this allows access to services without having to physically visit the institution. Currently the Botswana
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch010

Use of Social Media Platforms for Increased Access and Visibility by the Botswana National Archives
National Archives and Records Services (BNARS) does not have a website of its own and consumers
of archival services have to physically visit to get service. This is despite the report by Ngoepe and
Keakopa, (2011, p.156) that the Department had a web page within the Ministry’s (Ministry of Youth
empowerment, sport and culture development) web site, which was supposed to be used to post publica-
tions and other informational materials. The Ministry’s website has been defunct for some years now.
The placement of the BNARS under this Ministry has compromised the transversal regulatory role of
its services as the exercising of authority by the Director of BNARS is diminished and frustrated by
bureaucracy and adherence to hierarchical controls (Ngoepe & Keakopa, 2011, p.157). Crymble (2010)
has argued that social networking services, if used effectively by archives can be an engaging aspect of
an archives’ outreach programme.
The advent of social media platforms affords archival institutions an opportunity for wider publicity
and outreach. The conceptual foundation of this chapter is that archival institutions need to adopt new
technologies for increased access as argued by Saurombe and Ngulube (2016) that getting more people
interested in the archives requires public archival institutions to be more creative and innovative. As is
the norm with other national archival institutions, the Botswana National Archives and Records Services
(BNARS) has an outreach programme, which it uses to market its services through, workshops, public
lectures, media adverts and radio interviews, school and public educational tours and exhibitions (in-
house and trade shows) and publications in the form of newsletters (Ngoepe & Keakopa, 2011, p. 516).
CONTEXTUAL SETTING
Archival institutions are essentially information resource providers. They provide access to archives and
records that show the economic, political and social development of their nations. As one of such institu-
tions, the Department of Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS) holds records that
depict the development of the country from the colonial era to the post- independence elected government
of the people. The records that captured the activities of the colonial power are now used for reference
purposes by the public. Part II, Section 3A of the National Archives and Records Services Act of 1978
as amended in 2007 gives the National Archives and Records Services the mandate to provide records
and information management service to government agencies; and to collect, preserve and make access
to the nation’s documentary heritage (National Archives and Records Services Act 1978).
Public programming activities form part of archives work as the collection the archival institutions
hold need to be publicized for users to know about them and use them. Ngulube, Sibanda and Makoni
(2013, p. 124) posit that providing access to primary data contained in archives as constituted in the
documents, housed in archival buildings, and managed by a requisite archival institution is an important
component of archives administration. A study done by Maphorisa and Jain (2013) to investigate the
perceptions of BNARS Archivists and administrative personnel towards marketing revealed that though
BNARS personnel confused marketing to mere promotional activities, the organization appreciated the
importance and relevance of marketing in Archives Administration. BNARS has been using social media
platforms for increased visibility and access as alluded to by Phologolo (2015), Pule (2015) and Simon
(2016). In Botswana, the government is committed to providing internet accessibility and connectivity
in the country as reported by Batane (2011, p. 117) that through the Ministry of Communication Sci-
ence and Technology, the government has developed an Information and Communication Technology
Policy which provides a roadmap that drives technology implementation in the country. According to
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Statistics Botswana (2014) survey, of the more than 90% of households in Botswana which had access
to ICT through mobile cellular telephones, most internet users (78.4 percent) used it to participate in
social networks. Garaba (2012, p. 11) posits that cellular technology, the telephone and video screen
are relatively affordable for the majority of archival institutions within ESARBICA and these need to
be exploited fully in order to make the heritage available to the public.
Social media has been defined as an online environment where content is created, consumed, pro-
moted, distributed, discovered or shared for purposes that are primarily related to communities and social
activities rather than to functional, task-oriented objectives (Gartner, 2018). Although Washburn et al.,
(2013, p. 6) posit that the interest in using social media by libraries and archives has been a topic of
interest, investigation, and experimentation for some time, the literature reviewed in this study showed
limited published research in Africa, hence the need for this study to specifically explore the use of social
media for increased visibility by the Botswana National Archives and Records Services.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The increased use of social media platforms by most organizations has seen archival institution also using
these platforms for outreach purposes (Bosch, 2018; Washburn, Eckert, & Proffitt, 2013; Duff, Johnson,
& Cherry, 2013; Theimer, 2011). BNARS has also jumped into the bandwagon of public agencies by
using social media to market its services but how it deals with associated issues such as data manage-
ment, privacy and policy issues is yet to be determined. The chapter explores usage of social media for
outreach by BNARS including challenges and benefits of using social media platforms. Bertot, Jaeger
and Hansen (2012) argue that the interaction by government through social media introduces new chal-
lenges related to privacy, security, data management, accessibility, social inclusion, governance and
other information policy issues. BNARS Facebook page shares the rich documentary heritage within
its repositories such as photographs, letters and extracts from minutes of reports as well as major events
(Pule, 2015) and in doing so it is important to be aware of both benefits and challenges. Hence this study
is appropriate in that it highlights issues archival institutions should be aware of as they adopt and use
social media platforms for marketing and outreach purposes.
Objectives of the Study
• To determine efforts to use social media for marketing archival services by BNARS.
• Analyze the benefits and challenges embedded within the use of social media for marketing and
outreach by archival institutions.
• Assess the impact of social media platforms for marketing and outreach of archives services.
SCOPE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This section provides the research methods employed in this study to explore the use of social media
platforms for increased access and visibility by BNARS. The study uses a qualitative research approach
which is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem (Creswell, 2014, p. 32). Although quantitative data yields specific numbers that
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can be statistically analyzed, can produce results to assess the frequency and magnitude of trends, and
can provide useful information if you need to describe trends about a large number of people, qualita-
tive data, such as open-ended interviews that provide actual words of people in the study, offer many
different perspectives on the study topic and provide a complex picture of the situation (Creswell, 2012,
p. 535). Data was collected using interviews (See Appendix) and content analysis. The qualitative data
collected in this study is analyzed according to themes from the study objectives. Out of a total of seven
archivists at BNARS, five were purposively selected as the researcher believed they had the information
wanted for the study (Greener, 2008, p. 49). The study participants were all administrators of BNARS
social media pages. Other BNARS staff members were not included in the study as they did not have
inside information of managing the department’s social media pages.
SOCIAL MEDIA AND ARCHIVAL INSTITUTIONS
Social media platforms have been increasingly used by archival institutions for marketing and outreach
purposes (Garaba, 2012; Bosch, 2018; Washburn, Eckert, & Proffitt, 2013; Duff, Johnson & Cherry,
2013; Theimer, 2011). Notably, for archives this is comparatively a new phenomenon (Bountouria &
Giannakopoulos, 2014) as for libraries and museums, the platform has been used for some time to dis-
seminate a variety of information to the wider public (Rogers 2009; Whelan 2011). As archives exist
to be accessed and used, promotion of the national heritage is of paramount importance (Kamatula,
Mnkeni-Saurombe & Mosweu, 2013). Access to archives held by archival institutions is paramount as
Mnjama (2008) posits that access to archives affords citizens an opportunity to hold their governments
accountable for its decisions. The literature shows that unlike in the developed world, most archival in-
stitution in Africa have been slow in adopting the use of social media platforms for outreach purposes.
A study by Kamatula et al. (2013) revealed that by 2013 none of the national archival institutions in
Botswana, Tanzania and South Africa used social networking sites to promote their collections, despite
more and more people in those countries having access to social networks through mobile technologies.
In a study done by Maphorisa and Jain (2013), when respondents were asked on how they learnt about
BNARS archival reference services majority (64%) of them indicated that they learnt about BNARS
archival reference services through friends (colleagues). Maphorisa and Jain (2013, p. 39) concluded that
BNARS promotional activities (use of television, radio, workshop, newsletters, tours and newspapers)
were not reaching the intended audience thus were ineffective. The proliferation of the use of social
media has become an opportunity for archival institutions to be widely known as they are able to effort-
lessly interact with their customers.
BENEFITS OF SOCIAL MEDIA USE FOR PROMOTING ARCHIVAL SERVICES
The literature shows that the field of records and archives management has not yet fully utilized the ben-
efits that came with social media usage (Sinclair, 2012, Bountouria & Giannakopoulosa, 2014; Saurombe
& Ngulube, 2016). Theimer (2011, p. 62) puts it in a more clear perspective that whereas in the past,
many archives were confident that their predefined audience of professional historians, genealogists,
and “hobbyist” researchers would find their way to the archive, with a philosophy summed up as, “if we
describe it, they will come,” in today’s world an appropriate philosophy is, “go where your users are”
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through making digital collections available in online spaces such as social media platforms. Although
Sinclair (2012, p. 1) argues that in the early work of archives the main focus was on the functions of ap-
praisal, arrangement and description with little attention to the outreach function, an exploratory study
done to investigate the extent to which Web 2.0 features have been integrated into archival digitization
projects by Samouelian (2009) suggests that a number of archival professionals were moving towards
embracing technology to remain vital and essential to current and future users in the digital era.
Getting more people interested in the archives requires public archival institutions to be more cre-
ative and innovative (Saurombe & Ngulube 2016, p. 31). A research survey done by Bountouria and
Giannakopoulosa (2014) amongst archival services in order to see how they were using these platforms
revealed that 88% of them believe that social networking has provided them with greater visibility for their
organization and more direct contact with their users. As social media has transformed the interaction
and communication of individuals throughout the world (Edosomwan et al., 2011, p. 2), it has a potential
and impact in strengthening relationships with the user community and with other institutions, creating
new access points and increasing the visibility of collections, promoting the reputation of the institution
or department, and advocating for the value of the archives’ resources and services (Mason 2014, p.
158; Garaba, 2012, p. 26; Edosomwan et al., 2011, p. 8; Bountouria & Giannakopoulosa, 2014, p. 511).
The use of social media enables users across the globe to be aware of archival services offered by
national archival institutions. Some international researchers have been able to enter their enquiries
through social media platforms and got assisted. Clough (2013) argues that because of the open access
ethic of libraries and archives, it was natural to use social media platforms to make their information
and knowledge available to users whereby by the end of 2011, almost 90 percent of American libraries
reported using Facebook and almost half were using Twitter to promote their services, provide user
updates, and reach potential new users. A survey of library staff members in the U.S. to determine how
libraries, which are similar to archives in many ways, are employing Web 2.0 and social networking
tools to promote library programs and services found that many libraries use social media for various
reasons. According to survey respondents, libraries are using social media tools to provide “technical
instruction/how-to at the library/Skype with authors,” and “advocacy”, as well as “recruiting and manag-
ing volunteers.” Some libraries are using social media as a “reminder of special resources available to
academic community” and as a tool for “reference transactions, receiving/resolving complaints, building
community” (Curtis, 2012).
In archives, it has been revealed by Crymble (2010) that archival institutions overwhelmingly used
social media services to promote content they have created themselves, whereas archivists promote infor-
mation they find useful though in both cases, more frequent posting did not correlate to a larger audience.
The study concluded that for individual archivists, social networking services can be enriching tools for
individual professional development while for archives, social networking services can be an engaging
aspect of an archives’ outreach program which can be used to reach a large, targeted audience with little
or no cost to the archives (Crymble, 2010, p. 147). A survey done by Bountouria and Giannakopoulosa
(2014) among various archival services revealed, among others, an extended use of Facebook, YouTube
and blogs by the archival services. The study concluded that even though social media was a new and
remarkable trend of the internet, it had many benefits such as the promotion of archives’ image to the
public and, hence, improves their public relations though lack of financial and human resources could
hamper the effective exploitation of the benefits of social networking.
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CHALLENGES IN THE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA FOR

PROMOTING ARCHIVAL SERVICES
Even though the use of social media comes with all these benefits, there are some challenges archival
institutions need to be aware of. Social media technologies raise a large number of information manage-
ment issues mainly concerning privacy, security, accuracy, and archiving, spanning major issues such as
personally identifiable information, security of government data and information, and the accuracy of
publicly available data (Bertor et al., 2012, p. 32). Therefore, in using social media to publicize archi-
val holdings, archival institutions must be mindful of these issues and how they may be addressed. In
other words, these issues have an impact on the use of social media platforms by archival institutions to
promote archives services. In their project report on an assessment of Privacy-Preserving and Security
Techniques for Records Management in Cloud Computing, InterPARES Trust (2016) argued that the
major obstacle to adopting cloud-based technologies, which social media platforms fall under, in the
public sector, is a lack of trust in sufficient security and privacy protection. These issues call for clear
spelt-out policies on the use of social media for outreach and marketing purposes by archival institutions.
In Botswana, BNARS has the legal mandate as directed by the National Archives and Records services
(NARS) Act of 1978 as amended in 2007 to direct policies with regards to the management of records
and archives in the country. But it has been argued by Ngoepe and Keakopa (2011, p. 155) as well as
Mosweu (2012, p. 78) that despite the amendments made in 2007, the act still fell short in strengthening
BNARS role in the management of digital records. It has also been argued by Goh (2014, p. 56) that
presently the records-related and archival legislation does not effectively address the creation, processing,
and preservation of records and data in a cloud environment such as in social media. This challenge is
further highlighted by Franks and Smallwood (2014, p. 268) who argue that the two main risks associ-
ated with the use of social media in an organization are lack of a social media policy and the risk of
employees who may unintentionally expose information that may not be meant for public consumption.
Social networking sites, such as Facebook, encourage people to provide personal information that they
intend to be used only for social purposes which call for government organizations that use social media
platforms to have rules and regulations in place on how such information can be used (United States
Government Accountability Office, 2011).
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
This section presents the findings and presentation of data collected through interviewing archivists
who manage BNARS social media pages as well as content analysis of BNARS social media pages to
illuminate efforts by BNARS in using these social media platforms for marketing and outreach purposes.
The survey responses do not show much difference from other studies done on the use of social media
by archival institutions across the world. The results of the survey showed that BNARS was actively
using social media platform for outreach and marketing purposes. BNARS started using social media
platforms in 2014. The pages are updated twice a week. Other activities include sharing and re-tweeting
posts on national interest especially from the Botswana government social media pages. Despite the
available different social media platforms such as LinkedIn, Google +, YouTube, Pinterest, Instagram,
blogs, wikis, BNARS used Facebook and twitter for its outreach and marketing purposes. This chapter
would mainly present the findings from the BNARS Facebook page named Botswana National Archives
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and Records Services on Facebook as it is the most active. The BNARS twitter account, @archivesbw,
mainly shows what was shared from the Facebook pages as the two accounts are connected. The BNARS
Facebook page had 16000 likes as compared to their twitter account which had a mere 39 followers by
23 July 2018.
The benefits and challenges of using social media for outreach and marketing purposes as well as the
impact social media had on BNARS outreach programme are also presented as part of the findings. The
results showed that despite that active use of social media by BNARS, there was no staff solely dedicated
to manage and run social media pages for the department. The pages were managed by archivists on part-
time basis as they were also engaged with other archives duties. It was also evident that the archivists
were just roped in to run the pages without the requisite skills as indicated by one respondent who gave
an example of failure to protect the archival documents shared on social media to deal with data theft.
EFFORTS IN SOCIAL MEDIA USE FOR MARKETING

ARCHIVAL SERVICES BY BNARS
The survey responses revealed different reasons for BNARS to use social media. The participants
indicated that the Department adopted the use of social media to increase awareness on archival hold-
ings and the department as a whole, to reach out to the youth who might be lazy to physically visit the
department for research, the need to broaden the scope of users as well as to harness technology in their
outreach programme. According to Phologolo (2015), Pule (2015) and Simon (2016) BNARS has been
using social media platforms for increased visibility and access. BNARS’ newsletter reports indicate
that through the use of social media, the department has become more visible to the public (Phologolo,
2015; Pule, 2015; Simon, 2016). The department has even received donations of private archives from
abroad by the descendants of non-Batswana people who worked in the country during colonial times
(Simon, 2016). Figure 1 shows engagements and level of reach on BNARS Facebook posts.
It has been revealed by Phologolo (2015) that for increased access to archival documents and visibil-
ity, BNARS vigorously marketed its services in the late 1990s through what we can term the traditional
methods of publicity such as newsletters, exhibitions and workshops. As information and communica-
tion technologies advanced, BNARS realized the need to tap into newer methods of reaching out to the
public. The Department joined other government departments in Botswana and embraced the use of
social media platforms in 2014 to reach out to as many people as possible (Pule, 2015). Through the use
of social media, BNARS’ archival services have become visible as depicted in Figure 1.
The Kind of Information Shared on BNARS Social Media Platforms
The participants were questioned on the kind of information that BNARS shares with the public, and
they had the following responses in Table 1.
Figure 2 shows the kind of information shared by BNARS on social media.
A look into BNARS Facebook page shows that people engaged more on photograph updates than on
other status updates as shown by Figure 2. A photograph could have an average reach of 13, 404 while
a status reached 1388.
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Figure 1. BNARS Facebook showing engagements and level of reach on posts published
(BNARS Facebook page, 2018)
Table 1. Information shared on social media by BNARS
Participant Response
Participant A We share historical information (textual and pictorial) on our social media platforms.
We share information that might be interesting to our followers. This information concerns events that happened in
Participant B
Botswana in the past in the form of photographs or texts.
Our social media platforms share photographs on our archival holdings, quotable quotes, events that happened on a
Participant C particular day of the past and events that will take place at BNARS. We also share government of Botswana social
media posts as well as posts by historians who interact on social media platforms.
Participant D We share bits and pieces of our archival collection.
Participant E We share information that could be deemed interesting by our users.
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Figure 2. Screenshot of recent BNARS Facebook page showing information shared on social media
Staffing and Skills
The participants were asked whether they had staff dedicated to managing social media platforms, their
number, and the requisite skills and whether they managed the pages on full time basis. They participants
responded in Table 2.
BENEFITS OF USING SOCIAL MEDIA FOR

MARKETING AND OUTREACH BY BNARS
The participants were asked to state the benefits gained from the use of social media. The following are
the main reasons cited by the participants;
• Direct contact with the Archives’ users.

• Increased archives usage.
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Figure 3. Reactions on photographs far surpasses other status updates on BNARS Facebook page
Table 2. Staffing and skills
We have five officers who are dedicated to managing social media pages. These officers do this job on part-time basis
Participant A as they also serve as archivists in other divisions in the department. Yes we do have the requisite skills to maneuver
social media platforms.
Yes, 5 officers are dedicated to managing our social media platforms. We have limited skilled to run social media
Participant B
platforms as we have not received any training on social media.
There are four archivists plus the Head of Archives Administration. They are full- time on the job. Full time I assume
Participant C
you mean they manage the platform on daily basis. We all have enough skills to post and interact with our clients.
We have archivists who manage Facebook page and I think they have the skills required to manage the page. Roughly
5 archivists manage our pages. The knowledge we have is the one we have to operate our personal phones. We do not
Participant D
have the skills for example we failed to apply a watermark on our photographs so it’s easy for people to use our photos
for free.
Five people manage our social media pages. They are not dedicated to social media full-time. Yes, the officers are all
Participant E
ICT literate.
• Improvement in the archives image by the public.

• Multiple access by our users and our potential users.
• Increased target groups that is both the old and the young.
• It’s a good information sharing platform for archivists across the world.
• Services delivery is remotely performed.
• Effectiveness and efficiency in marketing our products and services.
• Immediate feedback.
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Bountouria and Giannakopoulosa (2014, p. 516) have argued that archival services have realized the
benefits of social networking and try to follow the trends of the society. This study showed that social
media, especially Facebook enabled BNARS to achieve its mandate of promoting archives to a wider
audience as it has been also observed by Crymble (2010, p. 129) that posting to a Facebook page or
a Twitter account that has a reasonably large audience can be effective ways of drawing attention to
upcoming events, a new blog post, interesting items in a collection, or a newspaper article promoting
the institution itself. According to the United States Army Social media handbook (2013, p. 9), social
media is more than just a platform to push command messages as social community Platforms such
as Facebook and twitter help people bridge geographical gaps to connect, talk and interact and in the
process be valuable as a communication strategy. Through their Facebook page, BNARS have received
donations of private archives, for example which they might have not received with their traditional
means of outreach activities. The Department was able to reach out to users and potential users outside
the country and in rural areas. A sizable number of students of history, records and archives have been
able to be assisted through enquiries they made on BNARS Facebook page. This is also in line with
BNARS’s aim of reaching out to the youth as they seem not keen on physically visiting the archives to
access information. As argued by Garaba (2012, p. 26), the potential relevance of social media technolo-
gies within the archival universe, specifically with the user in mind, is incontestable, and lends weight to
the fact that engagement with the user is probably the most prevalent paradigm shift in the digital world.
CHALLENGES IN SOCIAL MEDIA USE FOR MARKETING

ARCHIVAL SERVICES BY BNARS
The study also sought to establish challenges embedded with the use of social media for marketing and
outreach by an archival institution. The participants were asked to comment on how they dealt with
privacy, copyright, data management and legal issues on social media.
Privacy of Information and Data Management
To explore privacy and data theft issues, the participants were asked to comment on how they ensured
information privacy and measures in place to protect archives posted on social media platforms from
data theft. They had the answers in Table 3.
Legal and Policy Framework
The researcher also asked the participants about the legal and policy framework that governs their use
of social media. They responded as tabulated in Table 4.
Despite all the benefits BNARS enjoyed in using social media for outreach and marketing purposes,
the Department is faced with issues of privacy of information, data theft and a weak legal and policy
framework. As a result of weak or non-existence of the legal and policy backing, the Department was
limited on what kind of information they could share with their users on social media whereby they
resorted to only published information that was already public. The weak legal backing also exposed
the Department to data theft and copyright infringement as Facebook allows downloading photographs
shared on this platform without the knowledge of the owner. This exposed the department to data
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Table 3. Privacy of information and data management
Participant A There are no measures in place to ensure privacy or protect materials posted online.
We make sure we do not post information that might breach privacy of individuals. There are no measures in place
Participant B to protect the archives posted on social media as we have seen before other people posting the photographs we had
previously shared on our pages.
We ensure that all content that will be uploaded on the Facebook page shall be out of copyright, that is, copyright
belonging to BNARS and of public knowledge. A process of engagement involving all parties concerned is followed
where copyright issues maybe in dispute before any uploads are made to ensure that copyright laws are adhered
to and those on intellectual property are not infringed. We also adhere to our Facebook posting and comments
guideline.
Participant C Watermarking was thought of as a means that could actually help stop people from abusing images posted but then,
watermarking often tempers with the originality of the images. With developments in technology taking place
rapidly there are no guarantees that security packages such as these will hold presently and in the future. BNARS
will have to consider very carefully the materials that will be posted on the Facebook page by identifying those that
will not present any challenges such as copyright infringement as opposed to those that are known to be common
national images.
I do not have an exact answer but I guess copyright and privacy issues in government are a concern for the
Participant D Government Computer Bureau Department. To protect our data from theft we use water mark, besides most of the
items posted are already in public domain.
Participant E There is privacy policy in place. The archives we post on our social media platforms are not protected from theft.
Table 4. Legal and policy framework
Participant A There are no policies in place that govern our use of social media platforms.
We rely on the National Archives and Records Services Act to make information available but the act is limited in
Participant B
terms of guiding information shared online like social media.
We rely on the BNARS Facebook posting and comments guidelines, Copyright and Neighboring Act 2000 as well as
Participant C
the Cybercrime and Computer Related Act of Botswana.
Participant D I do not know because BNARS Act does not cover social media.
Participant E We do not have policies that govern the use of social media platforms.
breaches. Even though the participants cited the National Archives and Records Services Act as well as
the Copyright and Neighboring Act as laws that back their use of social media, a documentary analysis
of these acts showed nothing that talks to managing digital information shared on cloud-based platforms
such as Facebook and twitter. Even though BNARS has Facebook posting and Comments Guidelines,
the guidelines are not adequate to cover pertinent issues such as privacy of data.
The challenge is compounded by the fact that Botswana does not currently have Data protection leg-
islation. This is despite the proclamation in the country’s ICT Policy which states that the development
of policy and possibly a combination of legislation and industry codes of conduct to deal with the protec-
tion of personal privacy, particularly in the context of cross-border data flow, health care and financial
services and transactions (Government of Botswana 2007, p. 21). Franks and Smallwood (2014, p. 260)
observed that if content-posting guidelines are not clear, then the informal nature of social media posts
potentially can be damaging to an organization. In acknowledging the importance of security, privacy
and skills impact on employees using social media, The North Carolina Office of the Governor (2012)
have advised their agencies that in participating in social networking, they should;
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• Provide security awareness and training to educate users about the risks of information disclosure
when using social media, and make them aware of various attack mechanisms.
• Ensure employees are aware of Privacy Act requirements and restrictions. Educate users about so-
cial networking usage policies and privacy controls to help them better control their own privacy
in any profile they use for work-related activities and more effectively protect against inadvertent
disclosure of sensitive agency information, and
• Educate users about specific social media threats before they are granted access to social media
websites.
IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS ON MARKETING

AND OUTREACH SERVICES OF ARCHIVES
The study also assessed the impact of social media platforms for marketing and outreach of archives
services by BNARS.
Public Engagement
The participants were asked on whether they measured their audience on social media platforms and
if yes what they used the information for? All the participants confirmed that they kept track of the
number of people reached out through statistics produced on Facebook. The information was used for
reporting and planning purposes, to determine customers’ preferences or get feedback from them and act
on information that had a bearing on their collection development policy. The information also showed
user needs and helped guide outreach strategies. One respondent indicated that high statistics demand
that there was need to start a special unit to address issues of social media.
Participation and Engagements Trends
When asked on the trends in terms of participation and engagement observed on their social media
platforms, the participants had the following responses in Table 5.
The researcher was able to get BNARS Facebook page metrics. The statistics show that people who
liked BNARS page were from different countries, locations in the country and of different language
background. Figure 4 shows insight on the kind of people interacting with the page.
Target Audience
When asked whether their social media efforts were targeted to any specific audience, Four (4) of the
participants answered in the affirmative and said they target people who were conversant with the usage
of social media and technology, the people who might not be able to physically visit BNARS such as
the youth, users outside the country and users in rural areas as BNARS archives services are mostly in
Gaborone while only one participant denied that there is any target group. Figure 5 depicts that people
in the bracket of 25-34 are the most users of BNARS Facebook page at 42%.
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Table 5. Participation and engagements trends
Participant A Our users find the use of photographs more appealing.
Participant B Our followers appreciate the kind of information we share of their past especially photographs.
People have taken keen interest in the use of archives. Some share their stories with us on posts. This shows that
Participant C
indeed history is of great importance in their lives.
Participant D Users respond to all our posts without fail every day.
Persons who engage with us are mainly students of history and archives and records management as well as
Participant E
historians.
Figure 4. Showing the kind of people interacting with the BNARS Facebook page
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Figure 5. BNARS Facebook page users age rages and percentages

The Most Effective Social Media Platform in Promoting Archival Services
The participants were also asked to state which of their social media pages was most effective in market-
ing their services and the reason behind that. Table 6 shows the responses.
The results of the study indicated that the use of social media by BNARS has so far brought positive
impact on their marketing and outreach services. BNARS was able to engage the public and information
gathered from social media through that engagement has been used for reporting and planning purposes.
This enabled them to determine customers’ preferences and user needs which may influence future policy
and direction which unlike before when they used social media as it was observed by Maphorisa and
Jain (2013, p. 38) that BNARS did not have a research or marketing unit for pre-contact with the market
so as to appreciate who are their customers/users/ readers/ clients and who their potential patrons were.
Saurombe and Ngulube (2016, p. 43) are of the view that detailed information on user needs could lead
to improved services and offer archivists an opportunity to develop fitting public programming initia-
tives that could get more people to appreciate and use archival resources. Garaba (2012, p. 7) posits that
remote access as offered by social media platforms has made it easy for archives to share information
about collections like finding aids and collection catalogs online. The United States Department of De-
fense (2016) also acknowledges the importance of metrics from Facebook by saying that the majority
of social platforms offer more data, as Facebook, as an example, offers analytics in their “insights page”
and Twitter has an “analytics” page which information is best used for guiding strategy and reporting
impact purposes.
Table 6. Effective platform
The most effective platform is our Facebook page because it is easily accessed by the public and regularly updated
Participant A
unlike Twitter.
Participant B Our Facebook page is the most active. Facebook is the most common social media platform in Botswana.
Facebook is the most effective for marketing and outreach. Our twitter page has not been operational for a while
Participant C
that’s why I have not indicated it as one of our social media platform.
Participant D Facebook is the most effective platform we use.
Participant E It has to be Facebook as it has more followers and we are more focused on it.
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The study also revealed that although the Department had Facebook and Twitter accounts, Facebook
was mostly used as the common social media platform in Botswana as is the case in most countries.
According to Kallas (2018), Facebook jumped by 70 million monthly active users from 2.13 billion in
December 2017 to 2.20 billion as of March 31, 2018. The rate of growth seems to continue at 20 mil-
lion active users per month. Masilo and Seabo (2015, p. 118) observe that during the Botswana 2014
General election, the increased use of social media, particularly Facebook in Botswana as a mobilizing
tool increased young people’s interest in politics. A study by Mpoeleng, Totolo and Jibril (2015) on the
perceptions of the usage of Web 2.0 technologies carried out among library staff of the University of
Botswana showed that library staff had adopted some Web 2.0 tools such as Facebook, however some
tools such as wikis, podcasts, Twitter, LinkedIn and blogs were not very popular. Instead of archives
being viewed as a dark storage of archival documents, materials posted on social media by BNARS ap-
pealed to the public as shown by the number of likes and shares by their followers.
The study also revealed that BNARS was able to reach out to many users remotely through social media
which works for BNARS as currently there is one central archival service in the country responsible for
archives (Ngoepe & Keakopa, 2011). Users could send messages through Facebook messenger and be
promptly assisted as revealed by this study. In agreement with this Theimer (2011, p. 61-62) has argued
that the archivists of the social media era see their primary role as facilitating rather than controlling
access whereby they use social media tools to invite user contributions and participation in describing,
commenting, and re-using collections, creating so-called collaborative archives.
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In the digital era it is imperative for archival institutions to utilize social media technologies to enhance
their public programming activities (Garaba, 2012, p. 29). This chapter has established that outreach and
public programing remains an important duty of archival institutions. Technological advances have brought
in innovative and creative ways for archival institutions to reach a wider spectrum of users (Mnjama,
2010; Ngoepe & Ngulube, 2011). To be able to fully take advantage of the benefits brought about by
social media platforms, archival institutions need to have a social media strategy or framework. Sinclair
(2012) suggest a framework for social media outreach which comprises policies to direct general activi-
ties regarding social media use in government and a plan that discusses specific media to be employed
by the archives which this chapter also proposes. Maphorisa and Jain (2013, p. 42) recommended that
BNARS design its own website to reach out to the market throughout the world through World Wide Web
platform. This study recommends the adoption and use of social media platforms by archival institutions
for marketing and outreach purposes least they become irrelevant to the wider audience which prefers
to access information online rather than physically visiting the archives.
It is recommended that archival institutions should have dedicated staff to manage social media pages
as online users require prompt and quick service. In line with this, Maphorisa and Jain (2013, p. 41)
also recommended an independent marketing and research division be established by BNARS and be
allocated the necessary resources to enable it to perform effectively. The demand of online interactions
requires that archivists be trained on these digital platforms in order to be able to deal with challenges
that come with managing information online. Franks and Smallwood (2014, p. 258) have also argued that
consistent training is crucial as social media is a moving target. The adoption and use of social media by
archival institutions for marketing and outreach purposes calls for the relevant legal and policy framework
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to avoid issues of copyright, privacy and data breaches. The situation in Botswana is exacerbated by
the fact that currently there is no access to information and data protection legislation though the right
to privacy and access information are guaranteed under the Constitution of Botswana (Government of
Botswana 1966). The Data Protection Bill was recently presented by Minister for Presidential Affairs,
Governance and Public Administration which seeks to regulate the protection of personal data and ensure
that the privacy of individuals in relation to their personal data is maintained (Mokwena, 2018). This
study recommends the adoption of social media policies for archival institutions seeking to use social
media for marketing and outreach purposes. Clear guidelines and monitoring mechanisms must be in
place to control and manage archival materials before they are published on social media platforms
(Franks & Smallwood, 2014, p. 267). The study also recommends that social media metrics should be
used by those who engage on it to inform their social media strategies.
With its fluid nature, the digital world may change overnight bringing new challenges to archival insti-
tutions adopting the use of social media platforms for outreach and public programming. Social media
strategies that may be adopted today may not necessarily work in the future. Future research opportuni-
ties may include exploring the perceptions of archivists towards the use of social media platforms in the
archival profession and archives user needs assessment studies.
CONCLUSION
The chapter discussed efforts by the Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS) in
the use of social media platforms for marketing archival services. It closely analyzed the benefits and
challenges embedded in the use of social media for marketing and outreach by an archival institution. By
examining how BNARS have applied social networking platforms for outreach purposes, other archival
institutions can determine how they may also use social media platforms to suit their outreach needs. The
chapter concludes that though the use of social media platforms by archival institutions brings challenges
to the traditional notions of archival practice, it is imperative for the archives to move with the times in
order to stay relevant to their users.
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Archival Institution: An organization that collects the records of individuals, families, or other
organizations for preservation and future access.
Archives: Records which have been preserved for their enduring value.
Facebook: Social networking site that allows users to interact with other users.
Public Programming: Consented activities designed to enable interaction between an archival
institution and its users.
Social Media: Online communications channels dedicated to community-based input, interaction,
content-sharing and collaboration.
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Social Media Platforms: Web-based technologies that enables the development, deployment and
management of social media solutions and services.
Social Networking: The use of dedicated applications and websites to interact with other users of
the same interests.
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APPENDIX: INTERVIEW GUIDE
I kindly ask you to respond to the few questions below on a study that investigates the use of social media
platforms for increased access and visibility by the Botswana National Archives and Records Services
(BNARS) by illuminating efforts to use social media for marketing archival services, analysing the
benefits and pitfalls/challenges embedded in the use of social media for marketing and outreach as well
as the resultant impact. The data is to be used for academic purposes only. If you need clarity, please
contact me at lydhoss@gmail.com
Efforts to Use Social Media for Marketing Archival Services by BNARS
1. When did the Botswana National Archives and Records Services start using social media platforms?
a. What reasons led BNARS to use social media?
b. Which social media platforms are used for marketing archival services?
c. How often do you update your social media platforms?
d. What kind of information do you share on your social media platforms?
e. Do you have staff dedicated to manage these social media platforms? How many employees
are responsible for these accounts, are they only dedicated to social media full time?
f. Do you have the requisite skills to manoeuvre social media platforms? Please explain.
Benefits of Using of Social Media for Marketing and Outreach by BNARS
2. What are the benefits gained from the use of social media for marketing archives services?
3. (Tick appropriate answer. You may tick more than one option):
a. Direct contact with archives’ users
b. Increased archives usage
c. Improvement in the archives image by the public
d. Increased attendance at various events, and
e. Other (please specify)
Challenges That Come With the Use of Social Media

for Marketing and Outreach by BNARS
4. How do you ensure that the privacy of people involved in whatever information is shared on social
media is protected?
5. How do you protect archives you have posted on your social media platforms from data theft?
6. What legal and policy framework back your use of social media?
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Assess the Impact of Social Media Platforms for

Marketing and Outreach of Archives Services
7. Do you measure your audience on social media platforms and if yes what do you use the informa-
tion for?
8. What trends in terms of participation and engagement have you observed on your social media
platforms?
9. Are your social media efforts targeted to any specific audience? Please explain
10. Which of your social media pages is most effective in marketing your services? Explain the reason
behind this.
Thank you for taking time to complete this questionnaire!
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Section 2
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Chapter 11
Customer Advocates:
The Library’s Secret Weapon
Margaret Zelman Law

University of Alberta, Canada
ABSTRACT
Libraries grow in uncertain financial, political and cultural environments. Advocacy is essential to ensure
that they get the support they need from the communities in which they operate. Advocates, those who
speak out on behalf of the library, are an essential factor in the success of the organization. This article
explores the possibilities of developing library users into advocates, based on a relationship marketing
model. It uses customer service as the primary tool for developing trusting relationships with users so
that they are willing to speak on behalf of the library. Adding the issue of reputation and advocacy as
strategic outcomes of customer service requires a different way of thinking and planning. The article
concludes with a call for more investigation in this area.
INTRODUCTION
Customers are one of the most effective and persuasive contributors of advocacy, or the promotion of
an organization, either customer to customer, or customer to decision maker (Walz & Celuch, 2010). If
regarded as an asset and nurtured, customer advocacy can become one of the most significant outcomes
of strategies to develop a high level of customer engagement. Seeing satisfied users as potential advocates
takes the model of word-of-mouth marketing and turns it into a strategic tool for the library to use to
position itself as a critical component of the community, one that needs to be supported and nourished.
Users are trusted when they speak on behalf of your library because they are seen as having no vested
interest in library support. Their jobs are not affected by the level of library funding.
Advocacy occurs in the library and information field in two distinct ways. The first is when the
library advocates on behalf of its users, for example in trying to change copyright legislation so that it
provides better access for library users (Hobbs, 2016).. The second is when the library advocates on
behalf of itself. When we talk about library advocates, we are generally referring to the second type. In
particular, library advocacy is primarily focused on securing funding or other support for libraries. For
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch011

Customer Advocates
example, advocacy was required to ensure that plans for a new school included adequate space for the
library (Henning, 2018), communicating the value of library service to online users (Albert, 2017) and
securing government funding for public libraries (Stenstrom & Haycock, 2015). Library advocates, then,
are people who speak out on behalf of libraries in order to gain support for them.
Advocacy is not new to librarians. While they have always advocated on behalf of their patrons, and
on behalf of the library, they have not always considered others who might partner with them in their
efforts. Advocacy includes finding partners who will act for you and with you, in particular to turn pas-
sive support into action, whether it is using the library, or making political or administrative decisions
in favour of the library. While there are many potential partners, library users are a group that the library
may overlook in this role. Sometimes libraries ask their users for support when there is a problem, but
this paper recommends that user word of mouth is a strong and underused resource, to be employed
constantly.
There is a considerable amount of writing in the professional library literature about advocacy, in
particular about how librarians and trustees can learn to advocate on behalf of the library. This includes
a number of case studies illustrating successful advocacy campaigns and their outcomes (e.g. Kachel,
2018). What is lacking, however, is a systematic evaluation of a focused effort to use library users as
advocates. Similarly, many libraries use social media to promote their activities and programs, but
again, these have not described the systematic use of library users in this role (e.g. Harrison, Burress,
Velasquez, & Schreiner, 2017).
The Canadian training program for library advocacy, Library Advocacy Now, suggests that there
are many groups of people who can be advocates for libraries, including “elected officials, community
leaders, students or members of the public” (CAPL, 2011). It does not, however, talk about how to turn
members of the public into advocates. This chapter takes the business literature on this subject, and uses
it to suggest a way in which this can take place.
What does it take to turn a library user into an advocate? Libraries need to replace the traditional
transactional approach with a customer relationship focus. This requires a change in organizational
culture. Customers’ needs must drive the service relationship, and interactions must move towards a
model of dialogue. Assessment of the library must move away from counting items and transactions,
toward assessing satisfaction, loyalty and retention (Roy, 2015). Loyal customers will be more likely
to continue to return to the library rather than its competitors for their information needs. Even more
importantly, they are more likely to speak out on behalf of the library, both to other potential users, and
to people who are making decisions about the future of the library.
Widespread internet access ensures that individuals are increasingly able to seek out alternatives to
traditional library service. For the library to become the preferred alternative, it can no longer develop
independently of the community. Collections, programs and services will all be influenced by library
users. The net result of this is that library users will have an ever expanding impact on the library’s brand,
its marketing activities and its information channels. By strategically working with them, libraries can
help users to develop a personalized value that they will share with others.
Libraries have traditionally asked for support from their users in times of difficulty, but few have
adopted the ongoing development of customer advocates as a strategic initiative. This paper explores
the potential for application of the business research into customer trust and advocacy in the Library
and Information Science field. It begins with a review of the current research and then proposes practi-
cal applications for libraries of all sizes. The issue of library users as advocates has been touched on
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anecdotally in the Library and Information Science literature, but requires a more focused approach,
implementation and evaluation (Green, 2017; Stanley, 2005).).
This chapter is illustrated with stories collected over an extensive career in both public and academic
libraries. They were personal communications. The sources of the stories have been kept anonymous in
accordance with the wishes of the story tellers.
BACKGROUND
As libraries and memory institutions come under increasing pressure from a changing environment, the
need for marketing and advocacy continues to grow. Who will speak for the library when the budget
sword strikes? Who will promote the library’s new services and new roles? Librarians and others con-
tinue to work hard to support and advance libraries, but are often seen as self-serving. Both advocacy
and marketing depend on a strong and passionate voice that speaks on behalf of the institution; a voice
that is seen to matter. Stakeholders are those people who are affected by a decision, and library users are
often the forgotten voice when decisions are made that affect the library and its services.
Advocacy and marketing share many of the same characteristics. They are both efforts to change
people’s minds about the organization and its activities. The intended outcomes are different: advocacy
is aimed at changing people’s minds, and is often focused on policy, legislative or financial matters.
Marketing is aimed at people’s minds in a different way, in encouraging the make use of the services
and programs offered by the institution. What makes them similar, however, is the need to share relevant
information about the organization to the target audience, the people whose minds you wish to change.
Successful promotion of the library, either through advocacy or marketing, depends largely on the
reputation of the institution. In a world dominated by ever-faster means of communication, bad news
travels fast and far. To ensure that it does not weigh heavily on decision makers, libraries need to ensure
that good news travels faster and farther. Voices raised on behalf on the library build a strong belief that
the library is an important component of communities, whether it is an academic library in a university
or college, or a public library in a neighbourhood or town. Those voices convince stakeholders that the
library matters, not just to the people who work there, but to everyone.
A reputation is defined as “interconnected impressions shared and expressed by a high proportion
of members of a defined social network” (Wong & Boh, 2010). In other words, what do members of
your community think about the library? Prominence is an important measure of reputation; the more
members of your community who know about you, the more prominent your reputation. The benefit
of prominence, however, relies on a favourable reputation, which is a reflection of the ratio of positive
to negative evaluations. Clearly, you want there to be considerably more positive evaluations (Wong &
Boh, 2010).
Reputations are built on information. Sociological models of reputation focus on the role that third
parties play in providing that information. Library users, in this case, are the third parties who tell others
about the library and convey both positive and negative information that creates the reputation. Reputa-
tions are difficult to change. According to management guru Warren Buffet, “It takes 20 years to build
a reputation and five minutes to ruin it” (Brown, 2015). Reputation has been shown to have a decisive
influence on whether an organization is supported, and so it becomes a cornerstone in developing both
marketing and advocacy strategies (Wiencierz, Pöppel, & Röttger, 2015).
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Managing a positive reputation is necessary, but not sufficient. The other factor is the one of promi-
nence; do the people who need to know about your organization actually know about it. One of the most
frustrating stories that I have heard was from a politician who was partially responsible for funding for
public libraries:
I love public libraries. When I was young my grandmother used to take me there for story time and I
loved the picture books and the activities. Of course, I don’t go to the library anymore, because I don’t
have time for reading. But I’m sure that it’s still a busy place, for people with kids, and for old people,
and people like that.
Statements like that are common, as well as threatening to the future of libraries. Clearly, this is a
decision maker who is not aware of the role of the library in a networked, technological environment.
While it reflects the library in a positive manner, it is incorrect about the services that the library actu-
ally offers. It should be a concern that funding decisions could be made on the basis of that reputation.
This underlines the concept that the best results are achieved when the library’s reputation is prominent,
positive and accurate.
THE ROLE OF A STRONG RELATIONSHIP
A strong relationship with library users sets the stage for engaging them with efforts to communicate the
library’s reputation through informing others, or putting pressure on decision makers. Thus one of the
goals of the library should be to gain the attention of its users and manage the relationship with them in
such a way that they become the voice of the library (Wiencierz, Pöppel, & Röttger, 2015). Users form
their impressions of the library through its relationship with them, in particular the library’s ability and
willingness to meet their expectations.
In many ways, our users can be better advocates for the library than either library staff or board mem-
bers. Although there is an increased emphasis on advocacy and marketing as competences for librarians,
they will never be seen as being as trustworthy as library users when speaking about the importance of
the library. Many libraries are concerned with the accuracy of information that is shared by users, and
feel more confident when they, themselves, are the spokespersons for the library.
A senior administrator in a university, however, expressed the following idea:
When librarians come to me to tell me how important the library is to the university, I tend to think that
of course they think that…they’re librarians after all. They don’t really convince me that others in the
university care about the library and I sometimes wonder whether the purpose of the library is to keep
librarians happy. What I really want to know is what difference does it make to students?
The research tends to support the power of information that comes from a third party, in this case
students. Positive information about an organization communicated by a third part is more trusted than
information directly from the organization (Wong & Boh, 2010). This may be because this information
is not interpreted as being self-serving or intended to be manipulative. There is sense that someone who
is not connected with the organization will be willing to share both positive and negative impressions.
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Balanced comments, including both positives and negatives, have more beneficial impact on reputation
than only positive comments (Wiencierz, Pöppel, & Röttger, 2015).
Marketing research indicates that consumers are increasingly looking to their peers for information
about products and services, preferring to hear first-hand from actual users. This means that organiza-
tions must become more creative at ensuring both that their customers are happy, and that they are able
to somehow encourage those satisfied customers to share with others (Lee, 2014)
One of the considerations when thinking about library users as voices for the library, is that the orga-
nization then benefits from their entire network of connections, which spreads far more deeply into the
community than the library is able to reach on its own. Library users spread their view of the library’s
reputation to their contacts, and then that entire network continues to spread the library’s reputation
throughout the community.
Social Influence
Social influence theory (Kelman, 1958) helps to explain the power of information from friends and peers
in shaping people’s judgements. The central idea of this theory is that a person’s actions and behaviour
are influenced by their friends through three processes: compliance, identification and internalization.
Essentially, if you hear someone you trust speaking positively about the library or any other service,
you are inclined to agree with them to gain acceptance. When this goes a step further and you alter your
behaviour, perhaps through using the library or supporting it, you are in the identification stage. Social
influence is said to be complete when you adopt different behaviour and accept that it is aligned with
your own values. This is a far stronger influence for changing behaviour than the intellectual change
brought about by hearing from the organization itself about why you should use it or support it.
If we want our users to speak for the library and to persuade others, we must consider how to ensure
that the message and the behaviour that results are positive to the library. The willingness of a third party,
in this case the library user, to trust an organization and to speak positive about it is strongly related to
the degree of trustworthiness that the user experiences. This is a direct reflection of the amount of either
instrumental or social support that the user has experienced from the organization. Instrumental support
is demonstrated through services and programs; were these useful and did they meet the user’s needs?
Social support refers to how the user was treated? Did they feel like just another customer, or did they
experience a personal connection or relationship? Both of these factors are important as they contribute
to feelings of trust leading to a desire to support the library and act on its behalf.
Trust
What exactly is trust? It is the result of an evaluation of the actions of an organization, and a willingness
to rely on that organization. It develops over time from a sense of confidence that the organization is
both dependable and helpful and is one of the key antecedents of an enduring relationship (Fullerton,
2011) between any organization and its stakeholders. The likelihood of positive word of mouth signifi-
cantly increases when an organization is trusted. This is particularly important for service organizations
like libraries because the nature of the service is personal, and therefore involves a level of relationship
between the organization and the user. A significant link has been established between the perception
of trustworthiness and the intention to act on behalf of the organization, suggesting that trustworthiness
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needs to be one of the strategic goals of any service or communication strategy (Wiencierz, Pöppel, &
Röttger, 2015).
Trust leads to a sense of affective commitment to the organization, that is, the sense of identification
with and positive attachment to the organization and an intention to continue the relationship (Fullerton,
2011). This sense of commitment leads the individual to maintain or improve the existing relationship, and
to take pride in being affiliated with it. It is the psychological state that prompts an individual to express
their positive feelings about the organization to their peers. Saying good things about the organization
is one practical way in which individuals become more invested in the relationship.
How do we ensure that our users are the voice for the library? Libraries have the opportunity to turn
their users into advocates by providing exceptional customer service. This requires that all staff mem-
bers understand the important role that their interactions with users play and how it affects the future
of the library. They must appreciate that the ripples of their service go far beyond the transaction with
a particular customer, and have a far greater effect than just one happy (or unhappy) experience. For
users to commit to the library in a way that they are willing to speak on behalf of the library, the focus
must move away from the single interaction to the recognizing that each interaction is a step towards
developing relationships with users that continue to increase in depth and breadth (White & Schneider,
2000). The focus of these relationships is to move intermittent users to becoming regular users, and
then help them to become strong supporters of the library and eventually vocal advocates on its behalf.
Customer Service
Virtually all libraries have some level of customer service training, and there is a significant amount
of literature describing customer service programs. In many of the articles there is a focus on meeting
user needs through new approaches, but they lack the final step recommended in this chapter, of try-
ing to turn satisfied users into advocates for the library. A study of library user loyalty stated that, “we
found no instruments for measuring the loyalty of library users, and no studies in which this has been
investigated in a public library context” (Te-Shyang, Tung-Liang, & Pao Hui, 2017). This chapter, then,
suggests using the existing customer service focus as a basis for systematically creating loyal users, and
turning them into advocates for the library.
While many libraries express user focus as a value, it is useful to examine what that would mean if
the user experience was central to each part of the organization. Examination of the organization may
reveal areas that fail to meet factors that increase the power of customers: increased access to information,
increased choice, simplified transactions, increased communications and increased trust (Urban, 2005). In
addition to assessing customer satisfaction, libraries need to evaluate measures such as customer loyalty.
Since the cornerstone of the relationship between the library and its users is customer service, im-
proving the service relationship is the starting place for developing a reputation for trustworthiness.
Marketing or advocacy that depends on the influence of users must remember that there are long term
implications from every interaction. Genuine enthusiasm and support from users arises from these
frontline activities. Excellence in public service can be summarized in two points: deliver what you
promise, and promptly fix what goes wrong (Lee, 2013). Reliability is the basis for this service model,
but it represents a bare minimum for retaining customers. When customer complaints are addressed
satisfactorily, evidence suggests that they are more likely to engage in positive word-of-mouth than if
they had no complaint (White & Schneider, 2006). Empathy, the ability to make each library user feel
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that they are valued as individuals, has an even great impact on the likelihood that the user will speak
out in favour of the organization.
Customer service in a library has four main characteristics, and each of these becomes a component of
designing, delivering and evaluating excellence. It is intangible, it is produced and consumed at the same
time, the customer is integrated in the service transaction, and specific leadership skills are required to
produce the service. How can libraries work with their customers to co-create positive experiences? This
requires a shift from the current vision of libraries as service providers, to a new paradigm of working
with customers to develop and implement the services valued by them. When compared with trying to
attract new customers or shift attitudes of non-library supporters, effort expended on delighting existing
customers so that library can take advantage of positive word-of-mouth promotion will be more effec-
tive. Word-of-mouth has been shown to be particularly influential in industries such as libraries where
the service is intangible and can’t be tried on or examined before it occurs
A service interaction is both dyadic and reciprocal. One person begins the interaction, which leads
to a response by the other, followed by a further response from the first individual. Therefore both the
staff member and the library user have an impact on the quality of the interaction. It is tempting to say
that the library staff can only control one half of the interaction, but research on “emotional contagion”
points out that the emotions of one participant result in a corresponding mirroring by the other (Hwee
Hoon, Maw Der, & Min Hui, 2004). This means that it is doubly important that the positive emotional
tone of the interaction is maintained by the staff member.
Unlike manufacturing or retail, where the customer carries a product away, after a service interac-
tion, all that the customer carries away is their interpretation of what happened. This interpretation is
often linked to principles of justice: were fair procedures followed, was I treated respectfully, was I
given sufficient information and did I get what I wanted? Typically, libraries focus a great deal on the
procedures and on providing the information requested, while sometimes paying less information on the
interpersonal and informational aspects of the assessment.
SOLUTIONS
There are many sources for information about customer training excellence, but there are a few points that
are critical for turning your users into your voice for marketing and advocacy. These may be summarized
as: a user focus, the emotional component of service, relationship building and reputation maintenance.
User Focus
Focus on what your user wants, and not what the library or the librarian thinks they should have. This
can be difficult, because librarians often focus on what is best, when sometimes users want what is
enough. A student told me this story:
I had one evening to finish my paper. My instructor had asked us to find three articles and really, I just
needed to get the paper finished. I had trouble finding the articles and went to the desk for help. The
librarian seemed reluctant to just point me to three papers. He insisted on showing me how to find them
myself, and how to assess them to make sure that they were the best papers. While I know he was just
trying to do his job, I was tired and just wanted to get done. Finally I walked away.
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This is a user who is not likely to go out and talk about how great the library is…and the library
missed a chance to turn her into a voice for the library. Sometimes our enthusiasm for showing everyone
what we know overrides our customer’s assessment of excellence in public service.
This is an area where libraries continue to focus their efforts. It can be challenging as different groups
of users want different kinds of service. Ongoing assessment of service quality can highlight areas where
there is a gap, for example, “housekeeping matters, that is, prompt re-shelving, placement of items in
their proper location, are often regarded by librarians as “low level or nonprofessional duties,” but library
users regard them as extremely important” (Ho, & Crowley, 2003).
To make this practical, whenever a library gets a compliment about service, it should ask the user if
they would be willing to share their story more widely. Some libraries have done this by having users
speak at budget presentations, or at other events where the library is presenting a request. In Canada, it
is common to ask library users to attend election forums where candidates are invited to speak, and ask
questions of the candidates about their support for libraries.
The Emotional Component of Service
The emotional component of the interaction is as important as the intellectual component. Making a
library user feel welcomed is a part of the service being offered (Shuler, & Morgan, 2013). In spite of this,
most organizations place far more focus on the intellectual or skills part of customer training, contribut-
ing to a myth of rationality. In fact, since experiences are simultaneously understood both intellectually
and emotionally, it is critical to focus equally on both factors. While many libraries have increased their
training on interpersonal skills, this needs to be backed up with goal setting and appraisal for it to be
treated seriously. Additionally, managers must model the desired behaviour, since staff members will
follow the modelled behaviour ahead of the rhetoric.
Everyone recognizes that there are library users who present more challenges than others, and training
often focuses on these “difficult patrons”. Staff members are often reminded that the goal of the library
is to provide equitable service to everyone. They are generally not even aware of the issue of reputation,
and how the library user is going to describe the library to friends. This additional awareness should
become part of the training program.
On a practical level, providing staff members with the opportunity to learn and practice new emotional
skills as well as intellectual skills will provide a more consistent level of service, particularly with users
who are more challenging. For example, training in emotional intelligence is a useful introduction to
considering the emotional aspects of interactions.
Relationship Building
Management needs to recognize and address the issues surrounding relationship building. Emotional
labour describes the effort required to consistently manage one’s emotions, something that is a critical
factor in managing the emotional component of every interaction (Shuler, & Morgan, 2013). Inconsistent
emotional reactions are a problem for managers who need to maintain high service quality levels within
their organizations. Although staff members are trained to be consistently pleasant to all customers their
emotional responses vary. One of the factors that seems to be missing from training is awareness of each
individuals’ responses to particular traits exhibited by customers’ traits. This suggests a need for training
that extends beyond being simply agreeable (Hwee Hoon, Maw Der, & Min Hui, 2004).
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Customer Advocates
For example, training in effective listening can result in staff members who are able to build the self-
esteem of library users as it makes people feel supported and valued. By demonstrating that the staff
member is genuinely interested in what the other person is thinking or feeling, they are able to develop
a deeper relationship between the user and the library.
Reputation Maintenance
Building a positive reputation must be one of the goals of customer service. Psychological research has
demonstrated that “thin slices of behavior,” encounters as short as 30 seconds, can accurately predict
important outcomes such as attitudes or behavioural intentions. A high level of agreeableness increases
the likelihood that the customer will experience a positive service encounter, leading to a positive in-
crease in the library’s reputation.
After establishing a positive reputation for trustworthiness and service, how does the library gain
from using users as a positive voice supporting the organization? The first step is to determine whether
the customer is willing to give a recommendation and praise on behalf of the library. Many writers argue
that this is an important part of evaluation of any service…not just “did it meet your expectations?”, but
“would you be willing to recommend our service to friends and colleagues?” This has been proposed
as a much stronger indicator of loyalty, as enthusiastic endorsement only results from strong feelings
about the organization. A user might be willing to come back for a number of reasons, such as the lack of
alternatives, but not comfortable making a recommendation to people they care about (Fullerton, 2011).
The effects of a high level of affective commitment to an organization have been demonstrated to
be uniformly positive. Customers who have a strong level of attachment based on trust and satisfaction
are happy to speak on behalf of the organization and be strong advocates. This is distinctly different
behaviour from customers who continue to use the library because they have to (continuance commit-
ment). Strategies to ensure customer satisfaction and trust will contribute to the success of the library.
Managers have to accept that it is not only cognitive behaviour that creates good relationships, and it
is not only a result of high quality services. The emotional component places a strong role in fostering
the deep-rooted attachment that is a pre-requisite of customers acting as advocates (Fullerton, 2011).
Find a starting point for users to speak on behalf of the library. The simplest method is for the library
to share their stories. One story about how the library improved someone’s life is much more compelling
that a lot of information about how wonderful the library is. Promoting the achievements of the library
users with a focus on how the library added to that success makes a stronger case for library support than
numbers or facts (Lee, 2013). This effect is multiplied by having library users tell the story for themselves.
One of the areas in which libraries can improve this process is by being transparent and open about
their operations, and sharing information consistently with their users. Libraries need to share their vision
about what a thriving library would look like in this particular community. Library users are often not
aware of the possibilities of library service, or of the costs of providing services (McClure, Feldman &
Ryan, 2006). Many library staff members are not very clear about how libraries are regulated or funded,
and consequently, most library users have even less information. After a council meeting, a participant
shared this story:
I didn’t even know that the library was funded out of tax dollars, in fact, to be honest, I never thought about
how the library was paid for, even though I use it all the time. If I had known, I would have been much
more vocal in the discussion about taxes, and in particular how they are allocated to different services.
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Customer Advocates
Educating users about the library can go a long way to supporting ongoing and successful advocacy.
Users then become not only stakeholders but key participants in being involved in the success of the
library by acting as the voice of the library, and advancing and upholding its reputation. Users need to
understand the library’s vision and how it contributes to the community, so that they use their relation-
ships to spread the library’s story.
When evaluating services, go beyond the typical questions about satisfaction, and ask users how
likely they are to recommend the service to a colleague or friend. Ask them if you can share their stories
(Blasberg, Vishwanath, & Allen, 2008). Focus on making sure that the relationship meets the emotional
needs of the library user as well as their cognitive needs, remembering that you are trying to foster the
kind of relationship that they will want to enhance. Likeability has a significant impact on the relation-
ship, over and above being competent (Schloderer, Sarstedt, & Ringle, 2014).
Customer advocacy can take many forms. Community marketing includes referrals to friends and
colleagues, customer blogging either on their own site or on the library’s, participating in communities
or associations or speaking on behalf of the library (Lee, 2013). The library can provide their users with
opportunities for personal or professional development, which can be met though speaking opportunities,
media interviews, and letters to the editor or other demonstrations of thought leadership (Lee, 2013).
Inviting users to meet and greet events that include decision makers can provide the opportunity for them
to interact, and for funders to hear first-hand the impact of their decisions.
With the penetration of the Internet and social media into all parts of society, positive word-of-mouth
marketing and advocacy is a source of untapped potential. The effect of advocacy behaviour will continue
to increase alongside virtually unlimited access to storing, sharing and retrieving information about an
organization. To take advantage of this, however, requires that the organization be proactive in its efforts
to encourage word-of-mouth behaviour.
How will you assess whether efforts to increase advocacy through word-or-mouth are successful?
This is where numbers and data are useful. For any change in customer service strategies, the library
must also look for a positive change in the base of support among members of their community. This
measure could consider the breadth, depth or level of influence of the support, and the inclusion of
interest groups or opinion leaders as advocates for the library. Any positive media attention, or activism
among library users, should be assessed for links to changes in customer service (Reisman, Gienapp,
& Stachowiak, n.d.).
This chapter is based on research in the behavioural sciences and in marketing, as it would be applied in
a Library and Information environment. What is lacking is investigation of the applications of this work
in libraries, museums or other similar organizations. There is a considerable body of work for Librarians
on how to undertake advocacy on behalf of the library, but while it speaks of developing relationships for
advocacy (McClure, Feldman & Ryan, 2006), these are rarely focused on library users. For example, the
Canadian training manual, Library Advocacy Now! refers to the “critical role of trustees” and the “role
of librarians and library staff”, but completely ignores the potential role of library users in its introduc-
tion (Canadian Association of Public \libraries, 2011). While the work is clearly directed at trustees and
library staff, it does not include the role that staff can play in mobilizing users on their behalf.
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Customer Advocates
The how-to literature for libraries is very rich, and provides tools, training and planning support for
developing and implementing an advocacy program. Many of the case studies do refer to the support
offered by users, but the literature support a deliberate strategy to use customer service to grow a voice
for the library is scant.
While improving customer service and improving the library’s reputation is always beneficial, the
challenge of adding the question of reputation development and maintenance and deliberately developing
user advocates is still ahead of us. Working within the community, and improving advocacy, will not
guarantee the future of libraries. There are many other factors, but research from the world of business
suggests that customer advocates can be key components in the success of an organization.
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219
Chapter 12
Advocating for Library and
Information Services by
National Library Associations
of Africa in the Context of
Sustainable Development Goals
Josiline Phiri Chigwada
Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe
Rosemary Maturure
Solusi University, Zimbabwe
ABSTRACT
The chapter documents the role that is played by national library associations in advocating for the
development of library and information services for the attainment of the United Nations (UN) 2030
Agenda in Africa. A structured records review and literature review was done to solicit information
on how national library associations are taking part in achieving the sustainable development goals.
Websites of associations were looked at and participants were drawn from national library associa-
tions in Africa, Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa Library and Information
Associations (SCECSAL), African Library and Information Association and Institution (AfLIA), and
the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA). The results indicated that national library
associations are facing challenges in their advocacy work and there is a need to offer training to library
staff and improve communication between librarians and policymakers.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch012

Advocating for Library and Information Services by National Library Associations of Africa
INTRODUCTION
The adoption of the UN 2030 agenda in September 2015 positioned the library to work with the govern-
ment in the national development programmes. Libraries have a mandate to show that they are partners
in the drive towards the achievement of these goals. In order to achieve these goals, libraries in Africa
must communicate with the government leaders on how they can partner to advance national develop-
ment priorities. Advocacy is therefore needed so that libraries can be recognised as cost effective partners
and as engines of local development. This would assist libraries to get the resources that are needed to
operate in an economically challenged environment.
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 16 recognises the importance of access to information. Target
16.10 points out on ensuring public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms in ac-
cordance with national legislation and international agreements. Therefore, advocacy at national level
would ensure the recognition and commitment to support the access to information in libraries as they
work towards the attainment of the SDGs. There is need to look at the SDGs and see how libraries can
contribute towards the achievement of those goals. It is against this background that the authors sought
to study and document how national library associations in Africa are advocating for library services to
achieve the SDGs. The objectives that were addressed by this chapter are:
1. To identify the role of African national library associations in achieving the sustainable develop-
ment goals.
2. To identify the strategies used by African national library associations in advocating for library
services in their countries.
3. To assess the challenges being faced by African national library associations in advocating for
library services in their countries.
The rest of the chapter is organised into Library and Information Services in Africa, UN 2030 agenda,
advocating for Library and Information Science (LIS), library associations, AfLIA, the International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), libraries and UN 2030 agenda, strategies
for advocating for library and information services, challenges faced in advocating for library services
and some areas for further research are suggested.
LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SERVICES (LIS) IN AFRICA
Libraries can be divided into academic or university, school, public, special, or national (Made, 2000).
Mayer (2002) added that there are community libraries as well and these were regarded as part of the
public library by Made (2000) which is there to serve the needs of individuals, groups and organisations
in a certain area. According to Dent (2014) the distinction between different types of libraries is often
based on governance, affiliation and funding. Libraries in Africa provide information in order to educate,
inform, entertain, recreate, and enlighten the users as pointed out by Nwokocha and Chimah (2016).
Dent, Goodman and Kevane (2013) noted that libraries play an important role in the dissemination of
knowledge. Community library and information services play an important role in the rural areas by
empowering the rural community members in as far as their basic needs are concerned as pointed out
by Mayer (2002). Community libraries can also be regarded as community information centres and their
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major role is to uplift the living standard of the community with “timely educational, informational,
recreational and cultural information, documents or resources” (Mokgaboki, 2002, p. 78). Kernicky
(2006) believed that “the rural information centres provide the community with relevant, timely and
current information” (p. 31). Community library and information services play an important role in the
rural areas by empowering the rural community members in as far as their basic needs are concerned
(Mayer, 2002).
However, it had been noted that libraries in Africa are crippled by the challenges of budget cuts, in-
creased user base, information explosion, rising costs, competition from database producers/vendors and
complexity in user information requirements, wants and needs (Edewor, Okite-Amughoro, Osuchukwu,
& Egreajena, 2016; Madhusudhan, 2008). There is need to ensure that those challenges are dealt with in
order to achieve the sustainable development goals since libraries are partners in national development.
UN 2030 AGENDA
World leaders at the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Summit (25 - 27 September 2015)
adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
(Council of Europe, 2018). The SDGs are also known as “Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development” or 2030 Agenda in short. They are also regarded as the Global Goals for
Sustainable Development and the goals were developed to replace the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) which ended in 2015. It is an ambitious plan that took effect 1 January 2016 to end poverty by
2030 and universally promote shared economic prosperity, social development and environmental protec-
tion. The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is a framework of 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) spanning economic, environmental and social development. SDG stories demonstrate
how libraries and access to information contribute to improved outcomes across all SDGs (European
Commission, 2017). The United Nations (UN, 2018) indicated that the achievement of the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals will require all hands-on deck. It
will require different sectors and actors working together in an integrated manner by pooling financial
resources, knowledge and expertise. Since 2012, the International Federation of Library Associations
and Institutions (IFLA) has been actively engaged with initiatives that led to the adoption of the 2030
Agenda. IFLA, the global voice of the library and information profession, calls on library associations,
libraries and librarians to further development and provides resources to promote this effort. In 2016
- 17, the “Libraries for Peace” Initiative invited librarians and libraries to advance the UN Sustainable
Development Goals to build a peaceful and sustainable world.
ADVOCATING FOR LIS
Advocacy is planned, deliberate, sustained effort to develop understanding and the active support of an
idea through strategies and methods’ that influence the opinions and decision of people and organization
(Buckley, 2009). It is regarded as a tool for improving service delivery (Myenzi, 2008). A study that
was done by Stenstrom and Haycock (2015) indicated that the advocacy tools that can be used include
building strong relationships and networks with those who are involved in decision making especially
concerning funding. The authors noted that in most cases those who advocate for services would be
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doing so as a reaction to a decrease in financial support. Sewell (2016) indicated that in public libraries,
advocacy helps to improve funding and to ensure that the collection is up-to-date. A successful advocacy
campaign can be done to cultivate leadership and this can be done through the involvement of the com-
munity and all the stakeholders. It has been noted by Madhusudhan (2008) and Edewor et al., (2016)
that library advocacy is important to ensure the following:
• Promotion of the use of information resources

• Create perception of need and thereby create demand
• Ensure the optimum use of information
• Improve the image and status of the libraries and library profession
• Tackle the problems of rising costs of reading materials, journals and databases
• Cope with the information explosion
• Introduce cutting edge information technology systems in library services
• Balance shrinking funds
• Save libraries from devaluation
• Save libraries from declining reader support
• Uphold the dictum that information is power
LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS
The Encyclopaedia of Communication and Information (2002) defined a library association as organ-
ised groups consisting of individuals and institutions that share interests in libraries and librarianship.
These are under charters that are approved by state or national governments. Library associations deal
with the standards in terms of service delivery; support of professional principles and ethics related
to information access and intellectual freedom; accreditation of library programmes; and certification
of professional personnel in library and information science. The encyclopaedia also added that there
are many associations at national, regional and international level worldwide. In Africa, as at 9 March
2018 (AfLIA Secretariat, 2018), there were 54 national library associations that served the interests
of library and information professionals. These national associations work in collaboration with the
African Library and Information Associations and Institutions (AfLIA) at a continental level and the
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) at a global level in advocating
for library services to meet the SDGs. There are regional library associations as well and in Africa, the
Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern African Library and Information Associations
(SCECSAL), the African Library and Information Associations and Institutions (AfLIA) represents
library and information centres in the region. The International Federation of Library Associations
and Institutions (IFLA) represent librarians and information professionals worldwide. There are many
international associations that are related to special library interests and these are the International As-
sociation of School Librarianship (IASL), the International Association of Law Libraries (IALL), the
International Association of Agricultural Information Specialists (IAALD), and the International As-
sociation of Technological University Libraries (IATUL).
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STANDING CONFERENCE OF EASTERN, CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN

AFRICAN LIBRARY AND INFORMATION ASSOCIATIONS (SCECSAL)
SCECSAL is a regional forum for library and information associations in Central, Eastern and Southern
Africa. According to the website (SCECSAL, 2018), membership to SCECSAL is open to national library
and information associations from Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Congo Republic, Democratic Repub-
lic of Congo, Djibouti, Eritrea, eSwatini, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania,
Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. SCECSAL works in collaboration with AfLIA and IFLA in advocating
for library and information services in Africa. As part of its advocacy campaign, conferences are held in
member countries after every two years and influential people are invited to be the guest of honour on
such events to pass the message on the importance of libraries in contributing to the implementation of
SDGs. The recent SCECSAL was held in Uganda and in 2020 it would be held in Namibia.
AFRICAN LIBRARY AND INFORMATION

ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS (AfLIA)
AfLIA is a not for profit organisation which pursue the interests of library and information associations,
library and information services, librarians and information workers and the communities they serve in
Africa (AfLIA, 2018a). It was established in 2013 and was registered as an international non-governmental
organisation (NGO) under the laws of Ghana in 2014 (AfLIA, 2018a). A presentation was done by Dr
Helena Asamoah-Hassan in South Africa at the first African Library Summit in May, 2011 (Mbambo-
Thata, Raubenheimer, J, and Linde, 2011). The presentation led to the formation of the African Library
Association that provides a platform for discussing issues pertaining to the library and information
sector in Africa. Its main duty is to advocate for favourable library policies to be included in national
development policies. AfLIA is currently playing a leading role in working with African librarians to
empower the library and information community to actively promote the development agenda through
dynamic services that transform livelihoods to meet the aims of the UN 2030 and AU 2063 Agenda.
Currently, it is working with libraries and National Library Associations in Africa; Governments and
Government Agencies responsible for Libraries in Africa; African Regional and Economic Bodies and
African Union (AU) and United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA); Global Partners
and related organisations. Therefore, it is regarded as the voice of libraries and the Information Profes-
sion in Africa. The motherboard of all the library associations is IFLA.
AfLIA held its 3rd African Public Libraries Summit on 3-4 July 2018 at the International Conference
Centre in Durban. South Africa. The theme of the summit was “driving development: African public
libraries delivering the development agenda”. The summit brought together public library leadership
and librarians, government officials and other informational professionals and stakeholders from across
Africa. This was in line with its objectives of advocating for library and information services by promoting
library and information centres as vital institutions that enhance people’s lives through equitable access
to knowledge, information, and innovative services. By including the government officials, it helped
to put the library and information profession on the national and continental agendas (AfLIA, 2018b).
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THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF LIBRARY

ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS (IFLA)
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) is the leading interna-
tional body representing the interests of library and information services and their users. It is the global
voice of the library and information profession (IFLA, 2018a). IFLA is an independent, international,
non-governmental, and not-for-profit organization which works with libraries and library associations
at national, regional and international level to advocate for library and information services to meet the
SDGs. The aims of IFLA are to promote high standards of provision and delivery of library and infor-
mation services; to encourage widespread understanding of the value of good library & information
services; and to represent the interests of its members throughout the world (IFLA, 2018a). It has vari-
ous services and programmes that advocate for library services towards the achievement of SDGs. One
of the programmes is the International advocacy programme (IAP) which was developed in 2016 as a
capacity-building programme designed to promote and support the role libraries can play in the planning
and implementation of the UN 2030 Agenda and the SDGs (IFLA, 2018b). IFLA’s consistent position
is that access to information is essential in achieving the SDGs, and that libraries are not only key part-
ners for governments but are already contributing to progress towards the achievement of the 17 Goals.
IFLA also launched a new toolkit (IFLA, 2016) which would help national associations to advocate
for library services to national and regional policy makers to ensure that libraries and access to informa-
tion are included as part of national and regional development plans that play a role in meeting the 2030
agenda. The toolkit was revised in August 2017 and is available on the IFLA website (IFLA, 2017).
Garcia-Febo (2016) indicated that as these plans are developed, the library community in each country
should communicate with government leaders on how libraries serve as cost-effective partners for ad-
vancing their development priorities. As a result, national library associations would be part of crafting
of the national development plans. This would put the library and information service at an advocacy
role which is essential in securing recognition and pointing out the role they play in local development.
In turn, the libraries would then receive the resources that are needed to ensure that access to informa-
tion is made possible. The toolkit helps to:
1. Understand the UN 2030 Agenda process, and IFLA’s advocacy

2. Understand how the UN 2030 Agenda will be implemented at the national level
3. Organise meetings with policymakers to demonstrate the contribution libraries and access to in-
formation make to national development, and across the SDGs
4. Monitor the UN 2030 Agenda and implementation of the SDGs
5. Tell library users about the SDGs
In view of the above, the toolkit is important to ensure that all the people know about the SDGs and
this can be accomplished by librarians who have a role in ensuring that everyone who visits the library
is aware of the goals.
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LIBRARIES AND UN 2030 AGENDA
Around the world, public access to information enables people to make informed decisions that can im-
prove their lives. IFLA (2014) added that “communities that have access to timely and relevant informa-
tion for all are better positioned to eradicate poverty and inequality, improve agriculture, provide quality
education, and support people’s health, culture, research, and innovation”. national library associations
are using various strategies to advocate for library and information services within their countries and
some had already made notable strides in contributing to the 2030 agenda. According to IFLA (2015)
library services had been contributing to improved outcomes across the SDGs by:
• Promoting universal literacy, including media and information literacy

• Closing gaps in access to information and helping government, civil society, and business to better
understand local information needs
• Providing a network of delivery sites for government programmes and services
• Advancing digital inclusion through access to ICT, and dedicated staff to help people develop new
digital skills
• Serving as the heart of the research and academic community
• Preserving and providing access to the world’s culture and heritage
In addition to the above, libraries are proven, cost-effective partners for advancing development
priorities and in many countries there are designated libraries which act as UN depositories which hold
information on the SDGs. Libraries are already supporting progress toward specific SDGs including
by promoting lifelong learning opportunities which is goal 4 of the SDGs. The library has become a
provider of knowledge, developing its collections, holding consultations on higher education, helping
children to do their homework and integrating library activities into the local educational network. Ac-
cording to IFLA (2013) in Botswana, public libraries have taken large strides toward supporting the
government’s objectives under its National Vision 2016, including introducing ICT access, improving
the computer skills of library users, and enabling users to be successful in business, education, and em-
ployment. In Uganda libraries have been empowering women and girls as a contribution towards goal 5.
The National Library of Uganda has provided ICT training specifically designed for female farmers so
that they can access weather forecasts, crop prices, and support to set up online markets, in their local
languages (Beyond access, 2012). Some of the ways which are used by libraries to support community
development are providing comfortable, inclusive, safe and neutral space to all groups of the population
(SDG 11), helping the community to identify members in social and physical need in order to help them
and include them in public life; promoting a peaceful society for sustainable development (SDG 16)
whereby libraries are used as places for meeting, talking and trying to address issues that might affect
community development. The information that was extracted from IFLA (2018b) indicated that libraries
play a major role in meeting the SDGs as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that libraries have an important role in the achievement of national development plans
and meeting the SDGs. Societies are now in the knowledge era access to information is crucial in imple-
menting national goals. Lack of access to information can negatively affect the development of Africa.
National library associations should therefore advocate for the development of library and information
services to ensure that information is accessible. The voice of librarians should be heard by using the
225
Table 1. Role of the libraries in meeting the SDGs
226
Goal Role of Libraries
• Provide public access to information and resources that give people opportunities to improve their lives.
Goal 1: No poverty - End poverty in all its forms
• Provide training in new skills needed for education and employment.
everywhere.
• Provide information to support decision-making by governments, civil society, and business to combat poverty.
• Provide agricultural research and data on how to be more productive and sustainable.
Goal 2: Zero hunger - End hunger, achieve food
• Libraries provide people with access to research and data on crops, market information and farming methods that supports
security and improved nutrition and promote
resilient, productive agriculture.
sustainable agriculture.
• Provide public access for farmers to online resources like local market prices, weather reports, and new equipment.
• Provide research available in medical and hospital libraries that supports education and improves medical practice for health care
Goal 3: Good health and well-being - Ensure healthy
providers.
lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
• Provide public access to health and wellness information in public libraries that help individuals and families stay health.
• Libraries are at the heart of schools, universities and colleges in every country around the world.
• Libraries support literacy programmes and provide a safe space for learning for people of all ages.
Goal 4: Quality education - Ensure inclusive and
• Provide dedicated staff that supports early literacy and lifelong learning.
equitable quality education and promote lifelong
• Provide access to information and research for students everywhere.
learning opportunities for all.
• Libraries support researchers to reuse research and data to create new knowledge.
• Provide inclusive spaces where cost is not a barrier to new knowledge and skills.
• Provide safe and welcoming meeting spaces.
Goal 5: Gender equality - Achieve gender equality and
• Provide programmes and services designed to meet the needs of women and girls, like rights and health.
empower all women and girls.
• Provide access to information and ICT that helps women build business skills.
Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation - Ensure availability
and sustainable management of water and sanitation • Libraries provide public access to information on water and sanitation.
for all. • Provide access to quality information and good practices that support local water management and sanitation projects.
Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy - Ensure access • In some cases, libraries play a central role in bringing safe drinking water to the entire community.
to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy • Provide free and reliable access to electricity and light to read, study and work.
for all.
Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth – Promote
sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, • Provide widespread existing infrastructure of public and research libraries and skilled library professionals who can help people
full and productive employment and decent work for with information to find the right job, complete online applications, and write support materials.
all. • Provide welcoming and inclusive public spaces
Goal 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure - • Provide access to ICT like high-speed internet that may not be available anywhere else.
Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and • Provide training to enable people to become more entrepreneurial.
sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.
• Libraries help to reduce inequalities by providing safe, civic spaces open to all and located in urban and rural areas across the
world.
Goal 10: Reduced Inequalities - Reduce inequality
• Provide neutral and welcoming spaces that make learning accessible to all, including marginalised groups like migrants,
within and among countries.
refugees, minorities, indigenous peoples, and persons with disabilities.
• Provide equitable access to information that supports social, political, and economic inclusion.

continued on following page

Table 1. Continued
Goal Role of Libraries

• Libraries have an essential role in safeguarding and preserving invaluable documentary heritage, in any form, for future
Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities - Make generations.
cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient • Provide trusted institutions devoted to promoting cultural inclusion and understanding.
and sustainable. • Provide documentation and preservation of cultural heritage for future generations.
• Culture strengthens local communities and supports inclusive and sustainable development of cities.
Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
- Ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns.
Goal 13: Climate action - Take urgent action to combat • Libraries provide communities with information on sustainable practices relevant to their situation.
climate change and its impacts. • Provide sustainable system of sharing and circulating materials that reduce waste.
Goal 14: Life below water - Conserve and sustainably • Provide historical records about coastal change and land use.
use the oceans, seas and marine resources for • Provide research and data needed to inform climate change policy.
sustainable development. • Provide widespread access to information needed to guide decision making by local and national governments on topics like
Goal 15: Life on land - Protect, restore and promote hunting, fishing, land use and water management.
sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and
reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions • Provide public access to information about government, civil society, and other institutions.
- Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for • Provide training in the skills needed to understand and use this information.
sustainable development, provide access to justice • Provide inclusive, politically neutral spaces for people to meet and organise.
for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive • Libraries have the expertise and resources to help governments, institutions and individuals communicate, organise, structure and
institutions at all levels. use information effectively for development.
Goal 17: Partnerships for the goals - Strengthen the
means of implementation and revitalise the global • Provide global network of community-based institutions, primed to support local development plans.
partnership for sustainable development.
227

strategies that are documented in the next section. These strategies would help to position the library on
the national map to ensure that access to information is achieved in this knowledge society.
STRATEGIES FOR ADVOCATING FOR LIBRARY SERVICES
In order to accomplish the roles that were pointed out in Table 1, advocacy is essential to ensure that
libraries are recognised as partners in development. There are various strategies that are employed by
national library associations and these include the use of websites, print materials, use of social media,
office for library advocacy, friends of the library, public demonstrations, letter-writing campaigns, involve
community vision strategy and input from all stakeholder groups, cultivate leadership, library advocacy
toolkit, IFLA toolkit, organise meetings with policymakers, and participate in national consultations on
development plans.
Organise Meetings With Policymakers
There is need to demonstrate the importance of the library and the contribution of equitable access to
information in national development and across the SDGs to the policy makers. The IFLA advocacy
toolkit (IFLA, 2017) provides the steps that should be taken in planning for meetings with policy mak-
ers. These are:
1. Identify Representatives From the Library Sector: This must be done to ensure that the voice
of the library the UN 2030 agenda is coordinated and supported at national level. This would also
help in aligning the activities with IFLA’s international position at the overall body responsible
for library and information services and associations. The national executive council should be
responsible for leading the advocacy campaign and organise and attend meetings with the policy-
makers. Representatives from the national library or major public and research libraries can also
be included even if they are not in the national executive council of the national association. It is
important to use legitimacy and knowledge of the profession when selecting the representatives
so as to form a formal relationship with the policymakers.
2. Identify Implementation Process and Government Priorities: This can be accomplished by
understanding how the UN 2030 agenda would be implemented at a national level. The national
library association should identify policymakers, priorities and planned activities that would enable
them to identify the role that libraries can play in the implementation of the SDGs. This would de-
termine the implementation processes as they vary from country to country as indicated in Table 2.
The implementation process would differ from country to country through adapting and localising
SDGs for local context. Some countries have national development plans already and these direct
the government priorities and these can include a single national development plan, digital inclu-
sion, social development plans among others. Libraries would then partner with the government
and other stakeholders in these developmental programmes by providing access to information to
eradicate poverty, give public access to ICT, quality education, agriculture, health, universal service
provision, culture, economic growth and all the SDGs. An extract from the toolkit states that:
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“If access to information and libraries are not included in National Development Plans, it’s more
than a missed opportunity. Governments may overlook libraries and fund other organisations to provide
public access, information and skills, or they may not recognize the need for public access at all.”
The toolkit would help national library associations to demonstrate the value of libraries in meeting
health, educational, economic and cultural goals. It would also assist them in advocating for adequate
resources from the government so that the libraries are well resourced to provide high quality library
and information services (IFLA, 2017).
3. Develop Library Strategy and Key Messages: IFLA provides messages that can be used by na-
tional library associations in Africa in advocating for their library and information services. The
toolkit has an appendix 2: Briefing/handout: Libraries and access to information make an important
contribution to national development (IFLA, 2017) so that the message of access to information
is strong. It is important to focus on national priorities and make adaptations to suit the local con-
text. The key message must support public access to information which enables the creation of
knowledge societies with the necessary infrastructure, ICT, media and information literacy so that
library users are able to efficiently and effectively use information. After planning the meeting, the
representatives from the national library association should do their research to ensure that they are
knowledgeable about the people they are going to meet as well as the priorities and interests of the
government. The representatives should know the investments and policies regarding to libraries
and access to information in their countries.
4. Organise Meetings With Policymakers and Participate in Consultations: The meetings would
assist in creating awareness among the government officials and policymakers on the importance
of libraries in meeting the SDGs as well as why access to information is essential. If the meetings
are successful, libraries would be able to partner with the government and other stakeholders to
implement national programmes that benefit library users. The national library association rep-
resentatives would be in a position to identify opportunities where libraries can be included since
the national development plans drive the spending direction and programme priorities of govern-
ments. There is need also to identify the policymakers who are responsible for the implementation
of SDGs. In some countries, a minister or senior staff member might be appointed to coordinate
implementation activities. Other key ministries that work with libraries such as Ministries of
Education, Culture, and ICT should also be involved to gain support. The United Nations Country
teams should also be included since the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) have
an important role in working with governments in the implementation of SDGs. UNDP can also
be a source of information in terms of the forums and consultations that would be discussing the
implementation of SDGs in various countries.
5. Utilize the Media, Partners and Champions: It is important to work with those who are outside
the library sector to reinforce the advocacy efforts. This can be accomplished by working with
the media, partners and champions of SDGs implementation. The media would assist in creating
awareness to the general populace and also gaining the attention of policymakers. National library
associations can make use of the commemorations of national and international days to inform the
world what libraries are doing. Champions such as Members of Parliament, celebrities or writers
can be used to make the library voice heard. Local and national newspapers, social media, radio
stations and the television can be used to create awareness.
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6. Monitor the Process: The implementation process and the activities laid down by the national
library associations should be monitored to ensure that the planned activities are being achieved.
These steps show that it is important to lobby for the establishment and development of a viable library
and information service in Africa by engaging policymakers. If the librarians are recognised, even their
work within the society would be valued. Therefore, there is need to prove the importance of providing
enough resources and infrastructure for the development of library and information services in Africa.
Personal Discussions With Important Stakeholders
In addition to organising meetings with policymakers, there is need to organise and participate in personal
discussions with important stakeholders who have a major role to play in the library and information
services sector. This calls for excellent interpersonal communication skills to ensure that those who
would be representing the associations are able to dialogue with the role players to make the voices of
librarians be heard.
Table 2. Summary of approaches of implementing the SDGs
Example
Process Suggested Strategy Policymaker to Target for Meetings
Countries
Country will formulate a new national
development plan using the SDGs and regional
plans as the basis.
1. New Get involved in the consultation process. Minister or senior staff member responsible for
national Emphasize the contribution access to information Tanzania SDGs. May be located in Ministry of Foreign
development makes across the SDGs; Uganda Affairs, National Development, or another
plan Use other declarations to support your advocacy Ministry or Department.
including the Cape Town Declaration and the
Lyon Declaration on Access to Information and
Development.
2. Existing
national SDGs will be incorporated into existing national Zimbabwe Minister or senior staff member in national
development development process. Gabon development Ministry or Department.
process
SDGs will be integrated across different
3. Variety portfolios and policies as these countries do not Minister or senior staff member in targeted
of plans and have a single national development plan. Policies South Africa Ministries or Departments, e.g. Health,
processes may or may not be updated to specifically Education, Culture, Social Inclusion.
reference the SDGs.
Visit the website of the UN Permanent Mission
in your country where announcements may be
4. Not yet published.
It is not yet known what the process will be.
known Contact your UN Country Team and your Focal
Point listed in the Sustainable Development
Knowledge Platform.
(IFLA, 2017)
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Public Speeches at Conference
There are a number of conferences that are organised in various African countries with themes on
national development and the attainment of SDGs. National library associations can take advantage of
these conferences to present their plea to the conference participants and advocate for the development
of library and information services in their country. The public speech could help in selling the idea of
having a library or information centre at every institution be it a school, college, university, company,
or any organisation.
Letter-Writing Campaigns
Letter writing campaigns can be utilised by national library associations in Africa as a way of informing
law makers, general populace and other library officials about library and information services. Library
and information advocates can write letters or send e-mails to elected officials and the nationalities citing
the important role that libraries are playing in implementing SDGs and enabling access to information
for all.
Public Demonstrations
A public demonstration is a march or gathering which people take part in to show their opposition to
something or their support for something (Collins dictionary, 2018). Public demonstrations for libraries
take place in the form of rallies, protests and reads-ins. Masses can hold peaceful march to send a message
to the policymakers on the how they are benefiting from libraries with regard to the implementation of
SDGs. However, according to Tufekci (2017), the act of protesting takes time and energy and it can be
dangerous, depending on the country, with risks ranging from arrest to tear-gas exposure and, sometimes,
death. As a result, library advocates should organise the public demonstrations in a professional manner
to ensure that such issues are avoided. A petition can be signed and presented to decision makers that
are influential in the implementation of SDGs.
Friends of the Library
The national library associations can work with friends of the library who can be influential people in
the communities who serve the public through dollar gifts, volunteer and program support, and through
advocacy (Reed, 2012). Reed (2012) added that friends of the library prioritize their roles for serving
the library and focus most on their highest priorities in making sure that libraries are well resourced,
these people can pass the message to the policymakers through advocacy work. The goal should be that
of creating awareness to every single person in the community to know how access to information can
lead to the achievement of SDGs.
Use of Social Media
National library associations can utilise various social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, You-
Tube, Skype, WhatsApp, Flickr among others to advocate for library and information services. According
to American Library Association (ALA, 2014) social media has the potential to facilitate much closer
231

relationships between libraries and their patrons and the uptake of these tools is accelerating and would
continue to play an increasingly important role in library service provision and outreach. According to
Boyd and Ellison (2008), social networking sites are defined as “web-based services” that aim to allow
users to create a profile, link with their acquaintances and be able to view and interact with their friends’
connections. Social networking sites are becoming more and more popular triggering an increase in
published research and impacting different aspects of daily life including the implementation of SDGs.
Phillips (2015) noted that social media provides librarians with an inexpensive and innovative avenue
to advocate for libraries. Not only do librarians need to know how to use social media to reach patrons,
but they also must understand what types of patrons they are reaching and what services appeal to social
media savvy patrons (Horn, 2011).
Printed Material
National library associations can make use of printed materials such as flyers, newsletters and brochures
to create awareness and advocate for its role in implementing the SDGs. These can be distributed to
individuals in the streets or send to the policy makers and other public libraries so that access to informa-
tion for all is increases. The use of technology had enhanced how libraries can produce these materials
that can be used in the advocacy campaigns. Technology provides the chance for librarians to innovate,
boost quality, measure success, and align services with the priorities of their organizations to ensure that
they serve the communities with their information needs. With technology, librarians can reintroduce
themselves as visible, valuable, and essential partners in achieving SDGs.
Website
The advocacy campaign can also be accomplished by using websites. Most of the national library associa-
tions in Africa have their own websites and they can create pages specifically dedicated to the advocacy
work. These pages would be informing the masses and the policymakers on the activities being done by
libraries towards the achievement of SDGs. The website is regarded as the 24/7 gateway to information
which connects users to the latest news about libraries.
CHALLENGES FACED IN ADVOCATING FOR

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SERVICES
The process of advocating for library and information services is not an easy task. National library as-
sociations face quite a number of challenges in their advocacy work. These include but are not limited
to lack of advocacy skills, insufficient support, lack of resources, poor networking and connection,
and lack of recognition by those who are responsible for implementing the SDGs. Advocacy is an art
that should be mastered by possessing the skills that are needed especially when communicating with
policy makers. However, some of the librarians do not possess these skills leading to the failure of the
advocacy campaigns. There is also generally lack of support of libraries in Africa and some do not take
the advocacy work seriously. Library and Information Science Professor Debra Kachel (Kachel, 2017)
noted that librarians engage in advocacy only when library budgets and staffing are at risk of being cut.
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Developing an advocacy campaign requires funding and there is need for national library associations
to make sure that a budget for that activity is available. The funds are needed for human resources and
the development of infrastructure that would be used during the advocacy campaigns. Librarians can
make use of the websites and social media platforms in order to achieve their advocacy aims. In order to
get the funds that are needed to carry out a successful advocacy campaign, national library associations
must apply for grants and appeal for donations from the friends of the library group. Other institutions
that value the importance of libraries can also be approached to assist in funding the advocacy cam-
paigns. There are international organisations that support advocacy campaigns in developing countries
such as Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Electronic Information for Libraries (EIFL), International
Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP), International Federation, IFLA, and
(Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC) among others. Some library associations such as American
Library Association (ALA) have developed an advocacy toolkit which can customised and used by
national library associations in Africa.
Communities suffer from bad transport connectivity, inability to commute and to get information
quickly and effectively. As a result, national library associations would not be in a position to deliver
comprehensive services due to lack of services. Some libraries do not have internet connection and the
collection is not sufficient leading to some groups being underserved. These people would not be in
position to offer access to information for all due to limited public spaces for people to meet, to access
information, to develop new skills, to communicate with the rest of the world, to discuss problems and to
work out strategies to build a better community, to talk to authorities and to keep the young population
interested in living. This is a major drawback as these people would not have access to information on
the implementation of SDGs and they would not support the role that is played by libraries. The solu-
tion is the transformation of library facilities into modern and welcoming spaces and the improvement
of library activities and training of library staff.
Ossai-Onah (2013) added that the techniques used in lobbying and advocacy range from face to face
meeting with policy makers and legislators as well as using friends of library. However, he pointed out
that limited access to legislators and policy makers, lukewarm attitude of librarians, lack of librarians
in politics were identified as factors militating against effective lobbying and advocacy. Some national
library associations also do not include stakeholders in the process of defining their mission and as a
result would not be supported during the advocacy campaigns. Therefore, national library associations
should justify their role and the role of libraries to legislators, administrators and community members
to ensure that their advocacy work is successful. National library associations should create a quality
brand that adds value to the products and services that are offered in the achievement of SDGs (Barker,
2017). Effective branding would help to increase the visibility of libraries, inform how the library is
viewed by stakeholders and communicate the value of the library to the community. The other strate-
gies that are employed by national associations to deal with the challenges are training of library staff,
improving communication with community leaders, developing community champions, strengthening
intersections with diverse communities, advocate for support from institutions and government, dem-
onstrating the collective impact of partners working together, and reaching out to and engaging with
young professional organisations.
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AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
This chapter documented the strategies that are used by national library association to advocate for library
and information services in Africa. The authors suggest doing a further study on the effectiveness of
these strategies considering the diversity of the national programmes and priorities in the implementation
of the SDGs. It is important to investigate if the national library associations are implementing these
strategies and whether they are satisfied with the outcomes of their advocacy activities.
CONCLUSION
The role that is played by libraries in the achievement of the SDGs cannot be overlooked. Access to
information is enhanced by ensuring that the libraries are well resourced. As a result, the importance
of advocacy is crucial in order for libraries to successfully provide the information that is required to
achieve the SDGs. There is need for partnership between librarians, national library associations and
the legislators in order to put the library in national development plans. If that is not done, the library
would be left out and people would not be able to access the information that is crucial in achieving the
SDGs. This chapter pointed out the strategies that are employed by national library associations in Af-
rica to put the library on the developmental map to ensure that the SDGs are achieved. These strategies
include organising meetings with policymakers; personal discussions with important stakeholders; public
speeches at conferences; letter writing campaigns; public demonstrations; friends of the library; use of
social media, printed materials, and websites. The challenges that are faced in advocating for library
and information services were also noted and these include lack of advocacy skills; insufficient support;
lack of resources; poor networking; lack of recognition of librarians; and poor infrastructure. It can be
concluded that national library associations should ensure that librarians have the advocacy skills that
are necessary to engage the policymakers so that their advocacy work is successful. It is also the role of
national associations to ensure that policy makers and other important stakeholders are involved in the
process of defining the mission of libraries so that the role of libraries is incorporated in the crafting of
national development plans.
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Advocacy: It is an activity that aims to influence decisions by legislators and other influential people
towards a certain cause.
Banding: The process involved in creating a unique name, design and image for a product in the
consumer’s mind, to attracts and retains loyal customers.
Community Development: A process where community members come together to take collective
action and generate solutions to strengthen each other in the community where they stay.
Information Professionals: People responsible for providing access to information and knowledge.
These can be librarians, archivists, or records managers who train users on how to access and use infor-
mation by offering information literacy skills training.
Library and Information Services: Provision of access to information in information and knowledge
centres to meet the SDGs.
Library Associations: An organisation that promotes library and information centres as well as
library education. It can be national, regional or international.
Policymakers: People responsible for formulating policies.
Social Media: Applications and websites that are used for social networking such as Facebook,
Twitter, YouTube, WhatsApp, Flickr that enable users to create and share content.
Strategy: A plan of action designed to achieve a certain aim.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): They are a collection of 17 global goals by the United
nations that are aimed at ending poverty, protect the plant as well as ensuring that have peace in their
countries. They are also known as 2030 Agenda or Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for sus-
tainable development.
237
238
Chapter 13
A Framework for Advocacy,
Outreach and Public
Programming in Public
Libraries in Africa
Kgomotso H. Moahi
ABSTRACT
Public libraries are regarded as partners in the development process in Africa, yet they bemoan the fact
that they are not adequately supported both by their principals in terms of resources and recognition,
and by their users in terms of usage levels that justify their existence. This chapter presents a review of
literature on the advocacy, outreach and public programming carried out in public libraries. The thesis
advanced is that it is through these processes that public libraries can engender the support they require.
However, advocacy and public programming can only be effectively carried out where libraries have
reached out to communities to provide relevant services that are informed by their context and needs.
The themes arising from the review suggest a framework for public libraries that includes five areas,
namely, strategy and leadership, partnership and collaboration, community engagement and involve-
ment, assessment and reporting, and equity and social inclusiveness.
INTRODUCTION
Libraries in general are challenged to demonstrate the “value” they add in their operational environment
(Town, 2017). Often, that value is articulated as what libraries do and what they are to communities,
what Orr (1973) quoted by Town (2017) terms the goodness of the library versus the good it does. In
order for libraries to ensure their sustainability they need to be able to “measure post utilization beneficial
effects” (Town, 2017, p. 27), and share the value by repackaging the resultant data and telling stories to
appropriate audiences (Tolson et al., 2014). Such data and stories can be useful in outreach and advo-
cacy activities for sustainability. Hoq (2015) breaks down the types of sustainability required by public
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch013

A Framework for Advocacy, Outreach and Public Programming in Public Libraries in Africa
libraries to include: economic; political and institutional; social and cultural; and technological. Public
libraries must therefore use outreach, programming and advocacy to achieve the required funding, and
partner with various stakeholders to ensure relevance.
Public libraries in Africa are particularly challenged to make a case for their value as development
partners that should be resourced accordingly. For the most part, they are viewed as elitist and relevant
to those with a certain amount of literacy (Lor, 2000; Ocholla, 2006; Davis, 2009; Opara, 2006). One
of the ways for libraries and librarians to make themselves visible and relevant is through advocacy,
outreach and appropriate programming. This chapter presents a review of the literature on advocacy,
outreach, and programming in public libraries with the aim of arriving at a framework for advocacy,
outreach and public programming for public libraries in Africa. The review is driven by the following
research questions:
1. What are the definitional perspectives, distinctive characteristic types and challenges of advocacy,
outreach and public programming in public libraries in Africa?
2. How has research informed the processes and practice of advocacy, outreach and public programming?
3. What are some of the initiatives and method employed in advocacy, outreach and public program-
ming in Africa?
4. Can a framework emerge for use in the African context?
BACKGROUND
Public libraries are critical contributors to development (IFLA, 2013). They are expected to provide con-
text specific services, contribute to equity and social justice, forge partnerships and interactions towards
fulfilling their mandate, and engage in research on their operations and services (Stranger-Johannessen
et al., 2014). All these activities are to ensure that their programs and services are relevant to the com-
munities they serve. UNESCO Public Library Manifesto articulates the role of public libraries as being,
“…the local gateway to knowledge, providing a basic condition for lifelong learning, independent deci-
sion – making and cultural development of the individual and social groups…” The Manifesto proclaims
UNESCO’s belief in the public library “…as a living force for education, culture and information, as an
essential agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men and women…”
(IFLA/UNESCO Public Library Manifesto, 1994). Thus, public libraries are viewed as symbols of social
change and inclusion (Davis, 2009).
Public libraries in Africa trace their origins to colonial times when they were established for the
benefit of colonial officers and their families, and by extension, a small group of literate locals. After
independence, libraries were recognized as partners in achieving political and intellectual freedom by
nationalist governments, and were prioritized along with health and education (Opara, 2006; Mchombu
& Beukes-Amiss, 2015). However, by the 1980s, when the economies of many African countries began
to flounder, the prioritization ceased, resulting in many problems. These problems have persisted and
include their questioned relevance; outdated models of library service delivery; and their sustainability
(Hoq, 2015). It is argued that public libraries in Africa must shed their elitist approach and provide
communities with relevant services (Davis, 2009; Isaak, 2002; Okily, 2003; Kamau, 2016). Addressing
these issues requires a re-thinking of the roles of the public library to assert and insinuate themselves
into the fabric of the lives of the people they are meant to serve, including policy makers. The consensus
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in the literature is that public libraries should focus their activities on contributing to the achievement of
development. Demonstrating their importance to national development can help raise their profile and
status in the eyes of their communities and policy makers (Mchombu & Beukes-Amiss, 2015).
Advocacy, outreach and public programming can assist libraries in this process. Library leadership
and staff therefore need to become proactive in creating and sustaining strategies for advocacy, outreach
and relevant programming. This chapter seeks to examine how public libraries can achieve this.
METHODOLOGY
A literature review was carried out to provide answers to the questions raised above. Searches were
conducted on the Library and Information Science database on Proquest, and Google scholar using the
keywords: Advocacy, Outreach, and Public librar*. Searches were also conducted on Web of Science us-
ing the keywords, Library Advocacy, Library Outreach, and a more general search for libraries in Africa.
The search period was limited to documents published between 2000 and 2018. The author identified the
relevant articles to include in the review on the basis of their coverage in terms of offering definitions,
research and practical accounts. The author was particularly interested in empirical studies on advocacy
and outreach programs in African public libraries. However, the bulk of the literature revealed studies
conducted by academics on the status of libraries, the information needs of specialized groups and how
libraries were meeting or not meeting the needs. Overall there is a dearth of literature from practicing
librarians. All in all, 82 articles were reviewed in line with the research questions.
DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CHALLENGES OF ADVOCACY,

OUTREACH AND PUBLIC PROGRAMMING IN AFRICAN PUBLIC LIBRARIES
Advocacy is about implementing activities to engage and motivate stakeholders to support and provide
an enabling environment for high quality programs and services (Fried at al., 2010). It is defined as
activities undertaken to positively influence decision makers and other stakeholders. Public libraries use
advocacy to secure ongoing support and funding, and to encourage a positive public policy environment
that enables them to meet users’ changing needs. Through advocacy, public libraries can attract new us-
ers, draw attention to new services, raise visibility, highlight the power of success stories, demonstrate
impact and their potential to solve community problems, attract support, and forge partnerships (Si-
waya et al., 2010:449). Advocacy involves telling a story to reach an objective (Besara, 2012). It means
therefore, that librarians must always focus on the customer and their experience. McClure et al (2006)
emphasized the role of library management and leadership in advocacy, and they state that advocacy is
about “working the political system”. For advocacy to be targeted, focused and effective, it should be
tied to a vision and strategy.
Although there is no single definition of outreach, Carter and Seaman (2011) identified two activities
that librarians engage in as outreach: the first is the services offered by libraries and the second is the
promotion and marketing of these activities. Outreach is about reaching out to users, to encourage use
of libraries and to engender a positive image of the library, and it is done mainly through programming
that targets the needs and circumstances of the communities served by public libraries. According to the
Seattle Public Library Outreach Task Force (2013), quoted in Massis (2017), outreach is about extend-
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ing the services of a library beyond the library – in essence, taking the library to the people. Outreach
is about relationship cultivation between the library and the community it serves. It is about extending
the library beyond its institutional boundaries to improve access and equity. Hart (2012) identified four
perspectives of outreach that include promotion and marketing of services; innovative ways to engage
communities; specialist information services beyond literacy programs; and the extension of library
services to non-traditional library users.
There can be no talk of advocacy, outreach, and programming without community engagement. Baba
and Abrizah (2018) state that libraries can impact local communities and institutions by transforming
their services and how they do things. In order to transform to become high impact institutions, they reach
out to their local and global communities, and network to forge connections that will inform how they
serve communities. Whilst there is no single definition for community engagement (Baba & Abrizah,
2018), it is clear that it is about empowering communities to articulate their needs and how they should
be met. Community engagement is a two-pronged process, that of increasing public participation to
improve services, and building the public library’s social role (Hillenbrand, 2005). Goulding (2009)
distilled community engaged libraries as those who make their library spaces available for community
activities, forge partnership with local civic and public service organizations, and demystify what they do
by involving members of the community as volunteers in the library, thus benefiting from their partici-
pation in decision making. Through community engagement, libraries build social capital. Engagement
can include collaborating with voluntary organizations in the community, offering up the library as a
meeting space, and providing relevant services (Varheim, 2007). Goulding’s research in the UK however
found that typically libraries were good at involving local communities at the level of consultation but
not at meaningful levels.
Calls have been made for libraries to be more aligned to the needs of their communities, and this
has meant a move from passive to active service, characterized by engagement with communities. For
example, Davis (2009) suggests that public libraries must become more people-driven, must support
lifelong learning, and become more community oriented. Achieving the aforementioned means that
public librarians must improve their visibility by ensuring that their voices are heard, and their services
are known to potential users. The literature on African librarianship suggests that public libraries are
challenged in providing service that is relevant, and demonstrates more hands on involvement in devel-
opment activities of their communities (Lor, 2015). Public Libraries in Africa are faced with a number
of challenges which include a lack of advocacy and outreach skills; shortage of resources and finances
to enable the libraries to achieve its mandate; and lack of proper infrastructure such as adequate space.
They are generally underfunded, resulting in poor provision of relevant information materials and other
library programming. One of the greatest challenges faced by public libraries in Africa generally is the
lack of awareness on the part of communities regarding their services, resulting in underutilization of
the facilities (Salman et al., 2017).
Besides funding issues, public librarians have not entirely embraced the need for a shift in focus
from book lending to services required by their communities. Elbert et al. (2012) established that the
potential of public libraries in Africa to contribute to development is recognized. However, although
this is the case, the caveat is that the public associates the public libraries with traditional book lend-
ing and reference services. This is most telling about the ability and inclination of librarians in Africa
towards innovative public programming that goes beyond the traditional library services. In the study
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conducted by Elbert et al, the respondents were of the view that public libraries need to engage more
with communities. Suggestions were made that they “could facilitate community interaction with ser-
vice providers of health, agriculture, culture and entrepreneurship” (Elbert et al., 2012). According to
Satgoor (2015) public libraries need to be proactive in outreach activities to ensure that communities
benefit from their programs. They need to focus on service where it is needed most. They also need to
focus on marginalized members of their communities. Such focus will ensure that communities realize
the worth and value of libraries in their lives. Public librarians in the Elbert study of 6 African countries
(Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe) admitted their lack of skills to advocate
and carry out outreach activities for greater visibility and support.
One of the areas that public libraries are expected to be pivotal is in the provision of health information
services, in particular on HIV and AIDS. The record shows that public libraries have not consistently
and comprehensively played that role (Nassimbeni & Shabangu, 2015). The reasons for this are many,
but one of them is the lack of involvement of librarians as a critical stakeholder when interventions are
planned. Nassimbeni and Shabangu (2015) report that the public library in Manzini, Swaziland was not
regarded as a source of information on HIV/AIDS, and none of the NGOs and other stakeholders reported
interacting with the library on tackling the issue. This was so even as the public library purported to be
providing such information. This is a challenge for public librarians, to make themselves visible and
available as a source of information for problem solving rather than for satisfying academic requirements.
Effective advocacy requires the capacity to measure, collect, and analyze data that is also repackaged
to target various stakeholders. This means that librarians must possess a certain amount of quantitative
skills as well as the ability to weave the facts with stories in a way that would deliver a powerful and
effective message to the stakeholder. Librarians collect assessment data or statistics all the time, and
repackaging such data can enable librarians to be able to convey their value (Tolson et al., 2014). The
ability to interpret data and integrate it with stories of impact is a skill that some librarians do not possess.
Strong library associations might be able to address these challenges. Library associations are seen
as critical to advocacy and outreach activities of libraries, they provide training and develop tools for
advocacy and outreach. However, in Africa library associations are weak and underfunded (Kawooya,
n.d.; Mutula, 2003; Daniel, 2008). This is due to lack of interest, failure to provide quality leadership,
and the fact that most associations are run on voluntary basis (Daniel, 2008). Kawooya (n.d.) reiterates
this and states that although there are a number of issues that impinge on the work of library associations
in Africa and elsewhere, one of the salient ones is management experience to produce strategies and
plans, as well as implement and monitor them. Mutula (2003) noted that library associations in Eastern,
Central, and Southern Africa remain much weaker and less robust than their western counterparts. They
suffer from small membership base, inadequate resources, membership apathy and almost no visibility.
As such therefore, they are unable to play the advocacy role that they should. Kawooya indicates that
the Library Association of South Africa (LIASA) and the Uganda Library Association (ULA) have been
successful in strategic planning, partnership building and internal democratic structures (Kawooya, n.d.).
But even with that, these associations are not without their problems and challenges and are urged to
ensure their sustainability as organizations (through membership mobilization), as well as ensuring that
there is sustainability in their projects and programs.
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RESEARCH, PROCESSES, AND PRACTICE OF ADVOCACY,

OUTREACH AND PUBLIC PROGRAMMING
This section considers research on the practice and process of advocacy, outreach and programming in
public libraries, using the themes that have emerged from the literature review.
Strategic Planning and Leadership
Bundy (2003:1) states that British librarian Lionel McColvin, writing about public libraries in Australia
in 1947 observed that “Better library services for Australians won’t just happen…the few must lead, must
fight, and must persist.” This suggests a need for focused leadership for sustainability of public librar-
ies. It would seem that this is indeed the case for Australia, which now ranks in the top public library
nations. Bundy (2003) makes it clear that public libraries and their advocates must develop the ability
of setting and selling their mission and vision for public libraries, which must form the foundation of
any advocacy program (Hand, 2015). Librarians must “deprofessionalize” – that is, integrate with their
communities if they are to achieve community-led services and programming (Kargbo, 2008). Further,
librarians must adopt programming informed by strategic planning that is linked to the global and national
imperatives such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); the World Summit of the Information
Society (WSIS); National Visions, and National Development Plans (Kamau, 2011). Leadership must
be outward looking, seeking to forge links that will bring in support and resources.
Technology and Digital Inclusion
Arguments on the future of libraries emphasize the need for libraries to embrace the changes that tech-
nological developments have wrought on information access and provision. Libraries no longer have a
monopoly over the provision of information and are less about physical books than access to informa-
tion in a variety of forms, accessed through computers and the Internet (Yoshida, 2016). Stevenson and
Dams (2011) state that libraries are experiencing shrinking collection development activities, shrinking
reference services, reduction in in-house cataloguing and classification, increasingly automated self-
service (check out and check in). Public libraries nowadays provide access to computers, connectivity,
and Internet services. According to Victor Gregorian of the Carnegie Corporation, in developing coun-
tries, public libraries are often the one place that provides a community access to digital information
(Carnegie Corporation, 2012). Public libraries have designated spaces as ICT commons for users to
access technology for various purposes such as finding information, re-skilling or re-tooling themselves.
Community Led Services
Public libraries are called upon to focus on the needs of communities that they serve. For public libraries
to be truly community oriented, they need to focus on outreach activities and programming that will help
shape the community’s positive perception of the library (Hawley, 2018). Literature depicts libraries
of today as places of congregation, collaboration, and creation for users; they have become places for
discourse and debate (Yoshida, 2016). Public libraries have become centers of civic engagement and
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social capital creation (Goulding, 2009). Jochumsen et al. (2012) introduced the “four space model”
which depicts the public library as a space with four functions: the inspirational space, learning space,
meeting space, and performance space. Scott (2011) interviewed a number of public library professionals
in King County Washington to establish how they were serving their communities and established the
various ways that these libraries contributed to community building. One of them is that of providing
opportunity and resources for people to learn through adult literacy programs, computer and digital
literacy classes, and children’s programming.
Public libraries the world over face financial challenges, and they are also challenged to redefine
themselves in the 21st century. Kayes (2016) notes that community engagement can assist libraries to
address these two concerns. The American Library Association has recognized this and has developed
a program called “Libraries Transforming Communities” (LTC). The aim of LTC is to get libraries to
transform from traditional services to more community centric approaches. Libraries therefore need to
seek and encourage community engagement to ensure the longevity and survival of libraries, and their
relevance to the fabric of the society of those communities. Community engagement can be achieved
through active outreach and partnership activities. Reaching out to the community can help to build
awareness, to encourage participation in developing programming and increased use and support; it can
also provide the much-needed evidence to be used in advocacy activities. Getting to know the com-
munity and drawing it to the library means that librarians must be “seen”. This entails participating and
attending community events. This is networking, and it can build social capital and communities. The
problem though lies with librarians and their failure to network effectively. Library programming can
help ameliorate this phenomenon, by providing services that establish the library as a place – as a third
place between work and home, where people can meet and connect (Bundy, 2003).
Social capital can have positive effects on democracy, economic development and societal wellbeing
(Varheim, 2007). Partnering for social capital will help libraries demonstrate their value to the com-
munity and become more visible, engaged, and integrated into the community. Libraries can be used as
a place where people meet, connect and do things together; places that serve as a connector of people.
Libraries as Spaces and Place
Public programming is about the services that libraries provide, and it is these services that may actu-
ally provide the means for outreach, promotion and marketing of public libraries. Suggestions have
been made for public libraries to become places that communities can go to that represent a place of
relaxation, interaction and networking with others. A public library that is truly community led in its
outlook and approach, will offer all kinds of services within its space, for example, for cultural events
such as concerts, performances and exhibitions. It will also become a place where information in other
all kinds of formats is availed to cater for a variety of information users and their needs (Okiy, 2003).
It will provide a platform for other service providers to serve the community, for example, health talks
delivered by health professionals within the library.
In the context of African countries, public libraries should also be active in documenting and promot-
ing indigenous knowledge in collaboration with local communities. This will serve not only to achieve
one of the mandates of national libraries (in most cases they also encompass the public library function)
of documenting and preserving cultural heritage, but also of ensuring that the content available in the
library is relevant to a significant proportion of the populace.
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In an effort to engage communities and to enhance the relevance of public libraries, many libraries,
especially in developed economies have incorporated what are known as Makerspaces. Simply, Mak-
erspaces provide an environment where library users can innovate, create and collaborate with other
like-minded library users. Typically, the library provides a space and tools – in some cases these may
include computers, 3-D printers, and other such equipment that communities may not have access to
(Slatter & Howard, 2013).
Partnership
In order to become community-building institutions, librarians need to develop their ability to forge
partnerships. Partnership between public libraries, government, private sector, and communities are
critical in this era of resource shortage and calls for libraries to prove their worth (Jain & Nfila, 2011).
Bundy (2003) has explained the prevalence and ubiquity of public libraries in Australia to the partner-
ship between central and local government in their bid to provide services throughout the vast Australia.
Jaeger et al. (2011); Moahi (2014) have identified the role public libraries can play in providing access
to e-government services. Public libraries as already indicated, should partner with civic and social ser-
vices organizations at community level, to forge networks, improve their visibility, and get to understand
the communities they serve more. In order for libraries to engage communities and contribute to their
development and wellbeing, there is need for them to look beyond government and partner with civic
organizations to extend library service programming (Kranich, 2005). The goals therefore for public
libraries include the library becoming a civic space, a public forum, civic information centers, public
service partner, and an enabler of civic literacies (Kranich, 2005).
Monitoring, Evaluation and Assessment of Services and Activities
Libraries have always collected data and statistics on usage of their facilities and services. Such data if
repackaged, and accompanied by stories of library use impact can be used to convey the value-add of
libraries (Tolson et al., 2014). It is important that librarians collect and disseminate facts and stories
regarding their services, in this way, libraries will provide evidence-based advocacy (Bundy, 2003). This
is the approach taken by Global Libraries projects funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, to
embed the monitoring and assessment of impact of their projects in order to present the data and real-
stories as evidence. Evidence based advocacy is considered by the Foundation as a good way of ensuring
the sustainability of projects even after the donors have left (Sawaya et al., 2010).
Use of Modern Media to Communicate With Stakeholders
Public libraries in the Kansas Library community have used social media to mobilize support from librar-
ians, library supporters and concerned citizens (Braum, 2012). Social media can be an ideal advocacy
platform, as it has become an important tool for libraries to communicate with users and stakeholders
about services and pertinent information. Social media can be used by librarians to ensure that they are
heard (Fichter, n.d.), it can be used to disseminate “just-in-time” information about their libraries to key
stakeholders, it is a tool to tell the library story to those who matter (Besara, 2012). Social media has
been used by libraries to engage with communities to inform them about services and benefits of being
members of the library (Kaye, 2015).
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INITIATIVES AND METHODS OF ADVOCACY OUTREACH AND

PUBLIC PROGRAMMING IN PUBLIC LIBRARIES IN AFRICA
This section shares some examples of advocacy, outreach and programming initiatives by public librar-
ies in Africa that have been documented. The literature did not yield many case studies as most papers
were theoretical review papers of the status of public libraries in Africa, and how they were (or were
not) serving communities. However, there was agreement on the role of public libraries as develop-
ment partner, providing services to enhance literacy, education, access to government information and
programs, advancing democracy through free and equitable access to information. There is consensus
that most public libraries are unable to achieve these roles because of resource constraints. They are
also hard pressed to meet the needs of the communities due to failure to engage both the communities
they serve as well as their funders in determining the kinds of services to offer and the support required.
However, there are some success stories, which are covered in this section under the three sub-headings
of advocacy, outreach, and public programming.
Advocacy
The literature emphasized the need for librarians to demonstrate their value and impact so as to ensure
growth and sustainability of public libraries. This approach seems to be championed by the Global
Libraries Program that has focused on providing ICTs and connectivity to public libraries in various
countries that include South Africa, Botswana, Chile, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. The Global Librar-
ies program supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation integrates tools for evidence-based
advocacy through a process named Planned Impact Assessment (PLA) (Streatfield et al., 2015). Data
collection on the impact of providing ICT services is an integral part of the funded projects. This means
that for each project they fund, there has to be an impact and assessment evaluation specialists whose
task is to capture pre-implementation baseline data, and ensure that data is continuously captured on
the individuals who have benefited from the project. The idea is for participating librarians to share this
data with decision-makers to demonstrate the public library’s contribution to users’ improved social
and economic wellbeing.
Advocacy is also one of the major functions of library associations. Although a national association is
important, it would appear that not all countries have one. The majority of associations are struggling and
therefore not very effective at advocacy (Mutula, 2003; Olden, 2005). The role of strong library associa-
tions in advocating for public and community libraries has seen the Library and Information Association
of South Africa influence the South African government to lead initiatives to improve the impact of
public libraries on the lives of citizens (de Jager & Nassimbenni, 2012). This has seen the development
of a Library and Information Services Transformation Charter in South Africa aimed at ensuring that
public libraries are resourced to be able to perform a transformative role in a country where services
were differentiated on racial lines and where the majority of the population did not benefit from well-
resourced and staffed libraries. The charter highlighted the need for public libraries to be transformed
to become catalysts for community building and for countering social exclusion.
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Outreach
One of the issues affecting library use in Africa is poverty, illiteracy and the low culture of reading.
Many national and public libraries have launched outreach programs to address these issues (Bukenya,
n.d.). Initiatives to provide services to underserved communities include rural libraries and resource
development program in Zimbabwe, which used drama, song and dance to disseminate information.
Botswana National Library Services introduced village reading rooms (VRRs) in areas where there was
no public library. Whilst the VRRS were once a vehicle for advancing literacy rates by providing easy
to read materials in the local language, they have since deviated and provide reading materials that is
above the reading levels of the communities and are largely in English (Matenge, 2010). Kenya Library
Services introduced a camel library service, and in Uganda, reading tents were introduced (Bukenya,
n.d.). In Ethiopia, the Canadian Organization for Development through Education (CODE) spearheaded
the revitalization of the reading rooms that had been in existence since the 1980s (Stranger-Johannessen,
et al., 2014).
The National Library of South Africa established an outreach unit – the Center for the Book, which
seeks to promote a culture of reading, writing and publishing in the local indigenous languages (Mnkeni-
Saurombe & Zimu, 2015). This initiative has been spearheaded by the strong and engaged national
library association (LIASA), which has institutionalized a national reading week to awaken the citizenry
to the place and role of libraries in development. The government of South Africa has provided funding
to community libraries’ outreach activities (Mnkeni-Saurombe & Zimu, 2015). In 2000, the Carnegie
Corporation of New York (CCNY) embarked on projects to revitalize public libraries for provision of
library services to poor communities through outreach activities that included book boxes, information
kiosks, and children’s programs. Although the project sites initially included South Africa, Botswana and
Kenya, in the end, the Corporation focused on South Africa (Carnegie Corporation, 2012). Hart (2012)
described outreach projects in two public libraries in the Western Cape, South Africa, which included
computer literacy training, homework clubs, and language workshops.
As catalyst for national development, public libraries have sought relevance in this space beyond
literacy and recreation. Gichohi et al., (2017) report on how public libraries in Meru County in Kenya
address the information needs of small-scale entrepreneurs.
The Botswana National Library Service (BNLS) through support from Global Libraries implemented
a project whose aims were to provide access to ICTs and Internet services to communities through their
public libraries, and to empower library staff by training them on ICTs. This training was to enable
them to improve the way they do their job, but also to become trainers of their communities (Maswabi
et al., 2011). Another aim was to build partnerships to serve communities better, and partnership was
achieved with the Department of Out of School Education and Training (DOSET) to help in training
members of the public on ICTs, and the Botswana Library Association (BLA), as well as the library
school at the University of Botswana. Another intention of the project was to work with the BNLS mother
ministry, the Ministry of Sports, Youth, Empowerment and Culture (MYSEC) to collect and document
Botswana’s heritage. The project demonstrated that public libraries could be a natural platform for ac-
cessing e-government information and therefore merit support in order to provide access to those who
would otherwise not afford it. As at 2010 observable changes were noted in the use of public libraries:
children used the library for computer games, the youth were able to use social media, and adults used
the facilities for current affairs, online banking, bill payments, writing letters and preparing business
proposals (Maswabi, 2011). The striking aspect of this project was the inbuilt collection of baseline data
247

to assess the situation before implementation; collection of data assessing the processes and changes
during the project; and finally, the assessment of the programs effect and impact on the users. All of this
was done expressly to produce evidence for advocacy purposes.
Since national libraries are tasked with the documentation and preservation of cultural heritage, calls
have been made for public libraries to play a role in the documentation and promotion of indigenous
knowledge (Moahi, 2012; Kargbo, 2008). Greyling and Zulu (2010) described such an initiative, which
involved engaging communities to develop content for an indigenous digital library in eThekwini, Dur-
ban. Their thesis was that libraries in the African setting are not used because they hardly carry content
that is relevant and of use to communities they serve. They therefore set out to engage the community
to develop an online digital resource on indigenous knowledge. The success of this program hinged
on the social outreach skills of the community librarians who enjoyed a relationship of trust with their
community. The project achieved a number of things: collaboration with the community, introduction
of ICTs to local communities, and established the library as a place in which communities and their
knowledge are valued and recognized.
One of the mandates of public libraries is that of ensuring access and equity for all, leading to social
inclusiveness. In some African cultures the issue of gender equality is still a challenge. Thus Badawi
(2009) writes on how public library services in Northern Nigeria have attempted to address the informa-
tion needs of women, and what the issues are. Stranger-Johannessen et al., (2014) outlined the role that
Kitengesa Community Library played in addressing girls’ and women’s literacy and education needs.
The same library has targeted its community’s needs by focusing on developing local language materials
in the socio-economic areas of interest to the communities.
Public Programming
Public programming in libraries must be influenced or informed by community needs, as well as part-
nerships that the library will have forged in the community. Indeed, evidence shows that successful
endeavors have been achieved where public libraries partner with the community and other community
institutions. A case in point is the Kitengesa Community Library in Uganda (Dent, 2006; Tise & Raju,
2015; Mulindwa, 2015). This library was started through a partnership involving a school principal and
an expatriate, and eventually became a rural library that was used by students and teachers of the primary
school, as well as the community. Literature has recorded a number of these joint library uses, and it
would appear that in the case of rural communities, where schools may not have their own library, the
sharing of the library space, resource, and programming was embarked on. Dent through the study was
able to validate the requirements of a community library as articulated by Kempson (quoted in Dent,
2006) – that a community library should not collect predominantly print materials; its services should
be community led and facilitated by the community; that community library should serve as a conduit
of information both to and from the community; and finally, that library services should be predicated
on the information needs of the community which should be assessed regularly. Indeed, partnerships
have given rise to community libraries with examples from Ghana and Burkina Faso (Dent, 2008) and
Botswana (Radijeng, 2013). Partnerships have also been extended beyond government and communities,
to encompass private companies. An example is a rural library in Kenya sharing space with the telecom-
munications provider Safaricom, as part of a fundraising strategy by the library. Another example is
the participation of philanthropic organizations such as the Carnegie Foundation, and Bill and Melinda
Gates, to name but a few (Jain & Nfila, 2011). The National Library and Archives of Namibia was able
248

to obtain funding from the Millennium Development Challenge to build three regional resource and
study centers that provide information targeting community needs (Mulindwa, 2015)
Partnership between different categories of librarians has also been demonstrated. Recognizing the
needs for communities to access health information, and the lack of capacity of public librarians to pro-
vide such information, a consumer health literacy project by academic health librarians was implemented
in public libraries in Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda and Zimbabwe. The aim of the project was to capacitate
African public librarians on finding, accessing, and using consumer health information (CHI) to satisfy
the health information needs of their users (Ajuwon et al., 2017). After the training, the librarians were
granted seed money to implement CHI activities within their communities and to report back on progress
and impact. The collaboration yielded results in that the public librarians were empowered to provide
services and to engage with their communities on an area of need.
According to Radijeng (2013), public libraries in Botswana have undergone significant transformation
due to two major factors; the first is the building of new libraries (under the Robert and Sarah Rothschild
Foundation) and the refurbishment of a number of public libraries country-wide by the government;
the second is the Global Libraries project, which has widened the scope of services that public libraries
offer. The National Library Services, under which public libraries fall, has also supported the introduc-
tion of a number of services/programs that have hitherto not been there. The programs that have been
introduced in branch libraries include establishment of reading clubs, working with local schools to
provide homework assistance, providing youth computer training, health training, and services to people
with disabilities. Public libraries in Botswana are also active in health education, providing HIV/AIDS
corners, and holding talks led by health professionals on various health issues. There are a number of
projects and initiatives that are being carried out by individual libraries that go beyond the traditional
library offerings of books, but which target disadvantaged (disabled) children, women and youth, etc.
(Radijeng, 2013).
Ntlolang and Grand (2016) conducted a study of two branch libraries in Botswana to ascertain their
provision of health information to the communities they serve. They found that indeed public libraries in
these areas (Mochudi & Molepolole) have found that their communities require health information and
they provide this information in partnership with the health sector in Botswana. In order to be effective,
these libraries have mounted some initiatives such as forming youth groups, liaising with health profes-
sionals (to teach the community about health issues) and establishing health corners in their libraries.
Even though the library tried to provide a needed service to the community, the study revealed that the
library collection of information was not comprehensive, the library had limited space and there was
a lack of engagement and interaction between the library staff and users. The study recommendations
revealed a few issues that should be noted for the purposes of this chapter. The first is that even though
library staff understands their role in the development of their communities, and they try to fulfill that
role through the provision of health information, their marketing of the service is restricted to posters
within the library. Second the libraries were collecting information that did not take into account the
literacy levels of the communities. Third, even though liaising with health agencies, they were not do-
ing so in a way that would ensure that they obtained the information products that are produced by the
relevant government ministry.
Muswazi (2000) conducted a study on the provision of HIV and AIDS information resources and
services in Swaziland which demonstrated that public libraries were making attempts to provide services
that were germane to the circumstances and context of the communities they serve. However, even as
these attempts were made, the focus was not really on the appropriateness of the materials for a commu-
249

nity that was largely oral and the collection was found to be composed of predominantly English books,
with very few audio-visual materials, pamphlets and leaflets. However, there was a library that provided
access to free condoms, taking the mandate of the library beyond the provision of printed materials to
providing an opposite service.
As indicated earlier, one of the challenges facing African countries is the level of poverty that exits.
Information and knowledge have been identified as antidotes to poverty as they can empower people
to do something about their situation. Mchombu & Mchombu (2014) report efforts to address poverty
in Namibia through Regional Study and Resource Centres set up by the Namibia Library and Archives
Services. These centres were set up to replace the former community libraries and to have a focus on
poverty eradication and therefore to offer highly targeted services.
AN ADVOCACY, OUTREACH AND PROGRAMMING FRAMEWORK
A synthesis of the themes emerging from the literature leads to a proposed advocacy, outreach and
programming framework. This framework has five (5) broad categories, Strategy and Leadership, Part-
nership and Collaboration, Community Engagement and Involvement, Assessment and Reporting, and
Equity and Social Inclusiveness. The implications of this framework are in the emphasis on the need for
intentionality on these issues. It also identifies the important components that must make up an ideal
advocacy, outreach and programming strategy.
Strategy and Leadership
Embarking on a mission to increase relevance, funding, resourcing, and visibility requires clear strategic
directions, and a leadership that is primed to implement and deliver. Mulindwa (2015) attributes the
successes that libraries have had in their operations to leadership that has been willing to learn how to
network and how to approach their mandates in a business-like manner. Indeed, if advocacy and all that
is entailed in securing resources, relevance and visibility of libraries is to be successful, librarians have
to be intentional about the required activities. This means that strategies must be drawn up and dissemi-
nated to the relevant authorities. Library leaders must also be committed to their implementation. It has
been pointed out earlier that librarians, especially those in leadership positions will need to be politically
astute in their approaches to issues. They will need to strategically position themselves where it makes
a difference to their communities. Understanding where influence lies and how to approach such indi-
viduals will have to be part of the tool kit of librarians. Library leaders must make it their business to be
informed about issues affecting their role in development in their countries and internationally. The role
of the national library associations cannot be overemphasized in this matter. They have to ensure that they
are always at the table when national issues such as visions and development plans and others that affect
their work are being discussed. They must engage their membership to keep them in the know of issues
that require their attention as professionals. Leadership in libraries require the following competencies:
• Communication skills
• Networking skills
• Innovation and creativity
• Marketing and promotion
250

• Quantitative skills
• Visioning and Strategy
Partnership and Collaboration
Partnerships are a requirement for any entity wishing to succeed in its mission. For public libraries,
partnerships are essential as they can assist the library in a number of ways: to obtain much needed
funding, to enhance visibility, to appreciate the context and need of the community they serve; and to
obtain much needed expertise and skills. It has been pointed out that in the past libraries have tended to
work in isolation (Mulindwa, 2015). In order to meaningfully contribute to the development of commu-
nities they purport to serve, public libraries must partner and collaborate. Partnership can be at various
levels and serve to achieve different ends. Partnership can be between different types of libraries in a
given community to leverage on the synergies of the libraries in providing services. Another level of
partnership is with government agencies, corporates, and non-governmental organizations within the
community. Partnering with these organizations will ensure that the public libraries are on board as to
the issues, needs and programs within the community. It will also heighten its recognition and visibility
as a development partner and help the library in launching services that require the assistance of the
organizations. For example, inviting health professionals to come to the library to deliver health talks.
Public libraries must also partner at international levels to ensure access to financing and support in
launching innovative services. Examples provided by Mulindwa (2015) of such partnerships include
the Global Libraries program in Botswana and South Africa, the Electronic Information for Libraries
(EIFL) Foundation and Ghana National Library Services collaborating to provide ICT and leadership
training to the youth, and the funding of three regional resource and study centers in Namibia through
its partnership with the Millennium Development Challenge. Libraries in South Africa, Uganda and
Ethiopia have adopted the model of sharing space and other facilities with schools, such that they serve
both communities and schools (Stranger-Johannessen, 2014). Partnership therefore can bring many ben-
efits such as increased ownership of services, creative and innovative ideas for transforming libraries,
visibility of the library in development work, increased funding and support, and benefit from different
talents and experiences.
Community Engagement and Involvement
Community involvement can lead to community driven services. Achievement of this requires that public
libraries engage with the communities, instead of waiting for them to come in to use the library. This can
be done by involving them in the operations of the library, decision-making about services, and their own
determination of how libraries may be used. The involvement of community is critical for development
as it leads to ownership and self-determination. In general, librarians understand the need for community
involvement, but do not do a good job of achieving it, but there is a need to understand that the library’s
sustainability depends on the use and usefulness that communities ascribe to it. That use depends on the
extent to which communities are involved as key stakeholders of the library. Stranger-Johannessen et
al (2014) used an ecological framework for library development, which emphasizes the need for public
libraries to make a number of considerations to maintain its relevance. Notably, to take into account
the context or environment in which they operate by ensuring that they integrate with the community’s
251

culture and identity. This then is the essence of involving communities: it is to foster their engagement,
to understand their culture and needs, to build the library’s social role, and to ensure equity of access.
But involving the community also has another dimension of understanding their context, and their
culture so that the design and implementation of information services is aligned to this in its shape and
character. A typical example is if a community is largely illiterate, then the services provided should
focus on literacy development and also provide information in other forms that do not require a high
level of literacy. If English is a challenge – and it most often is, then repackaging information into local
languages will serve a purpose.
Access and Social Inclusiveness
For many African countries, poverty, and illiteracy are the major challenges for rural communities
and pose hurdles to equity and social justice (Stranger-Johannessen et al., 2014). Public libraries have
always been regarded as democratizing institutions where everyone can have free access to information
and knowledge (Nwofor, 2015). But given the Eurocentric orientation of African public libraries, and
their resource constraints, they have not been very effective in this sphere. Further, developments in
ICTs and the resultant digital divide, have created a heightened sense of the need for public libraries to
play the role of access enablers. Public libraries therefore are now more than ever tasked to ensure that
there is equity in access to all library resources. According to Hoq (2015) rural library services in the
developing world are moving towards becoming technology-based information centers, providing access
to the Internet, government services, printing and photocopying, etc. No single paper that discusses the
state of libraries in developing countries or in Africa fails to mention the need for ICT based services.
Arguments have been made that access to knowledge is not just about providing the infrastructure
and the knowledge, but is also about recognizing that access is a cognitive process that depends on
the context of users (Lor & Britz, 2010). Libraries must ensure that there is easy and open access to
information in the right formats and levels. It behooves librarians to understand the literacy, language
and education levels of their users so that more appropriate and relevant materials might be included
in their collections. This literature review found that studies have been conducted on library services in
special areas of development, such as health, agriculture, environment, employment, etc. Almost invari-
ably, the findings have pointed to non-use of libraries, and a reliance on friends and family and other
informal sources (Hoq, 2015). This is a clear indication of library services that are not in tune with the
information needs of users.
Social inclusion is one of the major objectives of public libraries and can be achieved by intentional
efforts to identify community challenges and resolve them through library-based services. Activities
aimed at achieving social inclusion include adult education, computer literacy training, access to digital
information and equipment, access to information through the use of appropriate media, etc., (Mnkeni-
Saurombe & Zimu, 2015).
Research, Assessment and Reporting
It is critical for librarians to measure and assess use of their services (performance measurement). This
is something that they actually do, and for the most part, the data is meant for internal management
purposes. More often than not, apart from informing internal management about the number of library
users and what resources they use, the data does not give an indication of the value of public libraries.
252

Hence there are calls for libraries to demonstrate their value, which is defined as the beneficial effects
of the services to the users (Town, 2017). Such performance data if appropriately packaged can be a tool
for advocacy to the authorities who fund and support libraries, as well as to other stakeholders (Tolson
et al., 2014). Value can be demonstrated by combining data with stories of the impact that public library
use has had on members of the community. Even as measurement is understood in libraries, they do not
always measure all their activities, an example being their outreach activities (German & LeMire, 2017,
p. 66). According to the authors: “…while assessment is a long-standing valued practice for libraries,
from the literature it appears that connecting assessment to outreach in an intentional and goal-oriented
manner has yet to emerge as a common practice…” Yet this is one way that libraries can collect program
feedback and stories on the impact of their services and use them to demonstrate their value add to society.
In addition to assessment and reporting, public librarians are enjoined to also engage in action re-
search as a means of improving their services in line with the needs of communities they serve (Stranger-
Johannessen, 2014). This means that public libraries must become learning organizations in order for
them to understand what they are doing and how they can improve on it.
The literature review conducted for this chapter revealed research gaps to be addressed. The first is the
dearth of literature that documents the activities of public libraries in advocacy, outreach and public
programming. Next is a lack of information on how public libraries in Africa are faring on strategic
leadership, partnerships and collaboration, community engagement and involvement, access and social
inclusiveness, and research assessment and reporting. Research is required that goes beyond the usual
enumeration of challenges facing public libraries, and spells out what could or should be done. Instead, it
should focus on analyzing what is different about public library services that have surmounted or worked
around the challenges. This would surely provide opportunities for benchmarking and for gleaning les-
sons to inform future endeavors.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has reviewed literature with a view of unearthing advocacy, outreach and public program-
ming definitions, characteristics and practices in the African continent. The themes that emerged from
the literature suggest a framework that could be useful for public libraries and the professionals found
in them. The challenges outlined in the chapter are not insurmountable, for as long as there is an aware-
ness, appreciation and will to adopt strategies that will help public libraries make their case as essential
partners in development. The ultimate goal for African public libraries to become relevant and active
development partners will remain a mirage unless there is an appreciation of what action is required
and concerted effort to carry it out. Unless the librarians appreciate what is required for them to become
sustainable institutions whose existence and role is not in question, they will forever be in the fringes of
the development process, and be merely tolerated rather than valued as a necessary partner in develop-
ment. The literature reviewed in this chapter suggests that there is a framework that public libraries can
use to guide what they do. The framework consists of the following:
253

• Strategy and leadership

• Community engagement and involvement
• Partnership and collaboration
• Access and inclusiveness
• Research, assessment and reporting
In conclusion, the literature reviewed did not unearth many empirical studies on advocacy and out-
reach activities of public libraries in the different regions of Africa. It is therefore recommended that
such studies be conducted as a way of obtaining the baseline data and creating awareness and urgency for
librarians to embark on such projects. At this point, one would like to reiterate the role of governments
and interested stakeholders to assist in strengthening of library infrastructures, training of librarians,
and helping local libraries become learning and communication centers for their communities (Carnegie
Corporation, 2000).
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Framework: A broad overview or structure of ideas which support a specific objective or serves as
a guide of what is required to achieve an objective(s).
Library Advocacy: Activities undertaken to positively influence library users, decision makers and
other stakeholders. Public libraries use advocacy to secure ongoing support and funding, and to encour-
age a positive public policy environment that enables them to meet users’ changing needs.
Library Outreach: Is about reaching out to users, to encourage use of libraries and to engender a
positive image of the library. It is done mainly through programming that targets the needs and circum-
stances of the communities served by public libraries.
Public Library: A library that provides library services to the public, and is funded largely by
government.
Public Programming: Refers to services that are provided to address the needs of communities
served by public libraries.
Rural/Community Libraries: Libraries set up specifically to provide services to rural communities.
Such libraries may be part of the public library system in a country, or they may be set up and supported
by communities to provide specific services.
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Chapter 14
E-Resources Marketing in
African Academic Libraries:
Contexts, Challenges and Prospects
Patiswa Zibani
National Research Foundation (NRF), South Africa
Trywell Kalusopa
University of Namibia, Namibia
ABSTRACT
Significant changes are taking place in the digital information environment that necessitate a marketing-
oriented paradigm shift in the delivery of e-resources in most academic libraries in Africa. These changes
present different challenges and prospects in terms of newer skills and programming that require a high
degree of adaptability to well-designed marketing ethos in the delivery of e-resources offerings to the
increasingly diverse and sophisticated clientele in the academic environment in Africa. This chapter
examines the challenges and prospects of marketing e-resources in the digital environment in academic
libraries in Africa. It explores the holistic marketing readiness of academic libraries in terms of product
orientation, promotion, pricing, delivery channels, skills-set and atmospherics that would ensure that
the ultimate exchange of value to their clientele is sustained over time. This will accentuate the survival
and relevance of African academic libraries in the current dynamic, competitive, and technology-driven
environment in the world.
INTRODUCTION
Marketing as a concept has been studied by many scholars and this has resulted in the development of
various models and applications in context. People’s understanding and conception of marketing vary;
from simply pursuing sales and profit making with no concern for customer satisfaction; to the produc-
tion of promotional materials such as brochures (Gupta & Jambhekar, 2002). This perception is usually
influenced or determined by application of the concept in several contexts. As defined by Jestin and
Parameswari, (2002) “…marketing involves activities such as identifying target market’s needs, design-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch014

E-Resources Marketing in African Academic Libraries
ing suitable services or products to meet their needs and the use of effective pricing, communication and
distribution to inform, motivate and serve the market…” (p. 2). Singh (2009, p. 11) posits that marketing
is a business philosophy that places the customer at the centre of the organizational activities. Therefore,
marketing in the business world is a purposive and proactive organizational activity directed towards
satisfying targeted customers to achieve the organization’s goals.
Beyond the business world, the marketing concept has over the years attracted debate on its appro-
priateness in application to public service organizations such as hospitals, universities and libraries.
The argument has been that such organizations are non-profit, funded by the government with different
operational environments and different objectives compared with the business world. In the context of
libraries, the mandate is to continually meet the changing information needs of clientele, and that re-
quires continuous studying and monitoring of existing programs and platforms. Marketing in relation to
library and information services can be defined as “…the process of planning, pricing, promoting, and
distributing goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy the library and the customer…” (Singh,
2009, p. 13). In fact, what is even more persuasive with libraries/information centers adopting marketing
techniques is that the very philosophy of satisfying the customer that drives the marketing process has
been the very core principle of why information services are provided since time immemorial. Thus,
the integration of marketing into library and information services is helpful because it reinforces and
reiterates the basic values and beliefs of the profession in a changing environment - which is to provide
the right information to the right users at the right time and reducing barriers to access, enhancing the
use of information, and empowering users to access information on their own, particularly through the
use of modern technologies.
Since this chapter gives an insight into marketing in academic libraries, it is important to look into
role of an academic library in the provision of various information services to the clientele. These in-
formation services include e-resources made available to the university communities, primarily the staff
and student populations. Academic libraries are the essential information support systems to university
teaching, learning and research systems world over. In recent times, significant changes have taken place
in the digital information environment that have necessitated a paradigm shift in the collection develop-
ment processes and programs with e-resources being at the core of the delivery of information services
strategies in most academic libraries. Unique to e-resources marketing in academic libraries are the
compelling factors that drive the need to explore, develop and implement information service delivery
frameworks anchored on well-founded marketing strategies. These factors include dramatic change in the
digital era where everything is going ‘e’. This factor manifests in different ways and means such as the
introduction of the digital learning systems in higher education where teaching and learning takes place.
Academic libraries have to embed their services and establish collaborative links with the depart-
ments and the information and communications technology (ICT) departments if they are to remain
relevant. This linkage is essential as it will ensure that the required resources are at the reach of the end
user. The present-day end user that has developed impeccable technological skills that allows them to
interconnect globally and through multifaceted ICT applications can determine their time and space of
learning. Reliance on e-resources is another factor that is necessitated by ease of access, use, delivery
and storage. All these factors and more make marketing e-resources a unique and much needed service
in academic libraries.
Therefore, the objectives of this chapter are to:
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• Explore the holistic marketing readiness of academic libraries in terms of product orientation,
promotion, pricing, delivery channels, skills-set and atmospherics that would ensure that the ulti-
mate exchange of value to their clientele is sustained over time.
• Examine the challenges and prospects of marketing e-resources in the digital environment in aca-
demic libraries in Africa.
• Present and unravel initiatives in selected academic libraries in Africa by geographic spread.
• Reveal challenges and suggest the emerging consensus on the future prospects of marketing e-
resources in academic libraries in Africa.
BACKGROUND
The term e-resources in this chapter refers to the variety of electronic and digital sources of information
available to teachers and learners within an academic context (Swain & Panda 2009). With the advent
of e-resources the status of libraries and information centers across the world has leaned towards urg-
ing the user to get more and more acquainted to information online (Okello-Obura, 2010). E-resources
represent an increasingly important component of the collection building activities of libraries. Schol-
ars such as Liu (2006) have observed that electronic sources have become a first and better choice of
users when they look for information in the library (p. 1). As aptly asserted by Wright (2014), there is
therefore no doubt that the digital age has changed the way libraries and information centres operate, in
that, the storage, retrieval, and access of information resources has been revolutionized (p. 2). In fact,
the change has compelled libraries to acquire collections that will be stored remotely, where users can
have access to library collections 24/7 hours, as long as internet connection is available. Following
from this, it is instructive to assert that the digital age now allows users to access electronic documents
simultaneously, whereby, one document can be used by many users at the same time. It has also led to
the libraries reducing their budget on the print collections. This implies that the current digital age now
compels libraries to include e-resources, given that the electronic environment is now the first place
where the users consult when looking for information.
Consequently, academic libraries have thus to adapt to the use of newer technologies so that they
can satisfy the needs of their clientele and provide them with effective and quality information services.
Marketing is therefore at the core of this information management strategic vision in academic libraries.
Academic libraries require a high degree of adaptability by adopting well designed marketing ethos in
delivering e-resources. These may include the following:
Promotional Strategies of Electronic Resources in Libraries
Promotion in a library setting refers to methods that can be used to ensure that library users are aware
of the services and resources available. This can be done in many different ways such as print and on-
line advertising (brochures, bookmarks, website announcements), electronic methods (e-mails, screen
alerts) and merchandise for giveaways (pens, water bottles) (Mollel, 2013, p. 28). In the current digital
era, promotional strategies have moved to the environment where users are mostly found. Libraries have
employed diverse ways that are technological driven such as social media presence through networking
tools, library websites and emails.
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Atmospherics Such as People, Infrastructure and Processes

in Marketing Electronic Resources in Libraries
Library personnel plays a pivotal role towards the successful delivering of information services in a li-
brary setting. The daily interaction of personnel staff with clientele and the manner in which they present
and disposition themselves gives a clear picture and understanding of the library. Gupta and Jambhekar
(2002) affirm that library personnel are a deciding factor for the success of marketing strategy in the
library (p. 3). In the same vein, Jose and Bhat (2007), agree that all library personnel are key factors to
the success of a marketing strategy in the library (p. 23).
The infrastructure refers to the physical environment of the library. For effective rendering and
marketing of library resources and services, the physical library buildings should be functional and
attractive to users. The arrangement should be inviting and user-friendly to all categories of users. To
render a proper service in offering information services, the library personnel are expected to follow the
processes and procedures of the library. In that way, as espoused by Ranganathan, the library philosophy
of being focused - aiming to see that the right information services are rendered to the right users at the
right time, is maintained.
The Value Add of the Information to the User
There are many different reasons why users seek information services in the library, thus making it dif-
ficult to put a monetary value to the service rendered. Library services have always been regarded as free,
until recently when librarians have understood the price potential of services provided by the library in
social terms. In that regard, the value addition in this context should be seen from the user point of view,
defined by the actual need and objective of using the e-resource. This can vary, from teaching, learning,
research and professional development. According to Sharma (2009), libraries should consider both the
monetary price and the social price concepts when the price is decided for library products.
The Distribution Channels of E-Resources in Libraries
According to Arachchinge (2002), distribution of library products refers to ‘When’, ‘Where’ and ‘How’
service is made available to the user. ‘When’ implies the time period in which information is provided.
‘Where’ indicates the location of the services and ‘How’ constitutes the type of distribution. In terms of
geographical setting, the place where the library is located is important because the site of the library
can have an effect on the user. The library must be located where it is easily found, easily entered and
conveniently visited. Libraries are compelled to be fully organized in terms of when they should render
their services bearing in mind that the end user is not inconvenienced. ‘How’ they distribute and package
their services is crucial to full maximum use and exposure of the library.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES ON MARKETING

E-RESOURCES IN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
This section presents the global context of marketing e-resources in academic libraries. It thematically
gives different contexts, ranging from the importance and value of e-resources in the university com-
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munity, to policies and plans as they guide marketing and promotion and the use, delivery and access
of these products. As earlier indicated, the role of an academic library is to provide various information
services to the clientele. These information services may include electronic resources made available
to their communities which are primarily the staff and student populations. A university library differs
from other research libraries by virtue of its size, range, depth and quality of its collection. Haynes (1996)
posits that the academic library is the central hub that supports all academic programs; that represents all
disciplines, one place that is organized and integrated and where interdisciplinary aspects of knowledge
can be explored (p. 195).
The Importance of E-Resources in Academic Libraries
The importance and significance of electronic resources to teaching, learning and research is widely
recognized by several researchers. Marketing of e-resources in academic libraries is an on-going process
that is evolving to support times and technological innovations used at the time. It is important to have a
marketing plan that is continuously revisited to ensure that it keeps with times. It is also a crucial indica-
tor when determining whether the services are marketed and fully used. A marketing plan is a detailed
document that provides a cohesive vision and direction for a period of time and the steps that are taken
by an institution to identify the targeted market, justifications as to why there is a need for a marketing
drive, and evaluations of the techniques used when marketing (Kennedy, 2011. p.147). Reasons for
marketing and what is hoped to be gained can vary from vague to specific depending on an individual
library. It can be from getting the attention of customers, acceptance of new services, enhancement of
what is already available and its value to users, or introducing the culture of web searching. E-resources
can be problematic from a marketing perspective as libraries need to define a target audience, determine
their needs and provide it to them, even though libraries are limited by the products they subscribe to.
The marketing plan must talk to the goals and objectives of the library. It must answer questions such
as your target market, what resources are available for them (Alford, 2009, p. 274). Another important
task is to understand your audience. Alford (2009) gives us an example of a successfully marketed plan
by the University of New Mexico where a word of mouth plan was launched (p. 275). The library did
so because they found out 86% believed a friend, colleague or a trusted individual while 14% of the us-
ers believed what they saw on advertisements. Their campaign was aimed at establishing relationships
with teaching faculties.
A marketing plan can give a clear road map and drive the success of a campaign. Most libraries do
not have a clear assessment plan as a guiding principle. Betz et al., (2009) provides an example of a mar-
keting plan that had clear goals, techniques and assessments in place whereby Scopus database wanted
to increase its awareness amongst students. In this particular case, they focused on training students as
their trainers and advocates amongst other students. They used appealing techniques such as incentives
and giveaways. The statistics of usage later showed that the database searches doubled in five months.
Academic libraries have different approaches to the marketing. This is revealed in a study conducted
by Kennedy (2011) which analyzed content that spanned over a period of 15 years to discover what
inspire different approaches to marketing (p. 148). Kennedy (2011) discovered that different approaches
to marketing are the result of how it has been described by previous writers such as (Kotler & Levy,
1969) where they describe marketing as embedding skills and active approach that differs from the
passive approach described by Woo (2004, p. 336). Koontz et al. (2006) contend that libraries have
adopted an individualized manner of marketing (p. 231). These authors summarized Kotler and Levy’s
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(1969) argument that for effective marketing, one requires a consumer orientation instead of a product
orientation. Academic libraries are finding it difficult to move away from the mind-set of marketing ‘a
library as a place’. Their marketing techniques are still focused on physical mediums or items that are
put in locations and then they try to connect patrons to those resources. Marketing strategies of using
items such as banners, pencils, posters tend to mostly tie e-resources to the physical library. Kennedy
(2011) expects e- resources marketing strategies to rise to a level where libraries can even communicate
to users who may never use the physical library building to access their resources.
Usage of E-Resources in Academic Libraries
E-resources are convenient as they are accessible from anywhere and can be used simultaneously by
many users. Academic libraries are spending substantial amounts of money on subscriptions of different
e-resources. It is therefore imperative that e-resources are optimally used for academic achievement and
value for money. The academic community uses e-resources for different purposes ranging from teaching,
learning, conducting research, and professional development. Literature reveals the gap between aware-
ness and use of e-resources. Users are either aware and are using e-resources or aware but do not use
them. Usage of e-resources is a useful indicator that can measure the successes of marketing endeavors
in academic libraries. In India, a study conducted by Madhusudham (2008) revealed the extent to which
e-resource usage by their university communities impacted and influenced their research activities. The
findings of the study showed that very few attempts were made to measure use. As Madhusudham (2008)
observed: “It is very relevant and essential to know how research scholars are making use of e-resources
for their research work” (p. 5). A follow-up study by Kumar and Reddy, (2014) revealed that most In-
dian students and academic faculties used e-resources because they were aware of them, although the
majority of the academic community still used print. Most of these students and academics learnt about
electronic information sources either by trial and error or through the advice of friends. Another study
by Hart (1998) revealed that at Texas A&M University (TAMU) in the United States, a great portion of
the library budget went towards electronic resources and services. Hart focused on investigating whether
faculty and teaching staff were using e-resources, and if not, determine the reasons why they were not.
The results of the study showed a lack of awareness as the main reason for the low use of electronic
resources. The study contends that one of the successful marketing techniques is to determine what is
needed by the customers that you target. In this regard, Hart concurs with Kotler and Levy (1969) argu-
ment and is of the opinion that services and resources offered must be clearly defined so that they can
be easily recognized. Several university libraries have followed in the footsteps of TAMU University
to assess faculty use of electronic resources, and the results showed inequities in accessing electronic
resources among disciplines as well as lack of knowledge about library resources.
Some libraries attribute low usage of electronic resources to the lack of up-to-date equipment such
as computers. Hart (1998) also mentions lack of information on electronic resources and services as
the contributing factor as well as training on information literacy. Various suggestions were put for-
ward, from online help, written manuals, one-on-one training and frequent short courses. Some users
complained that while they are able to grasp what they are taught during training, once on their own,
they are unable to go forward and this frustrates them. Another study by Wu and Chen (2012) looked at
graduate students and the manner in which they perceived and used electronic resources in the National
University of Taiwan. The findings revealed that usage varied according to disciplines. As an example,
it was found that Humanities student regarded e-resources less important than other disciplines. These
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assertions are similar to those made by Atakan et al. (2008) regarding an evaluation of the second survey
on electronic databases usage at Ankara University digital library in Turkey; and in another study by
Talja and Maula (2003) in Finland on a domain analytic study in four scholarly disciplines regarding
the use and non‐use of e‐journals and databases.
However, Sinh and Nhung (2012) argued that users’ behavior will influence the usage of e-databases.
They argue that factors that have an influence in the usage of databases include; purpose of the database;
preferred type of materials; search techniques; difficulties and expectations in using a certain database.
Their survey on searching behavior of users of six online databases subscribed to by the Central Vietnam
National University in 2011 reported that 87.5% requested for full-text articles as compared with 12.5%
who requested for abstracts. Similarly, the findings reported by Coombs (2005) revealed that full-text
databases were preferred to other databases. In another study, He et al. (2012), also argue that students
thought of online search engines such as Google as an important and easy resource than university sub-
scribed databases such as EBSCO, Emerald, PubMed and JSTOR, and their preference depended on the
task at hand. Similarly, Cothran (2011) found that graduate students used Google Scholar more because,
for them, it was easy to use and navigate. In addition, the design and interface were user-friendly and it
was a useful resource for their research. Nisha and Ali’s (2013) found that users of the library used the
databases because the content was current and up to date. Chu and Law (2005) suggested that knowledge,
search skill and habitual use of databases are enhanced as students’ progress in their levels of studies.
Dudley (2011) emphasized the facilitation of the use of e-databases and recommended that the Dean of
Students request faculties to include relevant research databases on their course syllabi as part of sug-
gested resources for out-of-class research. In addition, handouts for databases be designed with screen
shots on how to access and guiding steps to navigate through the database. It was also suggested that
librarians should be invited to conduct classroom instruction of access and use of e-resources.
Marketing E-Resources in Academic Libraries
Marketing as defined by Kotler (1994) is a process that can allow an organization to concentrate its lim-
ited resources to grab the greatest opportunities to increase sales and achieve a sustainable competitive
advantage. A marketing strategy for an academic library should be goal oriented, centered on the key
purpose, that is, user/customer satisfaction. A marketing strategy is a written plan which combines the
efforts to plan an information product and product development, and the ways to promote information
products and services, how to price information products and services, and their distribution. In the case
of academic libraries, it identifies the marketing goals, and explains how they will be achieved within
a stated time frame. A marketing strategy determines the choice of target market segment, positioning,
marketing mix, and allocation of resources. It is most effective when it is made an integral component
of academic library strategy in defining how the academic library will successfully engage customers,
prospects, and competitors in the market arena. Kotler (1994) stresses that a marketing strategy is a
written marketing plan which covers all the functions of marketing from beginning to end. Veeramani
and Vinayagamoorthy (2010) conducted a study that looked into the need for marketing approach in
academic libraries in Kuwait. They identified basic reasons why university libraries in Kuwait need to
adapt a strategic marketing approach:
1. Emphasis should be focused on the customers or a library user wants.
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2. Library should first determine library user’s wants and then think on how to make and deliver a
literature to satisfy those wants.
3. Long term goals should be adapted so the service could be extended.
Academic libraries can reinforce the message that the library is a professional enhancement over what
is available on the general public web. This can be done through one on one personal contact, through
publications, presentations, web pages or any of the library’s varied means of communication. Librar-
ies need to have a mix of users and programs designed to reach both types. Marketing efforts should be
scrutinized if they are directed at self-sufficient independent users who are unlikely to ask for help or at
a more casual library user who does not know where to begin (Veeramani & Vinayagamoorthy, 2010,
p. 73). This makes a difference in designing a web page in the way items are into the online catalogue,
library publication and approaches librarians take with routine user queries. The key in properly marketing
electronic resources is in stressing what is available and putting those resources within context so that
users can have a grasp of their universe of options. The bottom line regarding marketing of electronic
resources is that:
1. Contents of Resources Must Be Available in the Library Catalogue: Information and commu-
nication technologies (ICTs) are central in facilitating the effective storage, communication and
dissemination of information. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
(IFLA, 2016) believes in the increasing access to information and knowledge across society through
the help of available ICTs as it supports sustainable development and improvement of people’s
lives. Through ICT as enablers, the library catalogue’s intended purpose is to integrate and enhance
visibility and harvesting of content. Most academic libraries use integrated library management
systems that have web-based catalogues that contain information (citations, abstracts and/or full
text) of journal articles, reference works, books and other documents. These catalogues can be
searched on-campus and off-campus unless otherwise indicated.
2. Resources Must Be Explained on the Library Website: Academic communities are dynamic
environments that are technologically driven and with that there is a culmination of innovations and
inventions. Academic libraries, by virtue of being a support service to the university community
are therefore required to match their information services with the technology-specific needs and
demands of clients (Makori, 2012). Social media applications and mobile devices are some of the
latest technologies that academic libraries are leveraging on to enhance their services. Adjusting
services to fit the web interfaced environment where personal communication occurs between
people with common interests can be seen as an extension of what librarians have long been doing.
Libraries have always been about services and personal relationships with their clients. The use of
social media in libraries has grown in strides and these tools have offered a magnitude of oppor-
tunities for the way academic libraries design and deliver services. Some of the more frequently
used social media tools are as follows:
a. Blogs, most often used applications in academic libraries. Mostly contain current scholarly
opinions and are used as valid sources of information by academics and researchers (Alexander,
2008). Most academic libraries create blogs for specific subjects to keep users updated on their
areas of interest and also disseminate library news, informing the clients of library activities,
and even publishing the library newsletter (Chua & Goh, 2010; Harinarayana & Raju, 2010).
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b. RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is another tool for updating users regularly; it can be anything
from new information on their blogs, or new services in the library (Chua and Goh, 2010;
Mahmood and Richardson, 2011).
c. Social bookmarking / user tagging can be used to bookmark sites online, network and col-
laborate with other scholars of the same interest (Harinarayana & Raju. 2010; Mahmood &
Richardson, 2011).
d. Wikis are mostly used in academic libraries to develop subject guides and reference archives
for past queries on library services. Wikis are also used to promote internally produced re-
sources such as procedures, rules and policies (Chua & Goh, 2010; Harinarayana & Raju,
2010; Mahmood &Richardson, 2011).
e. Social Networking Sites (SNS) such as Facebook, MySpace, YouTube and Flickr are used
by academic libraries for general sharing of information, marketing their services, and creat-
ing image databases to share their photos, videos, PowerPoint presentations, among others
(Harinarayana & Raju, 2010; Mahmood & Richardson, 2011).
f. Podcasts, applications used to enhance information dissemination, for example give tutorials
to clients on library resources such as the library catalogue (Harinarayana & Raju, 2010).
All of the above mentioned and many more tools can be used to enhance academic library services
and dissemination of information. It is imperative that these tools are explained and are visible in aca-
demic library websites.
3. Librarians Must Explain the Resources and Answer the User’s Questions: Academic librar-
ians are operating in an environment that requires them to be creative and innovative in the way
render their services. Librarians need to be proactive in an environment of escalating expectations,
where clients are looking for new answers. They should be able to help clients with their enquiries
beforehand by developing effective strategies and practical solutions. Through strategies such as
comprehensive client services programs libraries can gain support in their services. It is through
such activities that libraries gain advocates who supports their services for a long time. Advocacy
support becomes the end result.
Lee (2005) holds that displays and exhibits can be used as a marketing strategy to sell products or
ideas. Academic libraries can use displays to market their electronic resources. Lee believes that exhibits/
displays have two goals:
1. To educate, enlighten and enrich people

2. To increase usage
Displays/exhibits attract library users’ attention and can stimulate use of displayed collections. A
display will be useless if nobody knows its location, theme and contents, so there is a need for the
development of a publicity program. To make a good image of academic libraries, librarians need to
establish better communication between the library and the users. Newsletters serve as effective means
of communication in this regard. The newsletter needs to inform the users about the display theme,
location, content and duration.
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Gupta (2002) posits that the adoption of appropriate marketing and implementation actions in aca-
demic libraries lie in confusion as to what marketing entails. As Gupta explains, some librarians view
marketing as being about marketing communication, and promotion, whilst others view marketing as
customer satisfaction. The Association of Research Libraries provides a useful and context specific
definition of what marketing is. It is defined as “the organized process of planning and executing the
conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that
will (if applicable) satisfy individual and organizational objectives” (ARL, 2010, p. 31). Marketing
collects and uses demographic, geographic, behavioral, and psychological information. Marketing also
fulfils the organization’s mission and, like public relations inspires public awareness and education.
Consistent with the definition proposed above, Smith (2007) emphasizes the need for a clear un-
derstanding of users, the library’s products, and the appropriate place for service delivery, an appropri-
ate pricing strategy, and effective promotional strategies. Many libraries have wonderful services and
products but users are unaware of their availability. Vasileiou and Rowley’s (2011) study sought to de-
termine whether the libraries had a formulated strategy for the marketing and promotion of e-books or
e-resources. The responses revealed that none of the libraries had a formalized strategy for the marketing
of any e-resources. Nevertheless, there was recognition among the interviewees (19 out of 25) that the
development of a formulated strategy was needed (p. 630).
Vasileiou and Rowley (2011) in their investigation discovered a number of challenges that centered
on the role of the librarian; budget constraints, lack of a coherent marketing strategy, lack of under-
standing about teaching and learning issues on the part of librarians. Their overall findings were that
there is evidence of marketing actions, and some evidence of innovation and reflection on those actions.
However, an organized and strategic approach to promote and market e-resources was lacking. The study
also revealed managing tensions between promotion and supply, where respondents echoed these fac-
tors; making time to undertake marketing; dealing with the consequences of increased work load as a
result of the success of a marketing strategy, and related to this raising expectations and being unable to
deliver against those expectations. The most significant finding to emerge from Vasileiou and Rowley’s
(2011) research is the dichotomy between strategy and practice. None of the libraries adopted a strategic
approach to marketing or promotion of e-resources, yet, on the other hand, most interviewees were able
to point to a range of tools used to promote e-resources, and some had plans for improvements in their
promotion activities.
Vasileiou and Rowley (2011) propose that practitioners should accord priority to developing a mar-
keting strategy and a supporting marketing communications strategy in order to coordinate marketing
actions. The practitioners also need to ensure that all staff have shared views on key aspects such as
audience, message, channels objectives; recognizing and proactively managing the inherent tensions
between promotion and marketing as well as the capacity to respond to increased demand. There is a
key need of moderating promotion accordingly, and keeping staff engaged through effective internal
marketing; continuing to innovate in relation to the range of promotion tools in use, and reflecting on
the integration of service delivery and marketing communication through the digital channel. Particular
attention should be paid to the use of promotional tools that facilitate two-way communication with users,
and an appreciation of the different roles of different tools for different user groups should be developed.
Strategic approach steps to influencing word-of-mouth, both digital and face-to-face, as a means of
engaging and communicating with academics and students, and integrating word of mouth into a wider
marketing communications strategy should be taken (Vasileiou & Rowley, 2011).
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STATUS OF MARKETING E-RESOURCES IN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES IN AFRICA
The academic library is the heart of the university as its role is to support the mission and vision of the
university activities such as teaching, learning and research in Africa (Nkosi, 2009; Gakibayo, Ikoja-
Odongo, & Okello-Obura, 2013). African academic libraries need to be in the frontline of transferring
information and technology from the developed world to Africa. University libraries need to be a link
between local researchers and their counter parts in the other parts of the world. According to Rosen-
berg (2007), many African universities are witnessing a rapid proliferation of electronic networking
and use of computerized databases to access information in their libraries (p. 290). There is evidence of
departure from total reliance on print‐based information to the use of electronic and digital techniques
in information storage and access (Agalo, 2008). It is critical that library users are acquainted with the
digital platforms and devices such that there are no issues when services are rendered digitally. However,
marketing e-resources in African academic libraries is met by many challenges, such as information
literacy skills, limited access to computer networks, slow internet connections and restricted access to
certain sites and lack of training on how to use the internet. Studies have been conducted in academic
libraries in Africa aiming at bringing the use and access of e-resources to the fore.
Most of these studies highlight similar challenges that underscore the need for proper marketing of e-
resources in context. For example, in South Africa, Soyizwapi (2005) in a study on the use of e-databases
by postgraduate students in the Faculty of Science and Agriculture at University of KwaZulu-Natal
Pietermaritzburg (UKZNP) found that students were aware of the availability of e-databases largely
through library orientation programs and through other students. The study emphasized the need for a
customer focused training among students on the use of databases and a need for improving access for
all campuses as well as off-campus users. Similarly, another study by Hadebe (2010) among Masters
Students of the Faculty of Humanities, Development and Social Sciences, at same institution, students
were found to be generally inexperienced in the use of e-databases and needed from subject librarians in
terms of end-user instructions. In Botswana, Ojedokun (2001) in a study conducted at the University of
Botswana on internet usage by students also revealed lack of searching skills amongst the students and
required depth more depth in increasing their awareness of e-resources. Likewise, a study conducted in
Nigeria by Ukachi (2015) to determine the relationship between undergraduate students’ information
literacy skills and their use of e-resources at the Nigerian university libraries revealed that e-resources
are not adequately utilized by undergraduate students, because they did not possess adequate information
literacy skills for optimal use of e-resources.
These studies above are all highlighting information literacy as an impediment to adequate access and
use of e-resources. According to Adenkule et al. (2007), the use of ICTs in the digital age is one of the
challenges associated with Information Literacy (IL). This poses a problem to librarians as they have to
deal with users from different backgrounds that have different levels of exposure to the ICT environment.
IL is a skill that extends from knowing how to use computers and access information which manifests
on the nature of information itself, its technical infrastructure and its social, and cultural impact. This
digital age portrays a huge challenge with the emerging innovations in ICTs. There is a need to acquire
skills to find, locate and use information from print sources, computer and other storage media. Users
with low information literacy skills may spend too much time retrieving information, owing to problems
they may encounter when seeking information especially electronic information resources (Okiki &
Mabawonku, 2013, p. 69). To retrieve information in the open web, not only formal information skills
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are needed but substantial information skills. Thomas (2005) observed that sophisticated computer skills
do not automatically translate into skills in search and retrieving of information.
In Uganda, libraries have realized the importance of IL programs to maximize the use of their very
costly e-resources. For users to know the available resources, awareness is very important and also the
ability to access and utilize the resources. Access does not usually mean usability (Kinengyere, 2007).
In 2005, Makerere University Library organized a training workshop on e-databases, such as HINARI
and AGORA. Some of the exercises involved accessing relevant websites on the internet and others
were conducted offline. The aim of the workshop was to provide researchers, policy-makers, educa-
tors, librarians and extension specialists with the tools to take advantage of this access to high-quality,
relevant and timely information on agriculture and health. INASP organized training workshops which
attracted all universities in Uganda. The program focused on ICTs and e-resources management train-
ing; delivering information; strengthening national research publications; research and development and
monitoring and evaluation of e-resources usage. The workshop also focused on licensing and negotiation
skills for librarians. Participants were drawn from several African countries such as Ghana, Uganda,
Malawi, Kenya, Zimbabwe and the UK. These workshops were to ensure a balance in the acquisition
of the needed IL skills.
Academic libraries in Africa have a far greater need to develop innovative marketing strategies for
e-resources. In Tanzania research conducted by Manda (2005) on the usage of e-resources in academic
the libraries established that the reason for the low usage statistics was that many users were unaware of
the e-resources and not satisfied with the way the library marketed them. Manda’s findings suggest that
most users only found out about the e-resources when they attended library workshops. Librarians there-
fore need to promote e-resources so that they are easily accessible on the library homepage. Marketing
strategies such as bookmarks, newspaper ads, and brochures could be used to draw attention to the library.
One of the challenges facing digital library projects in Africa has been the readiness of the university
libraries in terms of skills and knowledge to implement the digital and electronic library services (Chi-
ware, 2007). Rosenberg (2006) notes that skills in e-resources management, e-services development, full
text digitization and teaching skills are lacking in African university libraries. Other challenges includ-
ing earlier mentioned, IT infrastructure, Internet connectivity, and funding is the increased demand for
librarians with skills needed to initiate, manage and participate in digital library projects (Jacso, 2002).
Many donors like UNESCO, FAO, Andrew F. Mellon Foundation, Carnegie Foundation and the AAU
(Association of African Universities) have provided support in the training of librarians to implement
digital libraries projects (Chiware, 2007). Some university libraries have the support of IT units to ad-
dress the problem of lack of IT skills among librarians. Integrated library systems are always supplied
with vendor support and trainings that ensured that staff is adequately trained to run the projects. The
requirements for training to, design, implement and manage digital projects and electronic library ser-
vices in university libraries are varied (Bawden et al., 2004). Librarians in academic libraries should be
trained enough to understand and possess skills and techniques needed to implement and manage digital
collections. These trainings must also cover the processes of collection development and management
and to making digital collections accessible to the academic and research communities. This can be done
through continuing educational programs or through formal training in library and information science
(LIS) and IT schools.
According to Chiware (2007) the skills required for the digital age in African university libraries
should address three main areas:
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• The first should be an understanding of the current state and prospects of digital libraries in
African universities and familiarization with the major projects in other types of institutions.
• Secondly the training should be on skills to handle resources and the technology context for digital
libraries, tools and rules (protocols) of interoperability.
• Lastly there should be an understanding of the enhanced features offered by the digitized content
and digital resource discovery tools. And about collecting, organizing and presenting information
about digital resources and creating annotated web-based access tools (p. 3).
Librarians in African universities should be trained either through formal programs in library schools
or through workshops and other forms of short courses and importantly, trainees should understand the
current state and prospects of digital libraries in African university libraries and other types of libraries
as well. An understanding of the global trends in digital library projects and the trends in developing
economies and more specifically in African countries is necessary as that will make it easy for them
to impart knowledge and training to their clientele. Training in project management must also involve
building skills in project planning and management as they are important in the success of any digital
library projects. Some of the most important aspects of project management include understanding the
project requirements, the role of planning, accurately determining budgets and schedules, controlling
the scope of the project and developing expertise. They should understand the challenges of managing
digital library projects, i.e. what are the likely pitfalls and how can these be addressed.
EMERGING CONSENSUS AND PROSPECTS ON THE MARKETING

OF E-RESOURCES IN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES IN AFRICA
Academic libraries are at the heart of academic pursuits. Quality education is impossible without a
quality library. To improving the quality of research work it is fundamental to enable and support prac-
tices of creating, accessing and using information and knowledge (Madhusudhan, 2010). The world of
information is large and complex with no easy answers to simplify a search the wealth of e-resources
produced by a wide range of publishers using different structures and vocabularies (Lippincott, 2010).
The change in traditional document delivery services, from print to electronic, has come about very
quickly and libraries and information services have undergone significant transformation in order to
effectively deliver electronic resources to the academic community (Appleton, 2006; Swain & Panda,
2009; Okello-Obura, 2010). The paradigm shift in the digital arena has given rise to a number of op-
tions for user communities to handle varied information resources with ease. This section presents the
emerging consensus on what could be the prospects for marketing e-resources in academic libraries in
Africa. The key issues surrounding this consensus in literature is discussed around the following key
marketing themes namely:
• Product orientation
• Promotion
• Delivery channels
• Development of skills
• Value add in the access and use of e-resources
• Atmospherics (people, infrastructure and processes)
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Product Orientation
A product is anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption that
might satisfy a need or want. (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009). As described by De Saez
(2002) in terms of library services, a product can be defined as the services which the library generally
offers to its clients and prospective users. Academic libraries spend a chunk of their budgets towards the
acquisitions of e-resources. The digital change and technological inventions have necessitated a para-
digm shift from print to e-content in academic libraries in Africa. This is solely because the users are
the drivers behind this change. Academic libraries in Africa have an obligation to create awareness of
the e-resources they provide. These e-resources can be in the format of e-journals, e-books, e-databases,
e-tools, and audiovisuals. All formats of e-resources need marketing for better access and use.
Promotion
Promotion is an activity that communicates the product or service and its merit to target customers and
persuade them to buy, that is, the way a company communicates what it does and what it can offer cus-
tomers, it includes activities such as branding, advertising, corporate identity, exhibitions etc. (Salaam,
2013). Promotion is one major marketing mix aspect that is well known and mostly used in libraries.
Traditionally, libraries have been known to promote their services through displays, either of new books
or current awareness activities, posters, exhibitions, user orientation programs, contact programs and
library outreach (Kaur & Rani, 2008). The impact of web based e-learning and teaching environment has
influenced every facet of library and information services in academic libraries. It has also provided new
opportunities and challenges to library professional for involvement in knowledge based society including
electronic and multimedia publishing, internet based information services and global networking web
based digital resources. Today, due to the high level of technological innovations, academic libraries can
employ various ways to promote their e-resources. Academic libraries in Africa are now using the web 2.0
tools, emails, library websites and social networking tools to promote their services. In addition, academic
libraries in Africa must adopt the use of transformative tools that makes the availability of products easy
and seamless everywhere, anytime. These tools are based on the ICT factors like, development of library
home page, web page, subject gateway, library portals, webinars, RSS Feeds, Vodacasting, Podcasting,
wikis, blogs, and newsgroups. De Saez (2002) believes that the library needs to promote the services it
offers as it is of importance to remain the central support to the development of the intellectual world
and economic growth in general for it to be acknowledged, and appreciated. It is also important to note
that academic libraries still need to continue and maintain traditional promotional strategies as they still
have a client base. When academic libraries market e-resources, they are not only targeting the students
but the entire community that is involved in teaching, learning and research.
Delivery Channels
The manner in which the e-resources are delivered to users is critical to access and use. Most academic
libraries in Africa have computers where e-resources can be accessed within the physical library build-
ing. However, access and use of the resources is not limited in the library. Most libraries have their
own computer servers housed in their academic libraries. Johnson et al. (2012) define a server as “a
computer with a large amount of storage space linked to other computers either through an internal
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computer network or the internet that may serve systems on a LAN or WAN over the internet” (p. 30).
Most academic libraries in Africa often procure proxy servers. A proxy server acts as a filter for client
information requests, in which access data are stored on a separate server. Proxy servers are often used
to authenticate off-site users prior to granting access to licensed e-resources. In such libraries there are
systems librarians. Systems librarians in Africa integrate task and responsibilities to train library staff in
the various technical tools acquired by the library. Gall and Hirst (2010) argue that the role of systems
librarian is to install, upgrade and troubleshoot both hardware and software, and offer training to all
library staff. Therefore, support for e-resources requires expertise in technical issues.
Development of Skills
According to Davis and Lundstrom (2011) academic libraries worldwide have adopted new technologies
that require investment in staff development. These developments can be seen as appropriate in line
with the technological changes that have taken the world by storm. However, like elsewhere, academic
libraries in Africa are facing budget constraints. Many library managers are facing difficulties in terms
of designing staff development programs (Mapulanga, 2014). Few libraries can afford to send their
employees for training, attending conferences, workshops and seminars (Mapulanga, 2014). Despite of
the situations the academic libraries in Africa find themselves in, academic librarians need to learn new
processes, methods and to catch up on new trends which will facilitate access to and use of e-resources.
Staff training is the key to marketing e-resources. Staff need to be trained on firstly, how to execute
marketing of resources and secondly on the resources they are marketing. According to Chiware (2007),
training librarians in African universities through either formal program in library schools or through
workshops and other forms of short courses is important. Trainees need to understand the current state
and prospects of digital libraries in African university libraries as well as the global trends in digital
libraries. It is imperative that librarians’ training needs are prioritized for effective delivery of presenta-
tions. Chiware believes that training of librarians should involve information skills in order to enable
easy access and use of digital collections in African university libraries. Trained librarians should be
able to conduct user needs assessments and how to respond to those needs.
Good marketing skills promote and contribute to successful access and use of e-resources. Academic
library employees are considered skilled information managers, especially when it comes to classification,
searching and preservation. Facilitating access and use of e-resources also needs technical expertise to
be able to overcome challenges such as network problems, virus attacks and other technical problems.
ICT training and awareness must be carried out to increase the knowledge among librarians. As librar-
ies are increasingly expected to play a huge role in the development of more effective arrangements for
managing, curating, sharing and preserving data created or gathered by researchers, librarians should
equally be equipped to do so with ease. Such roles require libraries to develop new skills and services,
and their ability to do that is increasingly constrained in the current financial climate. According to
Sejane (2017) most libraries in the Sub-Saharan region have been mandated to collect and preserve all
publications produced within a country (p. 122)
Value Add in the Access and Use of E-Resources
Academic libraries in Africa spend most of their budgets towards the subscriptions of e-resources;
therefore, it is important that the university community derives value in the use of these resources.
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Moyo (2004) states that users use e-resources for many reasons from publishing in scholarly journals,
undertaking a research project, writing a thesis or dissertation, performing a routine task and perform-
ing a new task. Thus e-resources are used for different purposes. The use of e-resources is very impor-
tant as they are more up-to-date and can be accessed anywhere across all geographical boundaries. A
large budget is required to build a collection of e-resources that are valued by the users. But without
conducting a study, there is no way of knowing whether the users accept them or whether they find the
e-resources easy to use, reliable and useful, or whether e-resources are used effectively. One can argue
that e-resources add value to teaching, learning and research activities. The value add is the knowledge
gained from use of e-resources that necessitate the success of teaching, learning and research activities.
Kwafoa et al., (2014) clearly establishes the dependence of faculty members on e-resources not only
for the purpose of research, but also to support their teaching. As supported by Deng (2010), users have
various purposes for use of e-resources, from gathering information on a specific topic, gaining general
information, obtaining answers to specific questions, completing assignments, reviewing literature, writ-
ing essays and making decisions. Dolo-Ndlwana (2013) observes that currently users are dependent on
the availability of e-resources for meeting many of their academic needs. However, Shukla and Mishra
(2011) argue that a majority of research scholars use e-resources for publishing articles to keep up-to-
date and for finding information in their area of specialization. Dhanavandan et al., (2012) identified
how e-resources were utilized by academic library users and identified specific trends that can be seen
among faculties and students.
Atmospheric Aspects (People, Infrastructure and Processes)

in Marketing E-Resources in Academic Libraries
Human resource refers to all library personnel and constitutes a key factor to the success of a market-
ing strategy in the library (Jose & Bhat, 2007; Zibani, 2017). They also declare that library personnel
play a vital role towards the successful delivery of information services. They interact with users on a
daily basis and their presentation and general disposition speaks volumes about the image of the library.
Jambhekar (2002), emphasizes that for librarians to effectively market library resources, it is expected
that physical library buildings should be functional and attractive to users. The arrangement should be
inviting and user-friendly to all categories of users. In offering information services, the library personnel
are expected to follow the processes and procedures of the library. They should uphold the Rangana-
than theory of librarianship which is user focused. The aim is to see that the right information services
are rendered to the right users at the right time in order not to waste user’s time and not to render any
information services useless, thus, due process should be maintained (Bamigbola, 2013). Sejane (2017)
states that using the latest infrastructure and technology for networking is always a good indication for
development of the library (p. 80). Local Area Network (LAN), intranet and internet facilitate the ef-
fective dissemination of information to library users. Academic libraries are in need proper ICT infra-
structure including hardware, software, and library staff to be trained properly (Singh, 2011). Full-time
ICT oriented professionals should be employed in academic libraries to deal with the technical matters
and problems related to ICT. Issues of connectivity and bandwidth also need to be at the forefront in
academic libraries. Sejane (2017) states that universities, are pressured to increase bandwidth, and this
has not come only from libraries but students, lecturers and researchers are effective advocates. An
exponential increase in usage statistics indicates that e-resources are now a must.
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Studies on marketing e-resources for better access and use of e-resources in the academic libraries of
Africa are important but limiting. Perhaps future research in other types of libraries, such as special,
government, and national libraries, can determine how e-resources are accessed and used, what systems
are in place to enhance access and use and the challenges and strategies to improve access to and use
of e-resources in these libraries. Future research could also be carried out to determine the impact of
access and use to users of such libraries. Other future research could also focus on the issue of embed-
ding social media tools in the marketing of information products and services in academic libraries as
well telemarketing strategies.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has discussed marketing of e-resources in academic libraries of Africa, specifically highlight-
ing on the issues faced. It also discussed the uniqueness of marketing e-resources. The global perspec-
tives on marketing e-resources were dealt with a focus on the global and African context. Challenges
faced were also discussed and recommendations proffered. The chapter highlights several strategies
which academic libraries could enhance and entrench their role and visibility through well-coordinated
marketing strategies. These should centre on holistic marketing readiness of academic libraries in terms
of product orientation, promotion, pricing, delivery channels, skills-set and atmospherics that would
ensure that the ultimate exchange of value to their clientele is sustained over time.
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Academic Library: A library attached to a higher education institution to support teaching, learning
and research activities.
Access: Refers to applied delivery, instructions, methods of e-resources, ensuring proper technologi-
cal software, hardware, and internet connections, as well as providing user instruction on how to use
these materials effectively.
E-Resources: Are the electronic information sources or services that are accessed through a comput-
ing network or any other ICT infrastructure in the library or remotely.
Marketing: Refers to the holistic process of product orientation, promotion, pricing, delivery chan-
nels, skills-set and atmospherics that would ensure the ultimate exchange of value and use of e-resources
over time.
University: An institution of higher learning providing facilities for teaching and research and au-
thorized to grant academic degrees.
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Chapter 15
Promoting Library Services
in a Digital Environment
in Zimbabwe
Blessing Chiparausha
Josiline Phiri Chigwada

ABSTRACT
This chapter documents the strategies that are employed by librarians in promoting library and infor-
mation services in Zimbabwe. The study also sought to ascertain the perceptions of librarians towards
promoting library service in Zimbabwe in a digital environment and assess the challenges faced by li-
brarians when promoting library and information services in Zimbabwe in a digital environment. A study
was done, and the participants were drawn from academics, the public, schools, and special libraries.
An online questionnaire was posted on Survey Monkey and librarians were invited to participate from
the Zimbabwe Library Association social media platforms. Data was analysed thematically using the
objectives of the study. It was discovered that despite facing a number of challenges when promoting
library and information services, participants were using various strategies to promote their services.
The authors recommend continuing professional development of librarians to effectively deliver their
services in a digital environment.
INTRODUCTION
The chapter demonstrates how library professionals in Zimbabwe are promoting library and information
services in a digital environment. The digital age has a lot of opportunities for an individual to access
information and entertainment. In view of this, librarians have to find innovative ways of justifying
their existence and promote their services effectively in order to remain relevant in the ever-changing
technological environment. This is particularly important considering that individuals can easily access
information and get entertained on the Internet using search engines and social media. Despite such a
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch015

Promoting Library Services in a Digital Environment in Zimbabwe
scenario, the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA, 2013) underscores
the importance of libraries in building a culture. Therefore, librarians should justify their existence and
provide services that entice library users to continue using library products and services.
BACKGROUND
Reading comes in two ways: it can be for a purpose or for leisure. Reading for a purpose relates well to
the utilitarian model. Utilitarianism is premised on the notion that an individual takes an action with the
hope of ultimately benefiting thereafter; actions that result in pain or loss are avoided (Cavalier, 2014;
Mill, 1863). Based on this theory, it implies that individuals are motivated to read because they wanted
to achieve something. Typical examples of reading that falls within utilitarianism include reading for
examinations and reading to carry out a task. Leisure reading is self-directed reading for personal and
social purposes; it is also known as recreational reading, pleasure reading or independent reading (In-
ternational Reading Association, 2014). Leisure reading can take place anywhere such as at school, at
home or in the library. Fiction, nonfiction, picture books, e-books, magazines, social media, websites,
newspapers, comic books, graphic novels, etc. can be read for leisure (International Reading Associa-
tion 2014). Leisure reading which is intrinsically and socially motivated and a pleasure to the reader is
highly dependent on the environment; families and teachers should support leisure reading by providing
students with reading materials and freeing up time for reading. According to the International Reading
Association (2014) designating school leisure reading times through initiatives such as sustained silent
reading (SSR), drop everything and read (DEAR), love to read (LTR) and providing opportunities with
everyday reading (POWER) are very important as they promote leisure reading. Zimbabwean citizens’
reading culture, just like that of any country, is on the spotlight on whether it is driven by utilitarianism
or socially motivated as propounded in the two theories just described here.
IFLA (2017) notes that: “promoting reading and literacy as an essential requirement for active par-
ticipation in society, through access to information in any format”. Farmer and Stricevic (2011) and
IFLA (2015) acknowledge that several stakeholders who include library staff, potential readers, teachers,
publishers, media, cultural and educational groups, government representatives and other community
members are involved in promoting reading and literacy. Promoting library and information services
is therefore important considering the waning reading culture in the country (Mushava, 2015). There
is competition for the attention of the citizen who has social media, television, social life, work, family
life, education, etc. before them. Finding time to attend to all these may be difficult or impossible. As a
result of this, library and information services are often experiencing low usage. Parents, teachers and
library users themselves have an important role to play to ensure that the catch them young concept is
implemented.
Upon attaining majority rule in 1980, the government of Zimbabwe embarked on a number of
programmes to empower the majority. One of the programmes was improving education and literacy
for all citizens. In 1983, functional literacy of Zimbabwe’s adult population stood at 40% (Nyangoni,
1981). Chisita (2012) reports that Zimbabwe rolled out a massive literacy programmes that included the
launch of Adult Literacy Organisation of Zimbabwe (ALOZ) in 1983. These efforts saw the country’s
literacy levels going up. Initiatives such as the Zimbabwe Book Development Council (ZBDC) which
spearheaded the reading programmes such as the National Book Promotions (NBP), supporting librar-
ies, and workshops for players in the book industry, policy makers and readers led to increased reading
285

in the 80s up to the early 1990s. The country also hosted the National Book Week that targeted readers
of all age groups and the ‘Catch them while they are still young’ promotion that sought to popularize
the reading among the young. Literacy is very important as it contributes directly to reading culture and
socio-economic development of any country depends on the reading ability of its people (Nyangoni,
1981). In view of this, it implies that librarians are part of the nexus for national development, thus pro-
moting a nation’s reading culture cannot be taken for granted. Furthermore, as Nyangoni (1981) puts it,
“people receiving tuition in reading skills are potential users of the library and must, therefore, be the
librarians’ concern” (p.52).
In addition, library service provision in Zimbabwe has not received optimum support to fully realize
the maximum potential. Moyo and Chibaya (2017), Newsday (2011), Doust (1999) and Nyangoni (1981)
reveal that though some libraries have been established, their services are not really effective due to
underfunding and lack of an enabling national policy framework to support them. The efforts made by
government and other institutions of setting up libraries in the 1980s and 1990s have also been exposed
to waning support to an extent that most of the school and public libraries are solely dependent on book
donations from well-wishers (Newsday, 2011). This implies that librarians’ potential of pushing the
frontiers of reading culture is severely compromised by the poor services.
However, the reading culture of Zimbabweans has come under the spotlight. Though the literacy rate
in Zimbabwe is reported to be at 90%, it is arguable whether the literacy levels translate to a reading
culture and high usage of libraries. There have been speculations that Zimbabweans simply read to pass
their examinations thus using the library for other purposes outside examination preparation is unlikely.
Similarly, it is unlikely to find students using the library if they can successfully sit for an examination
without using library and information services that are provided in various institutions. Information
sources available on the Internet, coupled with the robustness of search engines such as Google and the
academic mischief of using paper mills also tend to work against libraries. Those who use paper mills
more often than not, go unpunished and those who use library and information services may not in some
cases be rewarded nor recognised.
There is also a rising tendency by individuals to easily access information disregarding librarians’ call
for an information literate citizenry that can competently identify their information need, locate informa-
tion to address that need and subsequently use the information in a legal and ethical manner. Electronic
gadgets facilitating access to information have become ubiquitous but there is no corresponding effective
utilisation of these gadgets to access and share information legally and ethically.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY AND METHODS
It is against the background stated above that the chapter seeks to address how librarians in Zimbabwe
are promoting the use of library and information services in their respective libraries. More specifically,
the objectives of the study are:
1. To identify strategies employed by librarians in promoting library and information services in

Zimbabwe in a digital environment;
2. To ascertain the perceptions of librarians towards promoting library service in Zimbabwe in a
digital environment; and,
286

3. To assess the challenges faced by librarians when promoting library and information services in
Zimbabwe in a digital environment.
In order to meet the above objectives, an online survey was conducted. The population of the study
comprised of all types of libraries namely academic, public, school and special libraries. Participants
were therefore drawn from all types of libraries. Twenty-one librarians from academic, public, school and
special libraries participated in the study. An online questionnaire administered using Survey Monkey
was used to gather data from the respondents. The questionnaire was available for completion for a period
of three months. The breakdown of participants is shown in Table 1. The respondents were identified
using the Zimbabwe Library Association (ZIMLA) website and social media platforms; a mailing list
from ZIMLA, ZIMLA Facebook and Twitter followers and colleagues in the profession who followed
the authors’ social media platforms were asked to participate in the survey. Considering that the study
sought to find out librarians’ practices in a digital era, the survey had to be administered online.
READING CULTURE IN THE DIGITAL AGE
There have been arguments on whether the printed book will survive in this digital economy. Some
proponents of electronic information resources feel that the printed book is on its way out. However,
Itsekor and Nwokeoma (2017) emphasise that the book in print format remains important in this digital
age and the IFLA (2013) reiterates that libraries remain important in building a literacy culture. The
authors however note that most people read for a purpose than leisure, thus many would “rather pre-
fer visiting friends, sit and chat, watch television or play video games than to read a book” (Itsekor &
Nwokeoma, 2017, p. 98). It is therefore evident that most of the people who read do so for purposes of
passing examinations, a phenomenon that falls within the Utilitarian model. Considering that the gen-
erality of the population are not studying, reading for leisure remains low consequently pushing down
the reading culture. Itsekor and Nwokeoma (2017) acknowledge that reading corresponds with literacy
though it is possible to find low levels of readership in a community despite the availability of reading
materials. Itsekor and Nwokeoma (2017) give the example of Nigerians whom they say find pleasure
in other forms of entertainment than reading. This implies that the presence of libraries in communities
and the availability of reading materials do not mean that readership is high.
Although Chisita (2011), and Musingafi and Chiwanza (2012) celebrate that Zimbabwe has the highest
literacy rate in Africa pegged at 92%, Mushava (2015) laments that Zimbabwe’s reading culture is on the
decline. The decline, which has been observed in a number of countries across Africa, is attributed to a
Table 1. Breakdown of survey participants
Category Number of Respondents

Academic 14
Public 1
School 3
Special 3
Total 21
287

number of factors that include increasing interest in watching television and films, use of social media,
limited infrastructure and rising costs of books (Agency Reporter, 2017, Aina, Ogungbeni, Akesode,
& Ogundipe, 2011; Nabuyanda, 2011). Nabuyanda (2011) makes the following recommendations to
promote a reading culture among citizens:
1. Cultivating reading interests by constructing libraries furnished with adequate facilities

2. Government’s library standards and guidelines should be implemented and monitored by the re-
sponsible authorities
3. Qualified librarians should be employed in all schools
4. Governments should consent the national library policies
More libraries should therefore be set up in Zimbabwe and these libraries must have attractive facili-
ties that lure patrons to use them. This, in turn, has a potential of readership in the country. The idea
of having a library and a qualified librarian at each school is typical examples of government policies
that can help to improve the reading culture and use of library and information services. Chisita (2012)
recommends that librarians should partner with teachers so that the teaching and learning goes hand-
in-glove with library services provision and use. Chisita (2012) also observes that despite the existing
digital divide, information and communication technologies can be harnessed to facilitate access to
reading materials. He notes that the techno-savvy young generation possesses the requisite e-skills that
can be taken advantage of to push the reading culture frontiers beyond the printed book.
Participants were requested to make an assessment of the relationship between Zimbabwe’s reading
culture and the use of libraries in the country vis-à-vis the digital age. Even though Chisita (2011) and
Musingafi and Chiwanza (2012) applauded Zimbabwe for the highest literacy rate in Africa, Mushava’s
(2015) argument that Zimbabwe’s reading culture is on the decline was reaffirmed by this study. A third
of the participants expressed concern that the digital age had made libraries obsolete as most libraries
in Zimbabwe had ‘failed to adapt to changes in technology.’ Participants felt that Zimbabwe’s reading
culture was going down leading to declining use of libraries. Another participant blamed social media
for the declining reading culture; they said: ‘reading culture is quickly being eroded by the use of so-
cial media’. As Itsekor and Nwokeoma (2017) noted in their study, some participants felt that though
there was a great improvement, the reading culture was academic oriented as evidenced by the thriving
academic libraries; thus, reading for leisure must be encouraged. Two participants held the view that
reading culture was relatively good in urban areas as compared to the rural areas. They attributed this
discrepancy to the ‘technological gap between Zimbabwean rural communities and urban communities.’
One participant reported that ‘Zimbabweans read but they do not like to use the library.’ Similar
sentiments were echoed by another participant who said that: ‘ICT has at least brought the library closer
to the patrons so much that they can now access library services remotely.’ Participants’ sentiments are
in contrary to Itsekor and Nwokeoma’s (2017) argument that the book in print format remains impor-
tant in this digital age. However, three participants raised concern over the use of the Internet as this
deterred use of library services; as one participant puts it: ‘most patrons tend to be inclined to the use
of search engines … they hardly use hard copies from the library and this has negatively affected the
reading culture …’ This view showed that some prospective patrons view library as holders of print
resources only but there are also electronic resources that can be accessed even when someone is not
physically in the library.
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Two of the participants were on point as they stressed that the country’s reading culture was not
reflective of the country’s high literacy rate. One participant pointed out that: ‘Zimbabwe has a high
literacy rate, which is not translated to a strong reading culture which impacts on low usage of libraries’
and the other participant expressed that: ‘Though there are claims that the reading culture is high, that
culture does not correspond with use of the library. Library use is pathetically low…’ These sentiments
correspond with observations made by Itsekor and Nwokeoma (2017) and Mushava (2015). This can be
attributed to the attitude of people towards libraries since some regard libraries as areas of quiet study
only. The contemporary issues in library and information science show that there are now noisy areas
as well where discussion rooms are provided.
Figure 1 presents recommendations made by participants on how Zimbabwe’s policy framework
would help to promote library and information services in a digital age.
Figure 1 shows that there is need for libraries and librarians to register their presence in every com-
munity if their impact is to be felt. Funding must be availed for the construction and running of libraries
and media should also assist in the promotion of library and information services in the country.
However, one participant stressed that ‘All the [...] strategies are good but they are hinged upon NLDS
and ZIMLA which should be a voice to the profession…’ Although some legislation were crafted, the
implementation of these policies have hampered the development of library and information services in
Zimbabwe. The recommendations presented in Figure 2 resonate with Nabuyanda’s (2011) recommenda-
tions on how reading culture could be promoted in Zambia. The National Library and Documentation
Services (NLDS) and the Zimbabwe Library Association (ZIMLA) must be empowered through the
NLDS Act or any similar act so that librarians are recognised and given an opportunity to effectively
play their part in national development. This would also ensure that libraries would be considered as
one of the partners that can assist in meeting the sustainable development goals to have the Africa we
want in 2030.
Figure 1. Policy reviews to promote reading culture through library use
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STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING LIBRARY

SERVICES IN A DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT
In view of the competition for the attention of the citizen, librarians have to devise strategies to draw the
attention of citizens towards the library. According to Yi (2016), libraries and information services can
remain viable if they adopt marketing strategies that help them to meet organizational mission, goals
and objectives. Kenneway (2007) observes that there are technological changes that are taking place
and libraries should respond to these changes by identifying opportunities for using the technology to
support the intellectual growth and success of the individuals and institutions that they serve. Librar-
ians can achieve this by marketing their services through creating awareness and stimulating interest,
building loyalty and demonstrating value to their clientele. Strategies highlighted by the International
Reading Association (2014) namely sustained silent reading, drop everything and read, love to read
and providing opportunities with everyday reading deserve attention in view of replicating them in the
Zimbabwean context.
Librarians are employing various strategies to promote library services in this digital environment.
Yi (2016) reports that librarians have been using personal contacts, circulars, memos, telephone calls,
meetings, direct mailing, displays, talks, newsletters, library tours and leaflets to promote their services.
The author also recommends the use of websites, email lists, blogs, podcasts posters, handouts, orien-
tation tours, workshops, Web 2.0 applications and displays to promote the library services (Yi, 2016).
Mitra (2016), Fasola (2015), and Cole, Graves and Cipkowski (2010) echo similar sentiments as they
propose that the library can harness social media, posters, flyers, face-to-face communication, and events
or workshops to promote their services.
In concurrence with observations made by Yi (2016), Mitra (2016), Fasola (2015), and Cole, Graves
and Cipkowski (2010), participants in this study confirmed that they were employing various strategies
to promote library and information services in Zimbabwe. The strategies mentioned by the participants
are promotional banners, website, brochures, meetings, roadshows, library orientation, information
literacy skills (ILS) training sessions, word of mouth, posters and notices, social media, conferences,
workshops and exhibitions. None of the participants advertised their services on radio and television.
Figure 2 presents the responses in detail.
As Figure 2 depicts, none of the participants use of radio and television in promoting library services.
However, these two media platforms have a great potential of influencing citizens to use library and
information services. The two media platforms also have the ability to reach out to a wider audience
at the shortest possible time when compared to some of the platforms currently in popular use among
librarians in Zimbabwe. Certain programmes can be introduced to promote library and information
services on the radio and television where prominent librarians can be introduced to talk about libraries
and showcase the products and services that are offered by library and information centres.
It is also important to reiterate Chisita’s (2012) observation that ICTs can be used to promote reading
in Zimbabwe. He considers the high levels of ICT competency by the young generation as an opportunity
for librarians and other professionals to carry forward the reading culture by using ICTs as an alternative
reading material format and a medium for promoting reading. Similarly, Chisita (2012) asserts that some
school libraries and other library and information service providers were using assistive technologies to
enable those with disabilities to access reading materials just like their counterparts.
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Figure 2. Strategies used to promote library services in Zimbabwe
LIBRARIANS’ PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS PROMOTING

LIBRARY SERVICES IN A DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT
Yi (2016) found out that librarians were using webcast, websites, social media and advertising to promote
library services in a digital environment. A study by Fasola (2015) reveals that librarians in Nigeria have
high perception and acceptance of social media such as Facebook and Twitter to promote library services.
During the same study it was also found out that younger librarians showed more positive perception and
higher acceptance of these social media platforms. The author recommends use of these technologies to
promote library services in the digital environment as they bring users closer to the libraries.
Librarians who participated in the survey expressed interest in taking advantage of the digital age to
promote their services. The participants indicated that the digital environment facilitated simultaneous
access to information resources, access to electronic resources, self-service, using social media to inter-
act, and remote access across time zones, online reference services and entertainment. In light of these
benefits, all the 21 participants considered it very important to promote library services in the digital
environment. These findings correspond with Yi (2016) and Fasola (2015) who reported the same. The
study also sought to find out whether library and information services professionals were really promot-
ing use of their services in a digital environment. The majority of the participants (63.67%) felt that
library and information services professionals were promoting their services; Six (25.57%) participants
strongly agreed, eight (38.1%) agreed, three (14.29%) were indifferent while four (19.05%) disagreed.
291

CHALLENGES FACED BY LIBRARIANS WHEN PROMOTING

THEIR SERVICES IN A DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT
The digital environment is associated with changing demands of teaching, learning and research by library
patrons (Yi 2016). Mitra (2016), and Cole, Graves and Cipkowski (2010) report that library patrons are
no longer interested in visiting the library. Library patrons want to access information electronically so
that they would be able to answer their information needs even if the library is closed. Library patrons
are interested in getting the service even from remote locations even though there is an option to physi-
cally access the library.
Cheney (2007) points out that dealing with the impact of rapidly changing technologies has thus
become a serious challenge. Cole, Graves and Cipkowski (2010) observe that library users are viewing
the library as less useful. In view of the library patrons’ changing perceptions and decreasing use of the
library, Mitra (2016), and Cole, Graves and Cipkowski (2010) propose use of the library web page as a
one-stop-shop for information delivery. Mitra (2016) suggests that the library web page should include
the online public access catalogue (OPAC) and that libraries should provide access to electronic books
as a solution (Mitra, 2016). Reference services should also be available electronically (Mitra, 2016).
Furthermore, library staff must be upskilled so that they can competently deliver services to techno savvy
clients (Mitra, 2016). Continuous professional development is key to remain in charge of the systems
that would be in use. Chisita (2016) also laments the effects of the digital divide as this has slowed down
government’s efforts to promote literacy and a reading culture.
Cheney (2007) notes that increased costs, shrinking budgets, and competition for funding have sig-
nificantly affected library services in this digital economy. Yi (2016) concur and observes that libraries
are experiencing budget cuts that are affecting service delivery. Without financial support, it is not pos-
sible for libraries to match the competing services hence their inability to provide the services expected
of them in a digital era. As a result, library users would shun the use of these facilities if they are not
well resourced.
The digital age has exposed libraries and librarians to loss of the information monopoly, the loss of
visibility, the loss of direct interaction with patrons leading to the loss of user relationships (Porumbeanu,
2008). Afzal and Nasser (2007) also add that concerns on information privacy, information security
and copyright issues have risen due to the technological changes taking place. Librarians are therefore
expected to be skilled to address information privacy, security and copyright issues. There is also need
to avail relevant technologies to enable the librarians to deliver.
Although various strategies were employed to promote library services, a number of challenges were
faced when promoting the services. The challenges were:
• There were other competing sources of information other than the library
• The reading culture in the country was poor
• Attitude towards libraries was negative
• Social life took precedence over library use
• Library users preferred using the Internet to library resources
• Some libraries were too small to accommodate many users
• Some library collections were too small and/or outdated
• Some librarians lacked skills on how to promote their services
• Library users lacked skills on how to effectively utilise library services available to them
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• Librarians felt that it was costly to promote the services

• It is costly for patrons to access the services
• Parent institutions did not see libraries as a priority
These findings from the participants therefore confirm earlier findings from studies done by Mitra
(2016), Cole, Graves and Cipkowski (2010), and Cheney (2007).
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Participants suggested the following solutions to the challenges raised above: offering virtual services,
provide capacity building for the librarians, train library patrons, improving library collections, promot-
ing reading culture among library patrons, encouraging patrons to use the library resources, installing
wireless Internet connectivity in libraries, increasing power ports in the libraries for patrons, providing
discussion rooms in the libraries, setting up learning commons in the libraries and enabling remote ac-
cess to library services.
Various strategies can be employed by librarians to promote library and information services in
Zimbabwe. Findings reveal that promotional banners, websites, brochures, meetings, roadshows, library
orientation, information literacy skills (ILS) training sessions, word of mouth, posters and notices, social
media, conferences, workshops and exhibitions have been useful tools in promoting library and infor-
mation services in Zimbabwe. Although none of the participants used radio and television to promote
their services, these two media platforms are highly recommended as well especially now that there is
an increase in the number of community radios that could be used for a targeted audience.
Negative perceptions towards promoting library service in Zimbabwe in a digital environment can
be addressed by training library and information professionals so that they can competently harness
technology to promote their services. ZIMLA can facilitate training programmes that can equip library
and information professionals with the relevant skills to effectively perform their tasks in this digital
age. Capacity building can also help to address some of the challenges faced by library and information
professionals. Librarians should also instill a reading culture among their patrons as this can influence
the use of library and information services. It is also important for library and information professionals
to impart information literacy skills to patrons so that the patrons can effectively utilise libraries. Besides,
information literate citizens are able to independently differentiate information sources that are credible
and not. Respective institutions should provide resources required to effectively promote library and
information services in a digital environment.
Literature sources also suggest some solutions to some of the challenges that deter librarians from ef-
fectively promoting a reading culture. Public libraries should be welcoming to patrons regardless of race,
age, gender or creed and are expected to open their doors to those who are economically underprivileged
(Chisita, 2012). Librarians are also expected to collaborate with other stakeholders particularly fami-
lies, so as to effectively promote a reading culture among citizens (International Reading Association,
2014). As the International Reading Association (2014) recommends, individuals must be availed with
reading materials and convenient environment that propel leisure reading. Though important, reading
driven by examinations or task at hand, this kind of reading may not be lifelong as it ends the moment an
individual achieves their goal. Leisure reading, which is socially motivated, must therefore be cultivated
among citizens. This can be inculcated in individuals’ early year at schools through programmes such as
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SSR, DEAR, LTR and POWER. The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education in Zimbabwe must
therefore adopt one such program and effectively publicize and monitor its implementation. Instead of
just having citizens reading in the libraries, Chisita (2012) strongly recommends that librarians should
partner with teachers, parents and guardians to promote reading at schools and homes. Teachers can
challenge their classes to read in class, at home or at the library. At home parents and guardians can
actively engage families in reading by using bedtime and fireside story times to read aloud for the young
ones or ask the young ones to read whist others listen. Reading aloud to an audience would also benefit
those with visual and speech challenges.
Authors recommended further study on why Zimbabwe’s high literacy rate does not correspond with
reading culture. There is need for a study on how digital technologies can be used to promote a reading
culture in Zimbabwe.
CONCLUSION
Despite a number of challenges faced when promoting library and information services, the study con-
firms that librarians in Zimbabwe are using various strategies to promote the services. In view of the
declining use of libraries and a waning reading culture, librarians have an important role of imparting
information literacy skills and promoting a reading culture. It was also noted that there is need to con-
tinuously train librarians so that they would be able to promote library and information services in the
digital environment.
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Justice Journal, 1(1), 43–48. doi:10.3734/isj.2007.1105
Agency Reporter. (2017, February). Social media responsible for declining reading culture. Nation
(New York, N.Y.), 8. Retrieved from http://thenationonlineng.net/social-media-responsible-for-declining-
reading-culture/
Aina, A. J., Ogungbeni, J. I., Akesode, F. A., & Ogundipe, T. C. (2011). Poor reading habits among
Nigerians: the role of libraries. Library Philosophy and Practice. Retrieved from http://www.webpages.
uidaho.edu/~mbolin/aina-ogungbeni-adigun-ogundipe.htm
Cavalier, R. (2014). Online guide to ethics and moral philosophy. Retrieved from http://caae.phil.cmu.
edu/Cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html
Cheney, K. (2007). Marketing law libraries: Strategies and techniques in the digital age. Legal Reference
Services Quarterly, 26(1-2), 281–299. doi:10.1300/J113v26n01_14
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Chisita, C. T. (2011). Role of public libraries in promoting literacy in Zimbabwe: Challenges of sustain-
ing a reading culture. Paper presented 77th IFLA World Library and Information Conference, Puerto
Rico. Retrieved from https://www.ifla.org/past-wlic/2011/114-chisita-en.pdf
Chisita, C. T. (2012). Promoting intergenerational dialogue through libraries and schools in Harare:
Towards a socially cohesive society. In I. Stricevic & A. Ksibi (Eds.), Intergenerational solidarity in
libraries / La solidarité intergénérationnelle dans les bibliothèques. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Saur.
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Cole, K., Graves, T., & Cipkowski, P. (2010). Marketing the library in a digital world. The Serials Li-
brarian, 58(1-4), 182–187. doi:10.1080/03615261003625729
Doust, R. W. (1999). Provision of school library services by means of mobile libraries: The Zimbabwe
experience. IFLA Journal, 25(3), 148–151. doi:10.1177/034003529902500304
Farmer, L., & Stricevic, I. (2011). Using research to promote literacy and reading in libraries: guidelines
for librarians (IFLA Professional Report No. 125). The Hague, Netherlands: International Federation
of Library Associations and Institutions.
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IFLA. (2015). Guidelines for library-based literacy programs. Retrieved from https://www.ifla.org/
publications/guidelines-for-library-based-literacy-programs?og=74
IFLA. (2017). Promoting reading and literacy. Retrieved from https://www.ifla.org/node/10081
International Reading Association. (2014). Leisure reading [Position statement]. Newark, DE: Interna-
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Itsekor, V. O., & Nwokeoma, N. M. (2017). The importance of the use of libraries and the need for a read-
ing culture. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Librorum, 24, 98–109. doi:10.18778/0860-7435.24.07
Kenneway, M. (2007). Marketing the library: Using technology to increase visibility, impact and reader
engagement. Serials, 20(2), 92–97. doi:10.1629/2092
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tarianism.com/mill2.htm
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Research, 21(1). Retrieved from http://InformationR.net/ir/21-1/paper702.html
Digital Age: This current era whereby social, economic and political activities are dependent on
information and communication technologies. It is also known as the information age or the digital era.
Library Professionals: These are the people who have studied how to offer services to library users
in meeting their information needs. They can be librarians, archivists or records managers.
Library Services: Resources and activities provided by libraries to address information needs of
users. These include from circulation services, reference services, online information services, inter
library loans, and information literacy skills training.
Marketing: The action of promoting and selling products or services. The library services should
be marketed to ensure that value of money is achieved.
Promotion: An activity that supports or encourages use of a product or service. In the library, the
activity would be done as a way of creating awareness of certain products and services and ensuring the
use of those services by library users to meet their information needs.
Social Media: Various Internet-based and mobile services that enable the users to interact online.
These include but are not limited to Facebook, Flickr, Google+, Myspace, Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinter-
est, Tumblr, Twitter, and YouTube.
Zimbabwe Library Association (ZIMLA): The professional association that represent the interests
of library and information professionals and library education in Zimbabwe. All those who work in
library and information centres are free to join the association.
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297
Chapter 16
School Libraries Are a Must in
Every Learning Environment:
Advocating Libraries in High
Schools in South Africa
Beatrice Ngulube
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Despite the fact that South Africa has been a democracy for 23 years and the efforts made to improve
the education landscape, there is still a crisis in the high school library system. This affects the school
careers of learners and their lifelong-learning opportunities. The lack and loss of school libraries, as
resources for education, deprive learners of their right to a school library and a place to grow mentally
and academically. This chapter advocates for libraries in high schools. The study adopted a qualitative
approach where primary data was collected through a multiple case study, using in-depth interviews at
three schools in the Gauteng Province. School A was a rural high school; school B was a former model-
C high school; and school C a township high school. The key findings underscore the importance of
libraries in the academic success of learners. Recommendations are made on how advocacy for libraries
in high schools could be re-directed.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Research has revealed that effective school libraries increase student achievement in a variety of ways,
such as increasing their performance in public examinations and tests (American Association of School
Libraries, 2015; Baltimore Library Project, 2013; Chan, 2008; David-West & Bassey, 2017; Hart & Zinn,
2007; Kachel, 2017). Libraries also have an impact on the wisdom and comprehension of students. To
strengthen this, Dring (2014) maintains that librarians help learners to evaluate what they have found;
and more importantly to use information in a way that hones their note-taking skills, avoiding plagia-
rism. Librarians can teach students to be better, more independent researchers in a school where the
librarian or learning resource centre manager is valued and properly utilised (Dring, 2014). It is evident
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch016

School Libraries Are a Must in Every Learning Environment
that librarians are valuable in that they teach important skills and instill reading confidence. The lack of
reading confidence in high school learners motivated the authors of this chapter to do research on high
school libraries. The researcher had witnessed several learners struggling to read, when they evaluated
pre-service teachers on teaching practice. The researcher then developed a strong desire to advocate for
high school libraries. There are no library corners in the classrooms; hence. a school library is a necessity.
It must be emphasised that each school needs a functional library to improve information literacy and
empower students to be independent researchers and stimulate their confidence. As far as South Africa
is concerned, reading and libraries were established by the missionary communities in the 19th century
which raised the literacy level (Hart & Zinn, 2007). In relation to schools, Satgoor (2015) adds that in
1993 South Africa had approximately 2000 school libraries. However, it is unbelievable that there are
very few functional high school libraries in South Africa.
Research conducted by Paton-Ash and Wilmont (2015) on primary school libraries revealed that
school libraries are not playing an effective role in supporting and enabling quality education for all
South African children. There is great concern that school children should be given an opportunity to
read a variety of reading materials ranging from, school textbooks and academic magazines to periodi-
cals; and this would keep them abreast of current information, considering how important information
literacy is. Hence, private and public schools should have well-equipped and established libraries and
qualified librarians. This is in total agreement with studies which were conducted in 22 states in the
United States of America and concluded that schools with well-equipped libraries staffed by a full-time
certified librarian and appropriate support staff contribute significantly to gains in student learning
(Baltimore Library Project, 2013). Therefore, libraries instil reading confidence in learners. The same
sentiments are echoed by Hart and Zinn (2007); and Paton-Ash and Wilmont (2015) who argue that
libraries stimulate the love of reading and sharpen the mind.
Furthermore, libraries are not only good for nurturing and growing a democracy, but they are also
a gateway to participation in society through lifelong learning and access to information for its citizens
(Satgoor, 2015). Lifelong learning is vital for everybody, irrespective of the age or level of education.
The learners’ quest for knowledge does not have to end at the classroom door, or even after they have
graduated (Dring, 2014). Learners must make education part of their adult life and reap the professional
and personal benefits of an insatiably curious mind. This can only be achieved if schools have functional
libraries and qualified staff.
South African high schools need libraries and the expertise of librarians. Qualified librarians are
needed because they equip the library with necessary materials and ensure that each student has access
to resources irrespective of opportunities or constraints at home. School libraries also expose students
to lots of good and updated reading materials to arouse inquisitive and curious young minds. Well-
equipped libraries provide information and ideas that are fundamental to successful functioning in
today’s information-based society.
Apart from increasing academic achievement, librarians assist in teaching relevant technology and
direct students onto the right path, specifically nowadays with a media that is heavily polluted by fake
misleading news. Librarians, as media literacy educators, can provide guidance and more recommenda-
tions to learners so that they will be able to evaluate good information.
The public need to be made aware of how valuable libraries are, especially high school libraries. It is
therefore imperative that each school has a functional library and libraries should not be undervalued by
budget cuts. Good budget allocation encourages librarians and gives them a sense of worth. A partnership
between librarians and instructional technology specialists is necessary for libraries to be successful.
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This is supported by Wine (2016) who argues that such a collaboration opens an avenue to combine the
knowledge and experience of two unique members of the teaching staff to support classroom teachers
and students to make learning highly engaging by integrating technology and information literacy skills
into content curriculum. It is apparent from this discussion that libraries are there to contribute to the
success of the learners. An active, vibrant and dynamic functional school library service is needed to
support the progressive, constructivist and resource-based curriculum in South Africa (Mojapelo, 2015).
This study therefore aims to investigate if South African high schools have effective libraries and to help
relevant stakeholders understand the importance of high school libraries.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
School libraries, as education resources, set the basis of life-long learning from a tender career of each
learner and that cannot be over-emphasised. Yet, after 23 years into South African Democracy, no im-
provement has been made to the schooling system, especially in the school library sector. The Library
Information Service (LIS) Transformation Charter (Nkondo et al., 2014) and the regulations relating to
minimum norms and standards for public school infrastructure (South Africa, 2013) advocate for rigor-
ous transformation in the schooling system in order to provide the required resources, such as functional
libraries. However, the two documents confirm that this could not be provided overnight but gradual
progress could be made. The Charter further acknowledges that there is a backlog in the provision of school
libraries as dire resources in support of teaching and learning; and that this backlog emanates from the
history of the apartheid system in South Africa with its poor provision of school resources, and skewed
libraries. Democracy dawned two decades ago and there is cause for concern regarding school libraries.
However, the implementation of the transformative and developmental agenda seems to be slow,
since more than 70% of operational schools in South Africa remain without libraries (South Africa,
Department of Basic Education, 2018). The National Development Plan 2030 (South Africa, National
Development Commission, 2012) points out education as one of the factors that can equip the child for
the future and lead to development. Yet, when resources, such as the school libraries, are not provided,
all these well-intended policies will not achieve the desired effects. Efforts encompassing advocacy for
a functional school library system is one of the strategies that may support these policies.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the functionality of high school libraries in South Africa.
The specific objectives were to:
• find out if high schools have functional libraries

• establish the qualifications of the staff in charge of school libraries
• determine the collection development policy of school libraries
• establish the extent to which the school governing bodies supported the library
LITERATURE REVIEW
Research has been conducted internationally and locally, addressing the importance of high school
libraries. Researchers such as Hart and Zinn (2007), Dukper, Agyekum, Konlan (2018) and Walker
(1993) have agreed on the fact that a library, as a store house of knowledge, helps learners to develop
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self-confidence and the freedom to generate meaningful conclusions and solutions for self-learning. A
school library is one of the important educational services the government should prioritise because
knowledge is power as the popular English language axiom goes (Dukper et al., 2018). Government can
do this by upgrading libraries, since there is a positive relationship between library services and student
achievement (Kachel, 2017). Reading is very crucial in the learning environment since it enhances
students’ level of cognitive understanding. An investment in school libraries is essential because they
promote lifelong learning education and cultural promotion. The fact that school libraries are a good
investment cannot be overemphasised, since they play a vital role in young and mature minds. Apart
from this, libraries help students to develop critical and analytical skills that propel them into their future
as successful adults (Dukper et al., 2018).
It is true that the child’s reading capacity is strengthened by the services of a library; and libraries are
an integral part of learning, but it is very disappointing to notice that not all the school libraries in South
Africa are well-equipped and well-functioning. Equal Education (2010), found out that fewer than 8% of
South African public schools have functional libraries. In 2010, only 7% of ordinary operational schools
had libraries and the number increased to 23.1% by 2018, but the 2018 report gives a percentage as 29.69
despite the fact that only 5423 out of 23471 had libraries. About 17% of schools had stocked libraries.
(South Africa, Department of Basic Education, 2018). Earlier on Paton-Ash and Wilmot (2013) lamented
on the shortage of infrastructure; and the large number of school libraries that are poorly equipped to
provide an adequate standard of education.
To further stress the importance of school libraries Krashen (2004) ascertains that school libraries
are the only source of reading materials available and textbooks to learners from many disadvantaged
backgrounds. Achterman, (2008) points out that effective school libraries contribute positively towards
learners’ achievement on test scores. Libraries therefore enable learners to develop critical thinking;
sharpen their argumentative skills and foster a reading culture. The development of a reading culture
offers opportunities for learners to learn at an individual level outside their learning programme (Goodin,
2010; Rodney et al., 2003). Other researchers who also agree that libraries boost reading habits and pass
rates include Heinstrom and Todd (2006) and Small and Snyder (2009). Without infrastructure, such as
a library, a school cannot function well. Hence, it is of paramount importance that South African high
schools should have well-resourced libraries.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Ngulube, Mathipa and Gumbo (2015) and Ngulube (2018) emphasises the importance of research con-
ceptualisation tools, such as a conceptual framework to help researchers to better understand the complex
and messy reality. The conceptual framework that guided this study was deprived of the regulations
relating to minimum norms and standards for public school infrastructure in South Africa and the extant
literature. The constructs in the conceptual framework led the formulation of the four research objec-
tives stated above. They helped the researcher not to fall into the trap of theory dropping as cautioned by
Kumasi, Charbonneau and Walster (2013) and Ngulube (20018). Theory dropping in a research inquiry
entails the introduction of a theory or theories which are not only irrelevant to the study but are also
useless for understanding and answering the research question.
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As a result of pressure from civic organisations, such as Equal Education (EE) government, published
regulations to set minimum norms and standards to regulate school conditions throughout the country on
29 November 2013. The regulations stipulated that “All schools must have a library or media centre and
a minimum and adequate school library collection” by 2023. This was supposed to be phased in over a
period of ten years from the date of publication of the regulations. The relevant section of the norms of
standards are restated below (South Africa, Department of Basic Education, 2013):
2 (d) a Member of the Executive Council must, for the purposes of subregulation (1)(b)(iii), specifically
focus on the norms and standards relating to libraries and laboratories for science, technology and life
sciences.
13. (1) All schools must have a school library or a media centre and a minimum, adequate and suitable
school library collection.
(2) The core school library collection must be regularly replenished according to the requirements of a
particular school and administered using one or more of the following:
(a) A mobile library;
(b) a cluster library;
(c) a classroom library;
(d) a centralised school library; or
(e) a school community library.
It meant that the investigation was concerned about finding out if the selected high schools had a
functional library or media centre, a collection development policy to stock the library, a librarian in
charge of the library and the support of the School Governing Body (SGB). The concepts of the school
librarian and the support of the SGB are not envisaged in the regulations so they were added to the
conceptual framework from the literature.
METHODOLOGY
This chapter used data collected between April and June 2018. It employed an interpretivist epistemol-
ogy supported by a qualitative approach and a case study as a research design as suggested by Ngulube
(2015a). In-depth interviews were used as a primary data collection instrument. The researcher also
triangulated data collection methods by employing the observation technique. The state of the libraries
was observed to determine their functionality and their state and resources. There are several schools
in Gauteng, but only three schools were selected for the purpose of this chapter. These three schools in-
clude a rural high school, a former model-C high school and a township high school. This then qualifies
the research as a multiple case study research, since three cases were used in this study and analytical
generalisation and replication were also possible. This is in agreement with Yin, (2009) who points out
that the case study’s unique strength is its ability to deal with a full variety of evidence which ranges
from documents, artefacts and interviews to observations. However, this chapter did not make use of
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all of them, the study only employed interviews and observations. A structured interview schedule was
utilised. Structured interviews were opted for so that data collected will be replicated and compared.
Furthermore, structured interviews were used to provide uniform information, which assured the com-
parability of data, (Kumar, 2005, p. 126). Additionally, structured interviews were employed to keep the
conversation focused. The selected schools had no librarians; so, two Heads of Departments (HODs)
and one member of staff were conveniently selected and interviewed. The main reason why these three
schools were selected is that they happened to fit in the three categories perfectly well; that is, a rural,
township and model-C. It is also important at this point to give a brief explanation of the three schools.
According to Myende (2015), the term “rural” in South Africa is defined differently because it
means different things to different people. It often depends on who is making the distinction and for
what purpose. While Balfour, Mitchell and Moletsane (2008) identify three aspects of ‘rurality’ based
on their generative theory: forces, agencies and resources. They describe the forces as “centripetal and
centrifugal” and involving “the movement of labour and production from the rural to the urban and back
again”. In this study rural refers to a school which is at the periphery of an urban area. Township schools
are located on the outskirts of urban areas and provide large populations with small portions of land.
This was used as a method to segregate black South Africans through the Group Areas Act of 1950. The
third school type is known as a former model-C school. A former model-C school can be described as
the best government school, which is administrated and funded by parents and a governing body. Former
model C-schools are known for offering exceptional facilities and high academic standards. During the
apartheid era model-C schools were schools in which the state only paid the salaries of permanent teach-
ers; and the school governing body ran the finances of the school; setting their own fees and admission
requirements. According to Pampalis (2002), even though model-C schools were allowed to decide on
their own admission requirements, they were required to keep the majority of learners white. Currently
all races are admitted at these schools; thus, they are now referred to as former model-C schools. These
are the three different schools from which the researcher collected data. The following section presents
data analysis and discussion.
Data were collected from the three schools by means of a structured interview; and observations were
manually analysed, using thematic analysis. The objectives were the basis of the themes. As suggested by
Neuman (2006) and Ngulube (2015b), data analysis involved examining, sorting, categorising, evaluat-
ing, synthesising and contemplating the coded data and reviewing the raw and recorded data. The key
participants of this study were teachers from the three selected high schools in South Africa as mentioned
earlier. The researcher intended to interview librarians, but these schools had no librarians as pointed
out in the previous section. Three teachers, one from each school, volunteered to be interviewed; two of
them were HODs. The last question of the interview schedule gave the interviewees an opportunity to
give their own recommendations concerning the need for a functional library at their respective schools.
The next section presents the results.
EXISTENCE OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES
All three selected schools have libraries, but they function differently. Figure 1 shows the interior of a
rural high school library. One of the classrooms was used as a library at the rural school. This conforms
to sub-regulation 13(2)(c) which stipulates that a classroom can be a library (South Africa, Department
of Basic Education, 2013). However, the library was untidy; books were lying everywhere; and it did
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not give the impression of a library. The most salient of the image was the environment of the room,
which was not conducive of stimulating a reading mind or culture. Figure 2 depicts a township school
library. Unlike the rural school, this school had a proper library building attached to the administration
block, although the state of the library was really appalling. The ceiling was worn out and the shelves
were damaged because of a water leakage. The former model-C high school had a library which was
functional, but it only operated in the afternoons. There is no picture of the interior of the library because
it was closed at all the times the researcher visited the school.
THE FUNCTIONALITY OF THE LIBRARIES
The rural high school library did not function as a proper library. There was no one who took care of
the library. The learners and educators used the library materials and books when they needed them and
everything was monitored by a camera. The room was untidy and books were scattered everywhere.
Although untidy, there were good book shelves and the books seemed to be new; and there was also a
large number of books. The researcher interviewed one of the educators who was using the library. The
interviewee stressed that high school libraries must be taken care of and they should be well-resourced
due to the fact that South African pupils persistently show poor academic achievement. The library needs
to be revamped and a librarian must be hired to make the library functional. The interviewee also said
that the library rules must be reinforced and a reading culture must be promoted because a library is a
necessity. He added that at this school Grade 8 and 9 leaners are the ones who are in serious need of a
library and they travel far to use a community library which is well-resourced. The educator was right
Figure 1. Rural high school library

Source: Photo taken by the author (2018)
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Figure 2. Township high school library

Source: Photo taken by the author (2018)
because outcome-based education demands research projects which require a lot of books and other
relevant research materials. This is in agreement with the Library and Information Services Report of
the National Education Policy Investigation [NEPI] (1992) which states that libraries and an information
system must be planned and funded to improve education in South Africa. The finding seems to confirm
that the Department of Education is not taking any cognisance of this crucial matter. In support of the
Hart, Zinn (2007) pointed out that the majority of South African schools do not have functional libraries
and the provincial education department does not have finances or staff to overcome this problem. This
is a serious matter which must be attended to by all the relevant stakeholders.
At a former model-C school, the library was functional but only after school; and it was operated
by a part-time person who was not a member of staff. Learners who were close to the school had the
opportunity to use the library after school. In this instance the library was not meeting the demands of
all the learners. Most learners who were not utilising the library were the ones who were supposed to be
using the library, because they come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Only those who stay close can
use the library, because it functions after school only. The reason why it was open after school hours was
that it was run by a part-time person. Although this school had a functional library it was not utlised for
its intended purpose, instead it was used as a tutoring area. The school had an after-school programme
where Grade 10 and 11 learners assisted Grade 8 and 9 learners who were struggling with Mathematics.
The HOD really wished that the library could be accessible throughout the day and tutoring classes be
moved somewhere to create enough reading space. The management of school libraries seems to have
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remained unchanged. The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) audit found that many school
libraries were often used as classrooms or were shut for most of the day, since the person in charge was
a full-time teacher (South Africa, DAC, 2009, p. 43). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, (OECD) 2003 study done on 15-year-old learners in more than 40 countries found that
the most important predictor of academic achievement is the amount of time students spent on reading
(Braxton, 2008). This can be achieved if learners are encouraged to read and trained in using the library
effectively and efficiently.
The model- C school library is functional, as previously explained, but it still did not meet all the
levels required for the school library to contribute to the elimination of illiteracy and inequality; and the
building of an informed and reading nation. In this information age, access to information is crucial and
is a source of wealth and power; thus, all learners must be given equal opportunities to use the library.
It is in the national and global interest to make South Africa a reading and more information-literate
nation. This cannot be achieved if school libraries are not well-resourced and not taken care of.
Like the other schools, there was no librarian at the township high school. One of the HODs the
researcher interviewed made the following statement “the school library is opened by a school admin-
istrator and he opens it for school governing body meetings.” She went on to say that part of the library
was used as a storeroom for school stationery. As a township school one would think the library will
be functional, well-furnished and adequately resourced considering the fact that these are the learners
who need all the assistance from the government. This is an indication that school libraries in South
Africa need serious attention. However, community libraries are very functional. One of the educators
interviewed said the following about community libraries, “it seems like the government is doing a
remarkable work concerning these public libraries”. It will be much appreciated if the government also
try to take care of school libraries to foster a strong culture of reading and comply with or fulfil its stated
aim of providing a quality education for all. Unlike school libraries, community libraries will directly
feed into the specific learning areas. In terms of school libraries Hartzell (2002) pointed out that many
principals have overlooked school libraries and school librarians as contributors to improving learner
achievement “because they have not been educated to the library’s value”, and they often leave library
potential untapped.” This is evident when looking at the state of the library at this school.
THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE STAFF IN CHARGE OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY
Libraries support the curriculum; promote literacy development and foster lifelong reading habits among
children through developing carefully selected print collections and infusing educational technology.
However, libraries cannot function well without qualified librarians.
School librarians are professionals who hold teaching degrees and librarian certificates. School librar-
ians may also be referred to as teacher-librarians or library media specialists. Their area of expertise in
information management cannot be overlooked, because they make the process of finding information
easier for learners and staff by providing relevant, reliable resources to support the areas they are study-
ing or teaching. They also assist in teaching information literacy and help the learners to find relevant
sources. Apart from this they share their knowledge with teachers if needed, especially by teaching them
how to use new technology or to keep up with the latest programmes and websites. Additionally, they
frequently provide professional development to their colleagues in areas related to instructional and
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technology resources. Therefore, in the school sector school librarians and educators must be equally
valued because they complement one another.
In a nutshell, librarians collaborate with teachers across all grade levels and subject disciplines; and
they often serve as primary technology integration specialists in their buildings. It is indeed a must for
a 21st-century school to have a functional and a quality library especially in this information age.
It is sad to learn that high schools in South Africa do not have librarians. At a rural high school, the
educator who was interviewed said the following: “at this school there is no librarian there is a camera
in the library which monitors who does what in the library”. The idea of a camera is good, but it cannot
replace a human being. A librarian is needed to attend to the needs of the learners; and a budget must
be allocated for new books and other necessary library materials.
Although there was a functional library at the former model-C school, there is no qualified librarian.
The school hired a part-time person who was not trained as a librarian. If learners need to read to succeed,
they must have libraries with professionally trained library media specialists (American Association of
School Libraries, 2015). Schools cannot just put anybody in the library. Librarians are a must, because
they are library media specialists as they assist students and teachers in research and they also guide
learners to appropriate resources to learn.
The data analysed revealed that the three schools did not have librarians and all the libraries are not
functioning in the way school libraries are supposed to function. School libraries in South Africa really
need serious attention to meet the millennium education for all goals. People cannot be educated without
enhancing their reading capacity. This is contrary to what is happening in other countries. For instance,
a study conducted by the Gates Foundation (2013) concluded that 83% of all students had access to
library books. The norm today should be that all students across the globe have access to library books
and library materials. This foregoing statement is in agreement with Clark (2010) who points out that
effective school libraries, as learning hubs, should not only provide books but also other necessities like
electronic resources and printers. Clark (2010) further states that school libraries should ensure that
the learners have access to books to enhance learning outcomes and intellectual development. Only the
former model-C school had a part-time person who worked in the library after school to assist in issu-
ing books and attending to those who will be using the library. However, not all learners had access to
the library after school for the reasons explained earlier. This school was the only school with a budget,
which was skewed towards science subjects. The rural high school depends on donations from a private
school close by. The interviewees showed great concern that school librarians are needed and school
libraries contribute positively towards academic achievement.
THE COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT POLICY OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES
All the schools did not have a collection development policy. The rural school and the township school
relied on books from the Department. One wonders how they can comply with sub-regulation 13(2) of
the norms and standards for school infrastructure (South Africa, Department of Basic Education, 2013),
which stipulate that: “The core school library collection must be regularly replenished according to the
requirements of a particular school” without a collection development policy.
Furthermore, township schools are part of Section 21-schools. Schools that have been granted Section
21 Status, receive a subsidy cheque in January for the first allocation and a further cheque in April for
the second allocation (Hansraj, 2007). However, all expenditure will need to be accounted for. Books
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which were in the rural high school library were mostly leftovers from the learning and teaching sup-
port material (LTSM). In this information age school libraries must be taken care of considering the fact
that education is the backbone of any given economy. However, at the former model-C high school, the
HOD who was interviewed said that there were textbooks for each grade as well as reference books. He
further said that there was a good collection of books and most of the books were new.
It will remain a problem in South Africa to achieve quality education if school libraries are still not
given priority after more than two decades of achieving freedom. The notion that libraries give learners
an opportunity to be argumentative, inquisitive, autonomous is eroded because learners are not exposed
to information they can interrogate and create new knowledge. Paton-Ash and Wilmot (2015) content
that learners must become life-long learners who must not only find, but also sort and critically use large
amounts of information from electronic sources. The issue of functional libraries should be regarded as an
urgent issue considering that South African pupils persistently perform poorly in academic achievement.
LIBRARY RESOURCES
Books which were in the rural high school library were mostly leftovers from the learning and teaching
support material. There are no other useful resources in this library. One of the staff members interviewed
from the rural high school said “there is nothing valuable in this library apart from leftovers books”.
At the township high school, most of the books in the library were purchased in the 1970s. These
books were bought for the ‘grandparents’ of the learners. The recent ones were donated by Crawford
College, a private school which is close by. There was nothing admirable in this school library, everything
was outdated and dull. On the contrary, the former model-C high school has resources. The HODs who
were interviewed said that “the school library has a reading area with the most recent computers and
good furniture donated by some of the school parents.” From this analysis, rural and township schools
were under-resourced and this impacts negatively on the learners’ academic achievement.
The Extent to Which the School Governing Body Supports the Library
Section 36 of the South African Schools Act of 1996 (South Africa, 1996: 24) states that an SGB of a
public school must take all reasonable measures within its means, such as fund raising, to supplement the
resources supplied by the state in order to improve the quality of education. In addition to supplement-
ing school income, the SGB of public schools must set up a school fund, which should be administered
according to clear directives issued by the Department of Education. In terms of assisting the school
library, it is only the SGB of the former model C-high school which was active in assisting the library.
FUTURE PLANS IN PLACE FOR THE LIBRARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The interviewed teachers showed great concern that their school libraries were not functioning well; and
all the learners should have access to the library. One of them suggested that there should be a library
period on the timetable no matter how busy the timetable is. The HOD of the township school library
stressed that the library needs to be revamped and stocked with new books; and a librarian must be hired
to make it functional. She further said that there was a need for a well-furnished reading area, comput-
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ers, printers and access to the internet. This may create a reading culture. A reading culture must be
promoted because it enhances the pass rate of learners. In addition, a reading culture is crucial because
the outcome-based education demands lots of school projects which require a lot of reading. This can
only be enhanced by the establishment of functional high school libraries. Having a functional library
will also enable these schools to meet the goals of the national development agenda towards entrenching
a strong democracy and an educated and informed nation (Satgoor, 2015). Libraries play a pivotal role
in fostering a strong reading culture. The platform for playing blame games on apartheid regime is no
longer applicable. The responsible stakeholders must pick up the pieces and make sure that high school
libraries are functional and promote life-long learning.
There must not be a divide between rural schools and urban schools when it comes to library facilities.
Every learner must have access to information because information is wealth and power, especially in
this information age. Additionally, school libraries are important resource centres that support curriculum
delivery and important pedagogical matters; it is a cause for concern that schools in South Africa do not
have well-stocked functional libraries.
FURTHER RESEARCH
Another follow-up study is needed to establish the extent to which the Department of Basic Education’s
promise of establishing functional school libraries and school/teacher librarians has been achieved. There
can be a study to obtain the views of school administrators on whether they are concerned about the
development of school libraries, since they are directly involved in the learning of children.
CONCLUSION
The analysis of data collected indicates that school libraries, especially in rural areas and townships were
dysfunctional. No one seemed to care about school libraries amid the fact that they play a crucial role in
learner achievement. However, the interviewees showed serious concern that libraries were a necessity.
The government must intervene by making sure that school libraries were taken care of and by appoint-
ing qualified librarians. Principals also need to be educated on how to stock their school libraries and
encourage learners to read and utilise school libraries. Learners in rural areas and townships are denied
the opportunity to expand their knowledge and improve their success rate, because of the lack of school
libraries. It is through reading that one appreciates today’s world and participate in the knowledge produc-
tion. The study recommends that each school should have a functional library, a qualified librarian and
that a budget must be allocated for school libraries. Young minds must be sharpened through reading.
Learners from low-income families can only get reading material from school libraries considering the
fact that books are very expensive. So, school libraries are not a luxury to them, but a necessity.
Another suggestion is that there must be an intervention programme to change the state of school
libraries in South Africa. It seems like the school management board pays no attention to the maintenance
of libraries. If learners are encouraged to read at an early age, they will not have difficulties in tertiary
education where reading will be the norm.
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Advocacy: The act or process of supporting a cause or proposal.

Education Resources: Resources are materials used to support education that may be freely accessed,
reused, modified and shared by anyone.
Lifelong Learning: Is the “ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated” pursuit of knowledge for either
personal or professional reasons.
Model C Schools: Are government schools that are administrated and largely funded by a governing
body of parents and alumni.
Rural School: A school that is located outside cities and towns.
School Librarian: A person who works professionally in a library, providing access to information
and sometimes social or technical programming.
School Library: Is a library within a school where students, staff, and often, parents of a public or
private school have access to a variety of resources.
Township School: A school which predominantly admits black children.
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Section 3
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Chapter 17
African Heritage Isn’t ‘Dead’:
Glitches in Organizing Knowledge
and Memories With a Focus on
the BaTonga in Zimbabwe
Umali Saidi
Midlands State University, Zimbabwe
ABSTRACT
Memory institutions collect, arrange, describe and preserve collections for the benefit of the community.
While the drive is hinged on the desire to promote accessibility and use of heritage assets, memory insti-
tutions’ approach to heritage management may condition institutions to be responsible for the erasure
of some aspects of the heritage. Studies have demonstrated that memory institutions, preserve as well
as give access and usage of the collected heritage to the world. It is argued that without strategies of
having the heritage consumed, memory institutions risk being redundant. Using some lessons from the
BaTonga of Zimbabwe, this chapter outlines the lived and performed heritage in the context of discourses
of advocacy, outreach and public programming strategies. It is argued that promotion and funding of
memory institutions should be very conscious of the lived heritage which plays a very significant role
in defining and promoting the heritage as well as institutions themselves.
INTRODUCTION
Interest in ‘heritage’ has generally witnessed a paradigm shift of focus in Africa, especially Southern
Africa over the years. Calls have been made to approach heritage more robustly. Promotion of nostalgic
and consumerist approaches to heritage have been found to be detrimental to sustainable cultural devel-
opment of Africa and its heritage. McGregor and Schumaker (2006) make this rather explicit in their
comment on the expansion of ‘heritage’ in Southern Africa, a region in question for this chapter. Their
view is timely in that, nostalgic and consumerist approaches to heritage offer a ‘‘closed’ understanding
of the past’ (McGregor & Schumaker, 2006, p. 649) which again does little in promoting heritage with
its subsequent demands for organizing that which it should stand for in a given community.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch017

African Heritage Isn’t ‘Dead’
The other reason which has promoted a robust call for a relook at heritage appreciation and handling
has been the long ideological aspect of decolonizing the ‘African mind’ (Ngugi, 1986), subsequently
pointing towards calls to ‘decolonize’ all cultural spaces to which memory spaces such as museums,
archeological sites, traditional villages, artefacts and so on, are part. However, while such calls are be-
ing made, there is general agreement that memory institutions have the mandate to collect, arrange,
describe and preserve collections for the benefit of the consumer, communities as well as groups that
produce or produced the various pieces collected. This can be argued as their sole business. Memory
institutions need to relook at their programmes to avoid having to be responsible for the erasure of the
same heritage they seek to preserve.
Studies have shown that to preserve as well as give access and usage of the collected heritage to the
world, the process memory institutions believe, justifies their existence. It is argued that without strate-
gies of having the heritage consumed, memory institutions risk being redundant. One, therefore, wonders
whether what is at stake are the collections (memories) or ‘the institutions’? Using some lessons from
the BaTonga of Zimbabwe, this chapter draws attention to ‘lived’ and ‘performed heritage’ in advocating
for outreach and public programming strategies. Further, promotion and funding of memory institutions
should be conscious of the ‘lived’ heritage which plays a very significant role in defining and promoting
the heritage as well as institutions themselves.
UNDERSTANDING HERITAGE
In discussing heritage and heritage related issues the starting point may be difficult to establish. This is
perhaps best captured by Corsane (2005, p. 1) who posits that:
Discourses on heritage, museums and galleries have become a massive, complex and organic network
of often loosely articulated understandings, ideas, issues and ways of perceiving things; a network that
is fluid, dynamic and constantly reconfiguring itself as individuals critically reflect on and engage with
it. In addition, the way in which individuals reflect on the issues will depend on their starting points.
Practitioners, academics, government officials, along with users and non-users of cultural and heritage
institutions, will each have different approaches.
Heritage, therefore, exists within a very fluid terrain. Löfgren and Klekot, (2012, p. 391) say heritage
is ‘understood as an attitude to the past’ and allows ‘the past to construct modern communities.’ They
further note that:
Unavoidably everyday more and more things are getting heritagized. On the one hand, it results from
the fact that the meaning of heritage has been broadened and the constraints of Authorized Heritage
Discourse broken, allowing other understandings of heritage itself, as is the case with intangible heritage.
While the above submission is a Eurocentric historical perspective, what is crucial is the notion of
heritage as a group of ‘things’ that are deemed ‘heritage’ by virtue of their ability to connect the present
to the past. Further, it is the ‘role’ of heritage in contemporary times which is crucial in understanding
heritage. For instance, Löfgren and Klekot, (2012, p. 391) observe that nationalized heritage is now
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being used ‘as an ideological weapon, a tool of cultural policy making, or as a resource for the tourist
industry.’ In heritage terms, what has emerged is “cultural heritage” as a modern concept, ‘focusing on
an active interaction with the past, on new modes of integration and identity politics on both local and
national levels, encouraging grass root activities’ (Löfgren & Klekot, 2012, p. 391). This makes memory
and heritage institutions critical players in receiving funding from governments since they are regarded
as heritage providers. In other words, heritage institutions such as museums play an agent role for the
government in the dissemination of the national cultural heritage ideology in matters of identity politics.
Interestingly, memory and heritage institutions to live up to the growing competition and ever-changing
world order, they are found having now to deal with questions on how best to package and present heritage
for consumption. Further, museums are no longer conceived as mere ideological and cultural apparatus
but active players in the broad heritage industry whose business is now to organize the past and ‘sell-
ing’ it to the cultural consumer. There is no doubt that heritage institutions which make up much of the
heritage industry now characterize modern societies. The major questions and challenges the industry
has to deal with is what Löfgren and Klekot (2012, p. 393) aptly summarize as:
What kind of historical pasts, objects or activities can be turned into heritage and which ones cannot?
Some forms of heritage seem to have a staying power. Although they may be constantly charged with
new meanings and interpretations they are still with us, others have a much shorter life-span. There
are interesting processes of cultural wear-and-tear taking place here. The cultural logics of heritage
production can, for example, be studied by looking at competing or alternative versions of the past.
This alone reveals that heritagization (Löfgren & Klekot, 2012; Saidi, 2016) is a contested space
because that which succeeds in being heritagized has now the power to represent and define identities
as well as inform the cultural ideology of a nation. Perhaps a broader discussion of this submission is
clarified by McGregor and Schumaker (2006) who offer a closely linked definition of heritage to that
of Löfgren and Klekot (2012).
It is important to note that how one views or understands heritage determines how it is eventually
handled. McGregor and Schumaker (2006, p. 650) say heritage “implies a particular means of relating
to the past.” Schifferes (2015, p. 10) advances a similar view saying “includes anything that is inherited
from the past, which helps us interpret the present and plan for the future.” Such views, therefore, allow,
as Schifferes (2015, p. 10) further observes, going,
…beyond the conventional castles, palaces and tourist landmarks to include historic parks and open
spaces, measures of landscape value and natural heritage… industrial history and social history; the
cultures and memories that places carry forward.
Because these views, simple as they are, emphasize ‘means,’ as in, systems that trigger or allow the
present to be connected to the ‘past’; ones that promote recalling of the past, it follows that the obvious
visual material objects tend to take center stage in providing these ‘means’. McGregor and Schumaker
(2006, p. 650), are then quick to point out that heritage, thus, involves ‘preserving fragments, judged in
terms of their ability to link past and present, their entertainment and leisure value….’ But Schifferes
(2015, p. 10) instead, deals with the importance of heritage noting that it ‘provides one of the foundations
on which people construct their identity and it shapes the distinctive character of a place.’
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What one learns from the above is, firstly, how one observes aspects of judging or determining
whether a ‘fragment’ or artefact has the ability to connect us to the past, where it was created and used.
Secondly, heritage consumers are able to determine its relevancy to the present where it now functions
as a memento to speak of that past. This is, sadly, a flat and economic view of ‘heritage’ where material
pieces are hoped to help explain and be part of socio-cultural and political ‘value’ with prospects of
‘loss’ either of the ‘fragment’, what it represents or loss of socio-cultural, political and economic value.
This potential fragility may also define its ‘uselessness’ as without some intervention it may cease to be
part of the heritage it is supposed to represent.
However, there is much more to this material pieces-matrix in heritage terms. The world, far removed
from the radical political struggles, is also engrossed with salient political issues viewed by postcolonial
communities as ‘concerning questions of how we come to feel we belong, and how we understand the
relationship between our place and other parts of the world’ (Schifferes, 2015, p. 10). Memory institu-
tions from this conception, therefore, project themselves, through public spaces such as museums, parks,
performances, artefacts and so on; as strategically positioned to playing a more active role of creating a
sustainable future in what has become a rather volatile world. Schifferes (2015) indirectly finds memory
and heritage institutions as the missing link in correcting errors of the past in that, these recognize heri-
tage as local with crucial solutions to global challenges. He says:
…one is inspired to think that connecting people with local heritage can help to address the sense of
displacement, disillusionment and alienation that underpins so many contemporary challenges. An
emboldened and empowered local heritage is a remedy for clone towns, and perhaps reduces anxiety in
those who feel vulnerable to change…To realise this potential, citizens and decision-makers need tools
that help them interpret their assets, strengths and opportunities in context; in other words, relative to
other places (Schifferes, 2015, p. 10).
And the ‘tools’ that he refers to are broadly the memory and heritage institutions which are expected
to collect, preserve and interpret material pieces of fragments that feed heritage. One is convinced that
heritage is actually constructed and offers a space of conflict in itself, which is what Schifferes (2015)
seems to pay lip service to. Handling heritage, regardless of what it is expected to achieve, determines,
through its fragments ‘identity politics’ (McGregor & Schumaker, 2006, p. 651) thereby informing
aspects of nation building.
While the views of heritage above are appreciated, another dilemma –the dilemma of the two ‘aitchs
–Hs’ demands attention. Is heritage then taken as history and history heritage? McGregor and Schumaker
(2006) attempt an answer by saying that ‘history’ stands independent to ‘heritage’ but the two are con-
nected in some way since places, fragments and so on of heritage have histories that make cotemporary
societies ask how, why, what aspects of the past are constructed as heritage against the respective periods?
To best explain the heritage-history dimension in order to place heritage in the said matrix, McGregor
and Schumaker (2006, p. 651) say:
Despite the implication of ‘direct’ and unmediated relationships to a static or frozen past, places of
heritage obviously have histories: why, how and to what ends aspects of the past are constructed as
heritage, why some periods are particularly concerned with heritage building, and how the meanings
and content of heritage change over time are rewarding topics of investigation, which have provided
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revealing insights into relations of power, processes of inclusion and exclusion, cultural and moral values
in particular times and places.
Thus, one way to understand heritage is to seek links of those aspects that connects us as human be-
ings to the past. Custodians of heritage, especially respective institutions whose mandate is to promote,
market and collect heritage pieces; or those responsible for safeguarding them such as memory institu-
tions or indigenous groups from which the heritage emanates from, have to first position themselves
and decide whether to be cultural ‘patrimonists’ or cultural ‘preservationists’ (two concepts discussed
briefly below). None of these two sides, patrimonist and preservationist, is beneficial to heritagization –a
process of making something part of a heritage (Saidi, 2016), when taken alone because contemporary
realities demand that in heritage terms, memory institutions be in fact ‘cosmopolitan’ (Appiah, 2009,
p. 209) in their approach to heritage. The basic force driving the ‘cosmopolitan’ view is that, it accepts
that humans have responsibility for one another in their ‘differences.’ In other words, cosmopolitan is
shaped by the Ubuntu philosophy of ‘I am because we are’ resulting in making them ‘interested in hu-
man social, cultural, and individual variety’ (Appiah, 2009, p. 209).
Against the above, heritage, is thus handled as an agent of culture preservation. But this again opens
up arrays of debates as indicated earlier on. Appiah (2009, p. 210) notes that ‘preserving culture—in the
sense of cultural artifacts, broadly conceived—is different from preserving cultures’ and that ‘Cultures
are made of continuities and changes, and the identity of a society can survive through these changes.
Societies without change aren’t more authentic; they’re just dead’ (Appiah, 2009, p. 210). Following
Appiah (2009), therefore, one views heritage as a product of cultural activities of a group with a potential
to contribute to the culture of the world. This renders memory institutions vie to collect, preserve, trade
as well as explain both culture and the cultures of indigenous groups of people; pointing out their place
within the grand matrix of world culture and cultures.
For Appiah (2009), heritage is understood not as a bridge that connects the present to the past. In-
stead, heritage is a human reality that reveals the cultural experiences of a given group of people. These
realities have to be ‘visual,’ hence, tangible materials such as ‘cultural artifacts: works of art, religious
relics, manuscripts, crafts, musical instruments, and the like’ (Appiah, 2009, p. 213). The term ‘heritage’
from this aspect appears to assume an equivalence with ‘cultural patrimony’ defined as the ‘product
of a culture: the group from whose conventions the object derives its significance’ (Appiah, 2009, p.
213). To illustrate this, Appiah (2009) says, if material objects collectively promote the understanding
of heritage, it follows that
…the objects are understood to belong to a particular group, heirs to a trans-historical identity, whose
patrimony they are. The cultural patrimony of Nigeria, then, is not just Nigeria’s contribution to human
culture—its voices in our noisy human chorus, its contribution, as the French might say, to the civiliza-
tion of the universal. Rather, it is all the artifacts produced by Nigerians, conceived of as a historically
persisting people: and while the rest of us may admire Nigeria’s patrimony, it belongs, in the end, to them.
The views above of understanding heritage, one which treats heritage as a bridge to connecting with
the past (McGregor & Schumaker 2006) while the other which sees aspects of culture and cultures coming
in (Appiah, 2009) offer some grounding of approaching heritage materials, tangible and intangible. With
reference to the BaTonga of Zimbabwe, for instance, the material pieces such as the ncelwa (women’s
smoking pipe), buntibe drums, three legged BaTonga doors, mazubo (fishing nets), etc. collectively
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allow an appreciation of the BaTonga past thereby creating their heritage. On the other hand, the same
artefacts, especially the ncelwa, buntibe and Nyaminyami walking stick reveal aspects of culture making
the BaTonga culture part of the world culture.
‘LIVED’ AND ‘PERFORMED’ HERITAGE
‘Lived’ and ‘Performed’ Heritage are concepts aligned to aspects of heritage. ‘Lived’ and ‘Performed’
heritage can best be understood within the larger realm of ‘intangible’ heritage. Heritage is often broadly
grouped into two categories the ‘tangible’ and ‘intangible’. Tangible heritage often points to the mate-
rial objects that can be seen or touched. Intangible heritage generally refers to heritage which is usually
experienced. Pietrobruno (2009, p. 227) says ‘Intangible heritage…is often regarded as traditional culture
that reflects the identity of a particular nation or group.’
From the above submission, intangible heritage encompasses both ‘lived’ and ‘performed’ heritage
where the common denominator is ‘traditional culture.’ ‘Lived’ heritage in this chapter means the ‘living
cultural practices’ involving oral forms (such as folktales) language use and other social daily practices.
‘Performed’ heritage would include rituals, festive, performing arts, songs and dances usually done
periodically. There is a very thin line that divides these two as, for instance, rituals are brought to life
through language while folktales for instance may also make use of songs and dances. Perhaps scholars
choose this stance because ‘…certain intangible cultures do not fit neatly into categories of “traditional”
or “national”, they may not be regarded as valuable heritages that should be preserved by institutions
through funded projects or in actual archives…’ (Pietrobruno, 2009, p. 228). Among the BaTonga of
Zimbabwe, ChiTonga language is used, has been developed over the years and has now found its way
into the education system. The BaTonga also perform various traditional rituals periodically as part of
their traditional practices such as masabe, Ngoma Buntibe and others.
PATRIMONISTS AND PRESERVATIONISTS
In heritage, there exist two entities, ‘patrimonists’ who argue and project themselves as the custodians of
a given heritage. These claim to have inherited the heritage and could have been part of the generation
with the untainted knowhow. They view heritage as ‘property’ they inherited from their forefathers. In
contrast, preservationists are those that recognize the importance of a given heritage and subsequently
project themselves as having the resources, mechanisms and ‘tools’ to collect and put the collected heritage
into some sanctuary to protect it from extinction. Patrimonists are driven by their direct involvement at
some stage in the living of the heritage as such are keen to preserve heritage in its ‘original’ sphere since
to them ‘Cultural heritage is important because it strongly influences…sense of identity…loyalties, and
…behavior’ (Buckland, 2013, p. 11). On the other hand, ‘preservationists’ such as memory institutions
(archives, libraries, museums, schools, and historic sites) believe they have a responsibility ‘for preserving
and interpreting the cultural record’ (Buckland, 2013, p. 11), against the belief that ‘culture’ is dynamic;
that attitudes, language and values change over time. Preservationists may at times ‘re-create’ or call for
repackaging of heritage to deal with relevance issues of the heritage or their institutions.
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TOWARDS A POSTCOLONIAL IDENTITY OF ‘HERITAGE’
A broad understanding of heritage foresees an attempt to view the past as represented in contemporary
times under the banner of ‘public representations of the past’ (McGregor & Schumaker, 2006, p. 649).
This, as suggested by McGregor and Schumaker (2006 p. 649), is best viewed with postcolonial eyes.
This is because it provides insights into ‘postcolonial identity politics, cultures of state power and the
configuration of transnational interests.’ These have a bearing on heritage definitions, promotions,
advocacy and ultimately shape the formation and ideological underpinnings of memory institutions
mandated to operationalize the said politics, cultures and ultimately defining the limits or otherwise of
‘transnational interests’ (McGregor & Schumaker, 2006, p .649).
Reference is made to Namibia, where Fairweather (2006, p.720) reflects on an important aspect of
post-colonial identity of heritage in that country. He says, given the nature of the contemporary lives,
tastes and basic freedoms of expression and associations has made young people in Namibia ‘postcolo-
nial subjects.’ Young people, it is argued, qualify their new identity through ‘performance and display’
(Fairweather, 2006, p. 720) of their livelihoods. While this could be seen as a limited view of heritage
and the shaping of identities of the youth in Namibia, it is crucial to submit here that the youthful nature
of the Namibian landscape actually characterize much of the African continent which without doubt is
highly now characterized by a youthful population. This makes Africans in general postcolonial subjects.
Fairweather (2006) further argues that in Namibia, most young people have reached out to their
indigenous traditional culture which they express through music, dance and so on. The major driving
factor Fairweather (2006, p. 720) argues, is the ‘tourist industry that displays such activities to wealthy
and cosmopolitan global travelers as representing a distinctive ‘local culture.’’ Thus, given that Namibia
is considered a tourist destination for tourists ‘willing to pay to witness the spectacle of Namibia’s much
proclaimed cultural diversity’ (p. 720), it has generally promoted even the ‘inaccessible’ areas to become
tourist destinations.
However, Fairweather (2006) takes a very simplistic view of postcolonial, where he seems to be han-
dling it as in the ‘after’ independence. That is, Namibia is presented as having succeeded in recreating
a diverse heritage given the political independence ushered in 1990 to which the youth are now more
active in participating in the generation of their culture for tourism against the backdrop of apartheid
which had subdued and devalued African culture. The argument, therefore, is that, Namibia has been
able to reconstruct its heritage for creating a contemporary identity based on what the Namibian ‘na-
tional culture’ entails in order to attract and participate actively in the global culture as envisioned by
Appiah’s (2009) conception.
Preservationists, given the above, argue that heritage packaging for global culture is ‘westernization’
of indigenous heritage for the global market. It exposes heritage to western contamination where consum-
ers end up ‘forgetting’ many things while custodians fight for recognition in order to offer themselves as
‘teachers’ of cultural heritage instead. Given this development, what then is required to strike a balance
between having to ‘preserve’ heritage while at the same time having to package it in order for it to have
a place within the global culture? Here, memory institutions are quick to come forward and volunteer
to carry out this task.
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But why make an aside in respect of identity of heritage or heritage identity? The assumption is to
move towards broad aspects of cultural identities from which notions of nation building and so on may
be hinged. Croucher (2010, p. 351) says ‘Cultural identities draw together multiple people within a notion
of shared cultural practice and a shared sense of “sameness.”’ Hence, a postcolonial identity of such a
heritage will be a functional agent of cultural identity unshackled from all forms of domination –politi-
cal, racial or ethnic. It also promotes visibility of the indigenous people to whom the heritage belongs
to. For instance, within a nation-state characterized by diverse ethnic groups such as Zimbabwe, there
exist marginalized ethnic groups such as the BaTonga, Nambya, Chewa, Sotho, Venda, Kalanga, and
so on. These groups have unique cultural heritages and for the country to then craft a national cultural
identity such groups need to be recognized.
Meskell (2005) commenting on liberalism for South African heritage, makes an important observa-
tion, that, early settlers on the South African landscape saw ‘tribes’ as a defining feature of social reality
which the settlers saw as a ‘source of danger… because of its relative autonomy’ (Meskell, 2005, p. 72)
in that ‘The tribal economy was a source of livelihood, tribal ideology, a source of identity and common
purpose…’ (Mamdani, 1996, p. 91 in Meskell, 2005, p. 72). Such a belief by settler regimes, not only in
South Africa during colonialism but all over the colonial world, witnessed a deliberate ‘re-ordering of
ethnic affiliation’ (Meskell, 2005, p. 72) even in matters of discorses of heritage. Displacements of one
way or another, forced or otherwise, were pivotal in operationalising this aspect. These displacements,
therefore, are read as part and parcel of this ‘re-ordering’ for purposes of dormination and a redefinition
of heritage aspects during colonial periods.
At independence, displacements of one way or another have not ceased as independent governments
continued from where colonial governments left. The BaTonga people of Zimbabwe, for instance, were
forcebly displaced from their ancestral lands along the Zambezi Valley to pave way for the construction
of the World Bank funded Kariba Dam project (Saidi, 2016; Mashingaidze, 2013; Hughes, 2010; Colson,
1971). They were relocated to the dry, tseste infested arid spaces (Mashingaidze, 2013) far removed
from their landscapes that housed much of their heritage. The turn of the 21st century Land Reform
Programme in Zimbabwe witnessed land being redistibuted from which the BaTonga ‘new’ spaces (in
Binga, parts of Gokwe, Kariba and so on) offered opportunities for ‘invasion’, this time, by new settlers
from other ethnic groups.
Therefore, aspects of postcolonial heritage-identity have a bearing as well on ethnic identification
and participation in national culture discourses. To avoid identity-erasure of certain indigenous groups
of people while purporting to wait for some system to ‘certify’ a group, its practices or identities as
genuine or authentic; it is crucial to spearhead efforts of collecting and preserving aspects of heritage.
And in line with discourses of human rights, it has come to be accepted that to some extent heritage is
also a human right.
Reference to heritage as a human right explains how heritagization calls for attention to production
and institutionalization of heritage. Left unattended, heritagization can promote memory and heritage
spaces as hegemonising institutions within the body cultural and identity politics. In other words, what
elite groups may want to elaborate, will have to be toned down by having to identify and visualize once
suppressed heritages and give voice to marginalized groups. And since ‘Everybody has a right to a
heritage’ (Löfgren & Klekot, 2012, p. 393), it then should be the ‘empowering rallying call’ (Löfgren
& Klekot, 2012, p. 393) for marginalized groups such as the BaTonga in Zimbabwe to be recognized
through their heritage. This is also because:
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Today heritage stands as a very powerful framing concept, influencing fields from city branding to
minority identity politics, as well as museum policies and university teaching. It is a way of organizing
the past that probably will be with us for a long time. We need to constantly reflect over what happens
when a version of this past or an item of everyday life is re- labelled as heritage. There are many and
sometimes contradictory processes at work here, like emotionalization and sacralisation, but also ways
of revitalizing or deadening a specific phenomenon (Löfgren & Klekot, 2012, p. 394).
THE BATONGA PEOPLE OF ZIMBABWE
The BaTonga people are found in Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe (Colson, 1971; Panos Southern Africa,
2005; McGregor, 2009; Hughes 2010) and possibly in other countries as well. In this chapter, the Ba-
Tonga under discussion are those in Zimbabwe (henceforth BaTonga). To borrow Chikozho, Mubaya
and Mawere (2015, p. 45) conception:
This is, nonetheless, not to say the issues discussed here are exclusive to Zimbabwean Tonga people but
may be inclusive of the many Tonga people who have inevitably been separated by colonial boundaries
thereby falling into different countries today.
In Zimbabwe, the BaTonga are found in present day Kariba, Hwange, Chirundu, Victoria Falls, Mola,
Binga, Nyaminyami district, parts of Gokwe and some parts of Matabeleland provinces. Their indig-
enous language is known as ChiTonga. McGregor (2009, p. 25) identifies them as basilwizi ‘the river
people,’ meaning, as Ncube (2004, p. 3) noted, that they ‘knew of no other homeland than the Zambezi
Valley.’ It is this connection to the giant river that gives impetus to their identity, cultural outlook and
basic existence.
Historically, the BaTonga are identified as people of the Gwembe Valley (Cliggett, Colson, & Hay,
2007) who were thought of (by their neighbors) as not having a paramount ruler (Ncube, 2004), hence,
‘Tonga’, meaning a ‘Chiefless people’ (Chikozho et al., 2015 p. 45). The BaTonga are believed to have
inhabited the Zambezi Valley as far back as the Stone Age. Saidi (2017) argues that they occupy, ethni-
cally, the greatest geographical space along the Zambezi in Zimbabwe as compared to other ethnic groups
in the country. Thus, the BaTonga of Zimbabwe are one of the ethnic groups in the country.
Much of the studies (Colson, 1971; Panos Southern Africa, 2005; McGregor, 2009; Hughes, 2010)
on the BaTonga have been biased greatly towards those in Zambia. The Tonga are a dominant group in
Zambia (especially in the Southern part of that country) which is not the case of their kin in Zimbabwe.
Marginalization of the BaTonga in Zimbabwe has been socially, economically, culturally and even
politically. For instance, it had to take the 2013 Zimbabwean constitution to recognize, linguistically,
ChiTonga, as one of the sixteen officially recognized languages ‘almost thirty-three years after inde-
pendence’ (Saidi, 2017, p. 47). Dzingirayi (2003) shows how the Communal Management Programme
for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), a colonial wildlife policy, spearheaded by the independent
Zimbabwean government, disfranchised and marginalized the BaTonga economically and socially.
What is rather visible with regard to the BaTonga is their history which is heavily marred with dis-
placement. Studies by Colson (1971), McGregor (2009), Hughes (2010), Mashingaidze (2013) and Saidi
(2016) do show how the Kariba World Bank funded hydroelectric project was critical in the displace-
ment of the BaTonga from their ancestral lands. Mashingaidze (2013) attributes the marginalization of
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the BaTonga in all spheres of their lives as having been defined by the hydroelectric project of between
1956 and 1959. He summarizes it as follows:
The colonial government settled the dislocated communities in the adjoining uplands of Binga District.
Besides displacing the Tonga without any compensation, the government did not carry out environmental,
social and economic impact assessments before the hasty relocations to the dry, infertile and tsetse fly
infested but wildlife rich adjoining upland plateaus… (Mashingaidze, 2013, pp. 381-382)
At independence, ‘well-connected Ndebele and Shona people gradually substituted Europeans as

the major beneficiaries in the exploitation of Zambezi Valley’s natural wealth’ (Mashingaidze, 2013, p.
382). And due to lack of development in areas such as Binga and the greater part of ‘Tongaland,’ Less-
ing (1992) proclaimed that one should not go to Binga as it would break one’s heart. Lessing (1992)
bemoaned underdevelopment in Binga due to neglect by the independent government. In attempting
to demonstrate the resilience of the BaTonga in cultural terms scholars like Gambahaya and Muhwati
(2010) explore oral literature of the BaTonga people. They say their orature protests, reflects their past
as well as experiences.
Hughes (2010) attempts a discursive restoration of the BaTonga role in the history of the Kariba project
by showing the wanton exclusiveness of the discourses that emerged at the time; discourses that sort to
delete BaTonga voices along the Zambezi. Saidi (2016) demonstrates that BaTonga cultural artefacts
such as the ncelwa (womens’ smoking pipe) buntibe (drum and performance) as well as the Nyaminyami
walking stick (among others), carry the rich BaTonga cultural heritage which the BaTonga have used
over the years to mark their space and visibility in the country. Mashingaidze (2013) submits the vari-
ous strategies used by young BaTonga people in fighting ‘exclusion’ in all aspects of their livelihoods;
efforts which in part have seen the establishment of the Binga Museum to preserve BaTonga heritage.
ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE AND MEMORIES: LESSONS FROM THE BATONGA
Appreciating some developments in fields of communication is convincing that somehow museums,

galleries, heritage sites or any such knowledge and memory spaces are platforms of meaning-making.
Saidi (2016, p. 95) speaks of this as part of ‘visual cultural communication.’ This then in turn draws
attention to the way knowledge, memories or heritage has to be organized. Mason (2005), while taking
a very broad view of memory institutions as agents of meaning says that every aspect of these spaces
communicates, that is:
From the architectural style of the building or layout of the site, to the attendants at the entrance, the ar-
rangements of the exhibits or artefacts, the colour of walls, and the positioning of labels and text panels;
all these things are in a communicative process…Yet, what is communicated being communicated will
depend on many factors…(Mason, 2005, p. 200).
While this may draw one towards the communicative aspects of heritage as preserved in memory
institutions, it is apparent that focus be more on organization of these memories and heritage knowledge.
Memory institutions are mediating systems of the signifying material pieces that now inhabit the said
spaces. Depending on the ‘definitions’ of the spaces, the material artefacts also assume various mean-
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ings based on the ‘definitions’, broad identity of the museum or national memory spaces. For instance,
an object, say an African musk, could be viewed as ‘an ethnographic exhibit, a tribal artefact, a piece of
art, evidence of colonial looting, the subject of repatriation case, or simply a commodity to sell’ Mason
(2005, p. 200). Yet, in all the cases, it is still the same material object assuming various meanings based
on location, modes of display, legal or ethical ownership. Because heritage is a construction, it follows,
therefore, that meanings are also not fixed within the material objects, images, cultural sites and so on.
By default, questions may then be asked as to what a museum is, for instance? Those that are being
asked or to whom this question appears to be directed to are those whose cultural objects are held by these
museums, or collected by them; politicians and members of the business community who are generally
asked to support museums through sponsorships. Perceiving a museum this way, as a concrete space in
which tangible material evidence is kept is now being seen as a traditional view of what museums are.
Harrison (2005, p. 41) says ‘Collection, preservation, study, interpretation and exhibition of this ‘mate-
rial evidence’ have been the components which lie at the root of all definitions of what a museum is.’
Broadly, such spaces are expected to be involved in key cultural practices involving having to recon-
figure themselves in order to cease appearing as though they are ‘cultural authorities.’ The nature of
heritage and post-colonial views and the nature of the post-colonial world no longer support the view that:
…these spaces are architecturally reminiscent of churches or the mansions of those who rule, [impressing]
upon the visitor the idea that museum visits are a privilege and an educational, if not morally uplifting,
experience (Harrison, 2005, p. 42).
Against this backdrop, there is need for an ideological shift aimed at memory and heritage institu-
tions having to drop traditional or colonial perceptions of making the public understand ‘the museum’
for instance, ‘as a purveyor of truth and a venerated ‘cultural authority’’ (Harrison, 2005, p. 42). This is
what Mawere (2015, p. 2) refers to as Africa’s continued misguided attitude in which,
…countries continue to practice colonial museology given that a number of their museums still depict
the histories and tastes of the Western society of ‘conquerors’ and colonialists who established museums
on the African soils after realising their [museums] value in the global market.
The other painful reality, in support of Mawere (2015), is that a great deal of the collections or
heritage is:
…often the former property of the wealthy and the powerful, and they relate to historical events and
times—either those of the Western world or of ‘exotic’ peoples of the world. Thus they carry with them the
authority of ‘tradition’ and this further validates the authority of the institution (Harrison, 2005, p. 42).
In a post-colonial world, the heritage of the seemingly marginalized require recognition and inclu-
sion; not in a manner of romping them in the institutions to ‘compete’ or use as an antithesis of the
imperialist attitude or colonial traditions and heritage. Inclusion is expected to be one that promotes
‘participation, equality and justice in decision making about interventions to contain events to do with
museum governance’ (Mawere, 2015, p. 4); as well as representation of various ethnic groups in all
aspects of national culture and nation building.
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The Binga Museum, located at the heart of Binga, provides a space in which BaTonga collections
which signify as well as symbolize BaTonga history and represent BaTonga heritage is a good instance
which come in to question memory and heritage management in the country. The institution is an instance
of a community museum, designed to stand in and represent a marginalized ethnic group, the community
and its heritage. One argument Harison (2005, p. 44) puts forward is the idea that contemporary memory
and heritage institutions should now include people from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds:
…in the national education; the need for museums to manage and conserve their collections, especially
those which include vital information for our environmental well-being; ethical questions about cultural
patrimony and collecting policies; the need for better training and selection of museum professionals;
the critical financial situation of many museums and the dwindling sources of potential support; and the
need for superlative leaders in the museum field who have the necessary vision and creativity to guide
the institutions through these.
The creation of the BaTonga Museum spearheaded by the BaTonga themselves; and which scholars
like Mashingaidze (2013) may find as an outcome of the efforts of young BaTonga’s to call for recogni-
tion of their historical and cultural rights, visibility as well as inclusion in national cultural discourses,
may be seen as a direct protest to subjugation. In other words, this is a non-militant call for inclusion
in nation building.
The major challenge is financing of the museum. While money issues are not unique to institutions
such as this, which require sponsorship for survival; it cannot be denied that private and public sponsor-
ships are usually availed based on boom and recession economic cycles, existing political agendas of
the day which directly support art and culture. The Binga Museum as an instance, is located in Binga
and what is interesting about ‘the museum’ is that it is part of a grand plan where a museum stands on
one side housing heritage collections, while on the other side stands a Library and close to these two
memory and heritage institutions is a crafts center. One who wishes to learn of the BaTonga past will
get into the Museum, reading about the BaTonga done in the Library and desires to ‘buy’ BaTonga
mementoes is the realm of the crafts center.
To then expect the BaTonga to finance such a huge grand plan is overburdening them given their his-
tory of exclusion in economic matters over the years. The BaTonga in most aspects of their livelihoods
have, given their displacement history, had to make do with donor assistance in the provision of food
and other provisions during say times of drought. Now, to subject the Museum to sponsorship since the
local community is incapacitated to do so financially, outsiders may come in to assist but this invites
various sponsors who may clamor for a voice in the activities of the heritage site.
But, what appears to be the grave challenge is the notion of heritage identity. Heritage spaces have
to deal with having to either be object oriented, that is, focused more on collection and preservation of
objects or people-oriented from which the BaTonga and any such groups are represented in cultural and
historical terms. The former is unsustainable as those represented or supposed to be represented by the
meanings preserved are excluded in the operation of the institution as it seeks fame through the collected
objects. The latter has an advantage of making the institution a heritage hub.
When we revisit the BaTonga heritage we learn that, apart from the Binga Museum, now housing a
variety of material objects representing BaTonga heritage; key artefacts in the Museum continue to be
part of the day-to-day living among the BaTonga. For instance, the ncelwa (See Figure 1) is a womens’
smoking pipe. It continues to be used socially by BaTonga, mostly elderly women for smoking polya
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(tobacco) and is a key symbol for the active social presence of BaTonga women in that society. In other
words, the ncelwa marks the ‘lived’ heritage among the BaTonga people of Zimbabwe. Because of its
everyday use, it is an important smoking pipe among the BaTonga.
Further, there is the buntibe drum (see Figure 2), which is one of the five conical-shaped drums –a
giant drum requiring one or two people to support it in addition to the principal player. Buntibe hence
refers to both the drum and the performance itself. The performance foresees the giant drum being played
in an assemblage or orchestra characterized by space in which drummers and dancers move from one
place to another.
The figures above are instances of material objects or artefacts preserved in the Binga Museum (and
may appear in other heritage spaces elsewhere) but the same are currently in everyday use. The question
asked is; upon being collected for preservation, what exactly will the heritage institutions be interested
in? This is because the material objects are not archeological fossil pieces, relics, dug or picked from
defined places. For the Binga institution, we may argue, that, it is people oriented, hence, geared at
preserving those artefacts which are still directly connected to their daily lives to safeguard them from
extinction. A good example is the ncelwa, which due to Christianity and other modern forces has wit-
nessed young-teen girls who, traditionally, in the BaTonga cosmos, were expected to be using it but are
now shunning the practice.
The same goes for the buntibe, which, during community gatherings is also performed. In other words,
it is a resource for the performed heritage. Manson (2005) points out that material objects assume different
communicative functions based on the meanings they accrue in terms of the contexts in which we find
them. Hence, the ncelwa in the museum may be, from this conception, an artefact, while in its daily use
a tool for a cultural and social practice and in a Victoria Falls curio shop (or elsewhere), a commodity
Figure 1. Showing BaTonga ncelwa (smoking pipe)

(Saidi, 2016, pp. 111-112)
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Figure 2. Showing the Buntibe drum

(Saidi, 2016, pp. 128, 131-132)
for sell. But this does not divorce the said material object from being a ‘lived’ heritage agent making
memory and heritage institutions weak in appreciating that the material objects such as these among the
BaTonga are in fact part of a ‘lived’ heritage. They cannot be dismantled into ‘tangible’ on one end and
then ‘intangible’ on the other as to understand them fully is to handle them in their wholesale package
as ‘lived heritage’. How then, given this reality, can memory and heritage institutions organize such a
heritage for sustainable cultural development? Perhaps this is what Ndoro and Pwiti (2005) mean when
they identify approaches to heritage management as having been done mostly through international
agents resulting in international demands rather than considering local values being pursued even after
independence. The problem is that:
Western models impose on bodies of cultural material the analytical rigour of categorization, division
and quantification in place of the synthetic interpretative modes of integration and association (Ndoro
& Pwiti, 2005 p. 155).
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Saidi (2016) submits that Rainos Tawonameso, a Shona sculptor from Bikita, migrated to Kariba
and after interacting with BaTonga’s ‘lived heritage’, ‘immortalized’ their livelihoods through what has
come to be known as the Nyaminyami Walking Stick. This sculpture, a copy (considered the original)
of which is now housed in the Binga Museum, has become much popular and is part of artefacts sold
in most tourist centers such as in Kariba and Victoria Falls. Replicas of the Walking Stick, of different
shapes and sizes, have also sprouted over the years. The Walking Stick represents BaTonga people in
terms of their religious practices, socio-culture and narratives that connect the BaTonga to the Zambezi
River. The fact that an outsider created an artefact that greatly represent BaTonga has come to be part
of the collections as evidenced by its housing in Binga Museum suggesting that the BaTonga have ap-
propriated it as part of their heritage. However, appreciation or the value assigned to the artefact is not
so much on the object created but the narratives, history and heritage it carries which speak more to
‘lived heritage’ than it being a work of art.
SOME GLITCHES IN MEMORY AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT
So how then is memory or heritage that seem to defy definitions of ‘heritage fragments’ organized and
managed? In other words, how can the BaTonga heritage be organized and managed by ‘preservationists’
in the memory institutions? Given that the postcolonial state is also preoccupied with monumentalization
of the heritage identities in nation building; the support needed in knowledge and memory organization,
for institutions that are community creations and community based, may not be that forthcoming from
the central government. For instance, policy formulation and enaction of legislature to support such
policies are overshadowed by overconcentration in monumentalization –a process that normally sees
the government operating in big cities or strategic spaces far removed from the owners of the heritage
and patrimonists.
There is also lack of a clear, visible and apolitical legislature to support configuration and recon-
figuration of knowledge and memory institutions in most African countries like Zimbabwe. Corsane
(2004) discusses some of the policy formulation and the nature of new legislature enacted at the end of
apartheid in South Africa which have come to direct how museums and heritage are being reconfigured
in the post-colonial and post-apartheid era. For South Africa, this can be seen as a mile stone, but for
Zimbabwe a lot still needs to be done in this direction.
Policy and legislature empower communities to be actively involved in the preservation and represen-
tations of their heritage. Lack of a policy clear framework means communities and subsequent institu-
tions are disempowered to carry out their mandates or are empowered to concentrate more in managing
aspects of heritage as a service to the political ideology of the central government. For post-apartheid
South Africa, three key areas have been considered which involve, broadening the definitions and con-
finement of heritage to also include intangible heritage; developing and promoting the understanding
that heritage needs to be managed in particular ways. With reference to South Africa, it is reported that
communities are taken as custodians of heritage, in other words, they are seen as specialists and thus
empowered in the active participation as well as management of their heritage. Hence, South Africa
has taken a patrimonist approach rather than a preservationist approach –characteristic of most African
countries’ stance in heritage management.
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Another African state that seem to have actively come up with a clear policy is Namibia. Fairweather
(2006) speaks of the Namibian government’s policy on heritage as well as its support to Namibian com-
munities as having promoted heritage consumption largely by the tourist industry from which efforts
are being made for institutions to organize knowledge and memory in a more culturally sustainable
way. When communities are actively involved they may help in repackaging of their heritage thereby
augmenting government or institutional efforts in heritage management. Fairweather (2006, p. 724)
summarizes it this way:
Throughout the postcolonial world, communities like Olukonda have become the object of a new kind of
attention, which influences the way in which they look at themselves. They have begun to see the tradi-
tional practices they previously followed as cultural commodities that can be photographed, performed
on stage, or displayed in museums. The tendency of cultural tourists to visit rural communities in search
of authentic cultural experiences threatens to turn these villages into living museums.
Advantages are thus far reaching as not only do memory and heritage institutions benefit but the com-
munities at large also accrue various benefits. The active role of the state and its communities naturally
support world heritage policies spearheaded by international agencies such as UNESCO, although Ndoro
and Pwiti (2005) blame such international agents for advancing western models which have little value
to local people. These international agencies, as part of their policies for Africa, have, however, come
to ‘promote technologies for producing pasts and futures, by which we mean archives, artefacts, ritual
practices, performances, and material spaces’ (Rowlands & de Jong, 2008, p. 15).
Apart from clear policies and legislature, institutions look up to support from various organizations
for funding. This means institutions may seek funding, in their many numbers, from the same potential
funders. This development promotes survival of the fittest attitudes leading to reconfiguring their col-
lections to justify selection for funding. Reconfigurations of collections or repackaging may remove at-
tention on the heritage thereby causing erasure of heritage itself as institutions seek relevancy and meet
expectations of the funders. Further, institutions to survive may also benchmark themselves for tourism
in a bid to raise funds for their operations at the expense of heritage itself. Therefore, institutions may
then be seen as sacrificing heritage, erasing some aspects if need be to survive.
Another glitch is the attitude of African states towards culture. In most African territories, ‘culture’
occupies a very sensitive place within the African polity. Not only is culture central in ‘political, eco-
nomic and social terms. It also exists in relation to development goals or to the specific needs of what are
termed ‘emerging market’’ (Isar, 2009, p. 610), at the same time being a determiner of cultural identity
issues. Hence, there are demands and calls for policy formulation to be conscious of culture as well. This
leads us to the understanding that culture is now no longer the realm of anthropologists or a perspective
of scholars, but a space marred with contestations and counter contestations. Given that memory and
heritage institutions traditionally projected themselves as cultural institutions, it follows, therefore, that
their survival today now depends on how they respond to contemporary debates on heritage and culture,
especially in Africa where heritage now plays a great ideological role in shaping the nation-state.
Most African countries handle notions of culture based on aspects of ‘memory’ (possibly because of
the very long history of colonialism). Because memory is at the center of culture-handling or aspects of
cultural identity, we witness deliberate practices in which the nation-state in post-colonial Africa ‘memory
is full of contradictions between the grandiosity of state ceremonialism and popular memory’ (Rowlands
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& de Jong, 2008, p. 13). It then makes ceremonies, cultural or historical, as well as monuments and
memory institutions as mere spectacles of the State. It means that memory and heritage institutions are
only valued as well as supported by the state in as far as they advance the ideological underpinnings of
the state and subsequently the same goes for the objects housed by such institutions. Such an approach
assumes that the state in Zimbabwe in as far as it supports the Binga Museum for instance, is merely to
have the institution represent the State than the people. The Nambya community museum in Hwange
for instance, is currently housed at an abandoned sport pavilion and for years no intervention has been
done to provide a good building for such an important heritage space. This alone exposes the state’s role
in all processes of heritage preservation especially for marginalized groups such as the Nambya who
are in fact the BaTonga neighbors.
Part of the challenge institutions and governments face is ascertaining their position is handling as
well as promoting tangible heritage on one hand and intangible on the other. We have seen how BaTonga
cultural heritage offers a double edge in its existence. A great number of artefacts are not relics but con-
tinue to be used in the day to day socio-cultural practices. This means that cultural performances have a
role to play and should be linked to all other memory and heritage institutions because:
Cultural performances such as dance displays are instruments for ‘adding value’ to the heritage they
present, but these performances are also critical sites for the production of meanings. Messages of
reconciliation, multiculturalism or development among others can be encoded alongside the message
of ‘heritage’ (Fairweather, 2006, p. 724).
Management of heritage based on classification as either tangible or intangible has resulted in recogni-
tion of cultural days, conduction of cultural fairs, promotion of heritage sites, developing of educational
curriculums with special attention to heritage matters, and creation of state departments to deal specifi-
cally with heritage related issues. Zimbabwe of late has witnessed introduction of a new curriculum for
instance which now recognizes ‘heritage studies’, establishment of cultural centers in schools.
Based on the above, a number of research areas can be pursued in matters of heritage advocacy, pres-
ervation and management. Future research is needed in the area of visual cultural communication since
memory spaces are agents strategically mandated to providing communicative aspects aligned to heritage
and identity.
Research, especially in Zimbabwe, is required to assess the effectiveness of policy and legislature
designed to define, promote and guide heritage packaging and management in the country. Recommen-
dations from such research are hoped to inform new directions in policy formulation as well as promote
an inclusive approach to heritage management against the broad notion of nation building.
Further, the education sector needs to do more in some of its education programmes so that the sector
is deliberately made a consumer of the country’s heritage from which education institutions can help
in funding memory institutions rather than merely approach these spaces as mere tourist destinations.
Memory institutions for instance can partner with institutions of higher learning to promote research and
teaching of various disciplines which may have direct or indirect impact on heritage matters.
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The Government of Zimbabwe through its respective departments should also fund research as well
as local researchers undertaking projects in heritage advocacy, preservation and management. In doing
so, the government should take a ‘depoliticized’ or an apolitical approach, as to use the political ideology
of the day is to condition research in matters of heritagization from which heritage from some ethnic
groups may be overshadowed.
CONCLUSION
In approaching heritage, it is vital to submit a working definition as this will determine how heritage is
going to be handled, organized and managed. Much of the submissions in this chapter have noted that
heritage has links in recreating or reconfiguring the past especially for postcolonial communities which
have come to demand ‘decolonization’ of all aspects of identity and culture. Most African countries
recognize that in nation building, culture should assume a pivotal role as it defines national identity.
But this approach, while having the greatest support, inclusion of marginalized ethnic groups is very
important as what will become of ‘national culture’ should constitute all aspects of all the people within
a given geopolitical space.
Memory and heritage institutions, therefore, are required to partake in operating within the realities
as well as demands of postcolonial worlds. There exist artefacts, monuments and so on which from a
superficial level are quickly defined as heritage pieces but as has been noted among the BaTonga, some
of these ‘fragments’ or heritage technologies have to accommodate issues regarding performances which
actually give imputes to the heritage itself. The objective is not, therefore, for institutions to claim to have
collected relic pieces in order for institutions to amass fame and justify their existence. The objective
should be to save and assist communities preserve their heritage in the best manner they can. Indeed,
governments have the mandate of coming up with a robust cultural policy framework where all groups
are involved in its formation and supporting such policies with relevant legislature from which guaran-
tees of funding for instance from the government are made. If such robust moves are not made, heritage
and memory institutions may, in a bid to survive, come up with systems that may actually erase some
heritage or memory aspects of certain groups.
It is hoped that this chapter promotes pragmatic approaches to memory and heritage management
and advocacy in which matters of identity are crucial not for politicking but for sustainable development
of African communities. Given the long histories of subjugation, displacements and so on by govern-
ments of the day; through heritage management and consumption some aspects of healing as well as
subtle restorative mechanisms may be observed as communities participate in the consumption as well
as preservation of their heritage. To simply announce change of educational curriculum recognizing
heritage issues is not alone enough, a broad based memory and heritage management scheme demands
inclusiveness.
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Rowlands, M., & de Jong, F. (2008). Reconsidering heritage and memory. In J. Ferdinand de & M.
Rowlands (Eds.), Reclaiming heritage: Alternative imaginaries of memory in West Africa (pp. 13–31).
New York: Routledge.
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cation, 2(1), 45–60.
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Memory Institutions: State, private organizations or spaces whose purpose is to maintain repository
of public knowledge. It is generically used to refer to museums, libraries, archives, sites, monuments,
gardens and so on.
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Chapter 18
(Un)Liberated and
Contested Narratives:
Museums in a Free South Africa
Bongani C Ndhlovu
University of the Western Cape, South Africa & Iziko Museums, South Africa
ABSTRACT
This chapter analyses the influence of the state in shaping museum narratives, especially in a liberated
society such as South Africa. It argues that while the notion of social cohesion and nation building is
an ideal that many South African museums should strive for, the technocratisation of museum processes
has to a degree led to a disregard of the public sphere as a space of open engagement. Secondly, the
chapter also looks at the net-effect of museums professionals and boards in the development of their
narrative. It argues that due to the nature of their expertise and interests, and the focus on their areas
of specialisation, museums may hardly claim to be representative of the many voices they ought to rep-
resent. As such, the chapter explores contestations in museum spaces. It partly does so by exploring the
notion “free-spokenness” and its limits in museum spaces. To amplify its argument, the chapter uses
some exhibitions that generated critical engagements from Iziko Museums of South Africa.
BACKGROUND
Historical narratives enter the public sphere through a range of vehicles, not excluding museums and
heritage sites. The public sphere should in reality be the theatre of ideas which allows different publics
to engage with each other through visuals, conversation and text as a site for the production, circulation,
contestation and reconstruction of discourses that can, in principle, be critical of the state and others. It
is therefore a site of social meanings, both in practice and theory.
Against the foregoing background and given the fact that a substantial number of museums in South
Africa are state funded, a question has to be posed: can museums be regarded as forums for representation
of varied meanings and storied lives of the country’s inhabitants? Such a question calls for interroga-
tion of processes involved in knowledge productions in museums especially the influence, be it direct
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch018

(Un)Liberated and Contested Narratives
or indirect, of their primary funders, including the state, to the meanings museums create. Secondly, the
roles of museum professionals in such meaning construction and marginalisation also need some scrutiny.
Thirdly, the chapter explores silences and tensions embedded in the notion of inclusivity and partici-
patory exhibitions. Using Iziko Museums of South Africa as a reference space, the chapter examines the
extent through which museums can be used as platforms for open engagements and how the museum
may be a contested space. Iziko Museums is a national flagship museum that curates, on average, about
twenty new exhibitions a year. The chapter will also draw from other South African narratives in the
cultural sphere.
MUSEUMS AS AGENTS OF THE STATE
In the period prior to 1994, state funded South African museums produced content that was in line with
the then dominant political dispensation. They produced exhibitions and public programs that reinforced
the practice of apartheid. As such they served to promote and perpetuate, as was expected of them, the
racist political philosophy of the country’s ruling white elite as espoused by the National Party gov-
ernment. Narratives of the black majority were largely subjects of anthropological and natural history
museums while white achievements dominated cultural, technological and military history museums
among others. Even in such anthropological exhibitions, blacks were mostly displayed in a negative light
and were regarded as the inferior race.
The question of equality for all South Africans was a matter that the liberation movement fiercely
fought for. The concerted effort and struggles for freedom and equality led to the first democratic elec-
tions that were held in 1994. Many South Africans exercised their political right and voted as equals
in a process that introduced a Government of National Unity, which was led by the African National
Congress. The elections was a product of a complicated period of negotiations and compromises between
anti-apartheid political organisations and the National Party led government, including political parties
that supported apartheid. The democratic elections introduced a period which recognised the importance
of equality and the need to engage on critical issues affecting the country and its citizens. It was also a
period that allowed South Africans to find new approaches and new ways of engagements.
In the museum sphere, the fall of apartheid, to rephrase Bennet (1995), also necessitated the emer-
gence of a ‘new’ type of museum which exposed the decadence and tyranny of the old forms of control
and was driven by democracy and utility of the new South Africa. Programming for the ‘new’ museum
was anchored on constitutional rights for all her citizens. As such and to borrow Michel Foucault’s
phrase, the new museum was to take a parrhêsiastic discourse (open spoken-ness) which was also criti-
cal of the present state with the aim of safe-guarding democratic gains (Foucault, 2011). Thus, the new
museum aimed not at the sequestration of parts of the population but at the mixing and intermingling
of publics – white and black – which had hitherto tended towards separate forms of assembly (Bennett,
1995; Omar, 2005; Nanda, 2004).
Bennett (1995) argues that the need for change in museums was mainly driven by the principle that
they should be open and accessible to all and that they should represent the cultures and values of dif-
ferent sections of the public. This was to transform the museum from a symbol of arbitrary power into
an instrument which, through participative citizenry, was to serve the collective good of the state and
its pluralistic communities.
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Museums as Critical Spaces of Reflection: Iziko South African National Gallery
The ‘new’ space occupied by the museum in a post-1994 South Africa largely enabled it to install ex-
hibitions that were also critical of the state or those positions of power. As an example, the Iziko South
African National Gallery (ISANG) featured Stuart Bird’s Zuma Biscuits in a number of its installations.
This work of art by Bird is a critical political commentary on the utterances and the behaviour of the
then Deputy President during his rape trial.
Zuma Biscuits, part of Iziko’s collection, also featured in the exhibition hosted in 2014 by Iziko at
the South African National Gallery to celebrate South Africa’s twenty years of democracy. During this
time, Zuma was the country’s President. However, prior to the installation of the work and before the
opening of the exhibition to members of the public, there was a critical curatorial engagement around
the inclusion of an art work that was highly critical of the country’s president in an exhibition that was
hosted by the national gallery, an entity funded by the national Department of Arts and Culture.
The majority in the curatorial team felt that the exclusion of the work was going to be tantamount to
self-censorship. As such, the artwork found its way to the exhibition hall. However, when the institution
received a block reservation from staff members in the Presidency to tour the exhibition, there was some
form of ‘panic’. A brief internal discussion was held to discuss the merits or demerits of such a visit and
the effect it may have on the museum. A question of whether to provisionally de-install the art work and
then re-install it after the visit was discussed at length. Others maintained that such an act was going to
interfere with the integrity of the exhibition and as such, the artwork was not removed from the exhibi-
tion space. On the contrary, the Presidential staff critically engaged with the exhibition in totality. The
artwork was seen as one object that invited South Africans to responsibly make use of the constitution
to reflect on South Africa’s twenty years of democracy.
This was not the first time the museum staff was engaged in a serious self-censorship discussion
and also interrogating the notion of the independence of the curatorial team. In 2013, ISANG hosted an
exhibition curated by David Goldblatt, Bongi Dhlomo, Pam Warne and Paul Weinberg titled ‘Umhlaba
1913-2013’. Held in the year in which the country hosted a series of events in commemoration of the
100th anniversary after the passing of the Natives Land Act, the exhibition looked at the legacy of the Act
and its effect in entrenching segregation and inequality between 1913 and 2013.The exhibition argued
that the Natives Land Act of 1913 laid the foundation for the system of spatial, and socio-economic
marginalisation that progressively attempted to deny black South Africans of their personhood.
In addition to its criticism of how colonial and apartheid governments denied blacks access to land
and its resources, the exhibition also highlighted critical failures of the post-1994 administrations in
resolving the land question in particular and black access to resources in general. Using images that
represented black lives in squalid or difficult conditions in townships, informal settlements and rural
areas, the exhibition highlighted some of the government failures to improve black lives. In addition,
it argued that the assault and the police killing of striking Lonmin platinum mine workers at Marikana
in 2012 was partly supported by some politicians and business people in the democratic South Africa.
The strike was essentially a demonstration against imbalances in the distribution of resources and also
about the poor working conditions of workers, including their remuneration. The South African Police
Services (SAPS) was criticised for their excessive use of force which was reminiscent of the apartheid
period state. SAPS was also criticised for defending the interests of the mining houses at the expense
of workers. It was the critical content of this exhibition to the post-apartheid government that became
a matter of concern when Minister Paul Mashatile, who was in charge of Arts and Culture, indicated
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that he wanted to visit this Natives Land Act centenary exhibition. He was going to do this as part of his
normal schedule to various centenary events in 2013.
The staff concern was over the question of funding and whether the ailing and not well funded mu-
seum was going to attract any further funding from the Department of Arts and Culture. There were
also concerns that the visit and the Department’s response to the exhibition was to lead to the reduction
of state funding to the museum. However, the Minister and his staff had an open engagement with the
museum team. They also appreciated the issues that the exhibition constructively raised.
Aligning Museum Programming to State Objectives (Part I)
Though museums enjoyed some form of open spoken-ness, decision making in a way largely continued to
take a top down form. The fact that, to a degree, museums enjoyed some form of curatorial independence
compounded by the fact that key themes for engagements are decided nationally demonstrates the limit
and tension in their ‘free’ spoken-ness. On one hand, they were expected, as state funded institutions, to
align their activities to state programs. On the other hand, and through an arms-length approach, they
tried to articulate and strategically find their voices within such a space.
In instances where their voices were deemed to be in conflict with the main narrative of the state, they
explored various alternatives. Such alternatives included but not limited to avoiding a narrative that may
be interpreted to be against a state program, exploring self-censorship options or adopt a wait-and-see
implementation approach with the hope that state officials may positively engage.
However, the focus on the promotion of nation building and social cohesion was the central factor
that drove most museums’ programming. This also meant that museums were encouraged to host critical
discussions, at times within the framework of the state.
Governed by the new principles of nation building and promotion of commonality and unity in di-
versity, the (top-down) stress was therefore placed not only on the physical object, or site, but also on
living heritage and the intangibles associated with it. Rather than focusing on the static look and learn;
museums also concentrated on active engagement and audience development. This meant that museums
were to cease to be dogmatic spaces and were to become sites for cultural exchange and interaction. This
approach attempted to encourage community-participation by making the populace visible and active as
opposed concealed or observing (Bennett, 1995). As an example, in 2013, South Africa hosted a number
of national events in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the passing of the 1913 Natives Land
Act. It was through this Act that the overwhelming majority of black South Africans were forcefully
removed from their land and resettled in barren lands.
Solomon Paatje, a writer, journalist and the Secretary General of the South African Native National
Congress (which later became the African National Congress) succinctly argued that the Land Act
made the native a pariah in the land of his birth (Paatje, 2007). The state hosted events to emphasise
this point. The number of national events hosted by the state and its agencies in 2013 largely focused
on how blacks and Africans in particular were deprived of their land and livelihood through a series of
segregationist legislations by colonial and apartheid governments. However, public programs hosted by
the Iziko Education and Public Programs Department, for example, went a step further.
In a panel discussion held at the Iziko South African Museum (ISAM), Minister Gugile Nkwinti
who was in charge of land reform was challenged by his fellow panellists and members of the public.
Members of the public questioned the Minister about government’s poor or unsatisfactory response to
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land redistribution. They also argued that the state was distributing land and resources mostly to mem-
bers of the new elite. The Minister engaged with members of the public and argued that there was some
progress in land redistribution but conceded that more needed to be done. He invited members of the
public to work with his department and government to resolve a number of issues linked to the question
of land reform. This engagement can be used as an example of how a project that was linked to a state
program could be used to stimulate debate to an extent of holding elected representatives accountable
to members of the public.
Museum Programming: A Contested Sphere (Part II)
It should be pointed out that not all decisions taken by the museum were positively welcomed by the
public. In 2016, ISANG in partnership with the New Church Museum (NCM), hosted an exhibition titled
‘Our Lady’. This exhibition was launched in December and during a period when South Africa was
hosting a series of its annual awareness campaigns against women and children abuse. Curated by an
all women team, the exhibition was intended to foreground and highlight art works about or by women
and to critically raise issues, through art, that were of concern to women.
Our Lady’s intention was to challenge patriarchal objectivity and objectification of the female form.
However, the inclusion of artwork by Zwelethu Mthethwa, who was criminally charged for the murder of
a sex worker, Nokuphila Kumalo, became a major subject of public debates. The Sex Workers Education
and Advocacy Taskforce (SWEAT) and Sisonke Gender Justice led a series complaints and objections
against the inclusion of Mthethwa’s work in the exhibition. They questioned the museum’s agenda. As
a result, a series of engagements took place between Iziko, NCM, SWEAT and Sisonke. SWEAT and
Sisonke’s central argument was that by including the work, the museum was supporting the abuse of
women. However, an argument was raised by Iziko and NCM regarding the use of art works by artists
facing criminal cases and the curatorial independence. As a protest to the inclusion of Mthethwa’s work,
some artists requested the removal of their artworks from the exhibition hall. Subsequently, the NCM
withdrew all its artworks from Our Lady.
The exhibition, continued to be shown in a watered down version and a letter of concern written by
some artists objecting to Mthethwa’s work inclusion in the installation was placed on the exhibition hall
as an ‘exhibition piece’. A public discussion was also convened by Iziko, NCM and SWEAT. Members
of the public engaged the museum and gave their input on how the museum should engage on issues they
deemed sensitive to them. They also pointed out that it was necessary for the museum to consult relevant
stake holders before installing such exhibitions. This pointed out to the need for museums to continu-
ously strive to ‘curate’ in partnership with relevant role players. But mostly importantly, it highlighted
the significance of museums in stimulating critical responses on topical matters.
Another exhibition that created a healthy discussion was the ‘Art of Disruption’. In 2016, Iziko Mu-
seums hosted an exhibition titled ‘The Art of Disruption’. The exhibition included a number of artworks
from artists who challenged conventionally held beliefs and those in positions of authority. However,
the inclusion of Dean Hutton’s artwork titled ‘Fuck White People’ in this exhibition that was hosted by
ISANG became a major point of concern for some political organisations, advocacy groups and members
of the public. They argued that the artwork promoted hate speech against white people and was not in
support of nation building. They called for the removal of Hutton’s work from the exhibition, ignoring
other artworks which raised the same issues.
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The institution refused to withdraw the artwork, arguing that the exhibition was initiating a discus-
sion, through art, around a series of issues raised by artists that plague the South African society. The
Museum was taken to the South African Human Rights Commission and the Equality Court. On 4 July
2017, the Equality Court found that the artwork was (in general and the words “Fuck White People” in
particular) not unfair discrimination. The Court also found that the work was not hate speech (Thulare,
2017). Given the fact that the work was part of Hutton’s Masters’ project with the University of Cape
Town, the court reinforced the notion that academic freedom needed to be allowed in a democratic state
like South Africa. In essence, the conclusion was that the exhibition and the artwork, attempted to draw
South Africans to a moment of self-reflection. Through this exhibition, the museum raised critical is-
sues on a subject of equality and white privilege. Through this exhibition, members of the public were
allowed or “compelled” to engage on matters of race, gender and class in South Africa.
Representativity and the Dilemma of Hegemony (Part III)
But to argue that the ‘new’ type of the ‘old’ South African museum became participatory, however is
not to state that museums became inclusive and representative of South Africa’s diverse voices. In a
post-apartheid South Africa most of them embraced new political terminologies which were in line with
the Government of National Unity and the nation building project. This adaptation strategy was to help
them to secure funding (especially from the Department of Arts and Culture’s transformation funding
budget), was in compliance and a form of acceptance to the new administration.
The ease with which many of them were seen to be changing to be in line with government’s pri-
orities should rather be read as a cry-out-symptom of their difficult financial and social positions. By
serving the state, can it be argued that they were serving the general populace? The general logic being
that in democracies, governing parties are supposed to be the voices of the majority. Therefore, it could
be argued that by aligning their programming to the states’ projects, museums were indirectly echoing
the voices of the majority.
Leading from the above argument, one is tempted to ask the following question: is there a distinc-
tion between the state and the people. Over years scholars such as Foucault (2011) and Gramsci (1971)
have tried to demonstrate that there is a clear distinction between those in power and the people or the
general populace. Using this logic, it could be further argued that by delivering content that meets the
needs of the state, museums would not necessarily be delivering content that is aligned to the needs of
their communities. At times community needs and state priorities may be in synch and at times not.
Service delivery protests in South Africa, between 2009 and 2017 for example, allude to the notion
of divergent positions. Few state funded South African museums, if any, hosted a high profile exhibi-
tion that highlighted the plights of the poor or focused on the misappropriation of state funds that were
intended for projects aimed at improving the lives of those that were in need.
To bring this point closer to museums, the following question is posed: given their financial depen-
dence and their reporting channels to the state, are museums in a position to serve as public platforms
that allowed for the plurality and contestation of ideas including those that are in conflict with the phi-
losophies or ideologies of the ruling party? The answer to this question lies in the type of the relationship
that museums have with the state. In a scenario where museums have an arms – length relationship with
a state that encourages active citizenry, it is possible for them to serve as platforms that accommodate
varied voices.
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In a scenario whereby they are seen as part of the state machinery such an ideal remains elusive as it
is partly through them that the state is seen to deliver heritage services to its citizens and thus inversely
exercising cultural control over its peoples. Through this scenario, the state gets not only political but
also cultural hegemony over its museums and people. As an example, let us explore a scenario where
the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) attempted to improve service delivery by its declared cul-
tural institutions through introducing a number of instruments. These instruments, it is argued, have the
potential of stifling free spoken-ness.
Nationally funded museums which were DAC’s entities were requested to align their program-
ming to DAC’s objective and strategic priorities. This was followed through by the signing of annual
delivery agreements with the Minister of Arts and Culture. Now the question is as agents, can they be
free-spoken? This narrows a presumed arm-length relationship that existed between them and the state
as their principal funder.
Under the new dispensation attempts were made for them to be more accountable and as such re-
porting templates (among others) were crafted for their compliance. This meant that they were mostly
expected to think within the template, with few exceptions. In addition and as stated above, their stra-
tegic plans and annual performance plans were to be aligned to those of the department. It is argued
that this approach, depending on how officials handled the process, has the potential of promoting the
state-agenda sometimes at the expense of grass-root engagement. Through such an approach the state
and its machinery may succeed in using its political and economic coercion to exert cultural and public
control over knowledge production and consumption in museums.
In this context, state-controlled museums and entities that are dependent on state funding may have
an insurmountable challenge of opening-up their spaces to multiple publics in a manner that would not
be seen by those in power to be radically disrupting their discourse. As an example, Arts and Culture
Minister Lulu Xingwana referred to Zanele Muholi’s art work (“Being”) as immoral, offensive and against
nation building. As such, she refused to officially open a Constitutional Hill exhibition that featured it.
She argued that a clear distinction needed to be made between art and pornography (news24.com, 2010
and mg.co.za, 2010).
Muholi responded to the Minister’s labelling and walk out of the exhibition as an indication of a
country that was not fully free. Muholi went as far as arguing that projects which were in conflict with
the Minister’s and the President’s belief systems were unlikely to get funding from her department or
the state (news24.com, 2010 and mg.co.za, 2010). The exhibition and the minister’s perception of it
became a subject of interest for members of the public. Some members of the public argued that there
was nothing wrong about the Minister’s refusal to open that which was fundamentally opposed to her
principles. Others argued that freedom of artistic expression was enshrined in the constitution and the
Minister was supposed to uphold the constitution. (mg.co.za, 2010 and news24.com, 2010) As such
her actions were largely seen by them to be against the notion of free spoken-ness and active citizenry.
MUSEUM PROFESSIONALS AND MEANING MAKING
The issue of authority discussed above may be compounded by asking the following question - as a
follow-through - regarding the roles of museum professionals in meaning construction: How can muse-
ums open up their spaces to a wide range of voices while their personnel continued to define museums’
research and communication agendas? This question is made relevant by the fact that the expertise and
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interests of museum professionals often determine the outcome of museums’ programs which are sup-
posedly presented in an un-biased manner or in a way that broadly promotes the ‘plurality’ of ideas.
Generally, museums have been criticised for their tendency of presenting themselves as neutral or
clinical institutions focusing simply on informative displays while ignoring the fact that their installations
were exhibiting and representing the expert knowledge and interests of their curators (Wright & Mazel,
1991; Blake, 1999; Witz & Rassool, 2008). Such curators present their ‘independent-clinical’ findings,
at times, in a manner that usually fails to communicate the essential features of the societies with which
their collections are concerned with.
Some scholars argue that such ‘independence’ saw curators installing ‘objective’ exhibitions which
were unfortunately welcomed as breakthroughs by their mostly unquestioning audiences who were
comfortable with these scientific facts and were ungrateful to have them disturbed (Hudson, 1991; Lid-
dington, 2002, Deacon; 1998; Hamilton, 1994). The respect accorded to the social-history technician/
clinician was understandable given our (people’s) reliance on their expertise. However, it should be
pointed out that such ‘breakthrough-installations’ were in reality presentations of their curators’ utopian
ideals (Legêne, 2016; Foucault, 2011). These narratives and exhibitions were presented as historical
experience by their creators and were mostly accepted as such by the public.
It can be argued that the readiness with which our publics, sometimes, openly accept the conclusions
of museum experts is symptomatic of our society’s willingness to easily follow the leadership of experts.
It is also indicative of our reluctance to admit that museums cannot and should not speak on behalf of
the communities whose narrative they exhibit, but that we should acknowledge that they (museums)
can only make sensible the narratives of those different communities through various mediations. To a
degree this demonstrates the influence of expert power wielded by museums and their professionals in
the sphere of public knowledge-production and circulation.
The conventional museum operates mainly on the premise of expertise, special skill and knowledge
and it is not surprising, therefore, that its ‘clinicians’ use their domination of knowledge-production to
impose their ideas on key historical and cultural issues in the public sphere mainly under a guise of their
credentials and scientific objectivity. However, it should be pointed out that other scholars of history have
demonstrated out how members of the public and critical others have questioned the authenticity and
the authority of ‘facts’ that are publicly peddled as the true past of the country’s heritage. For example,
Rassool and Witz (1993) demonstrate how South Africa’s history has been constructed around Jan Van
Riebeeck and how such a narrative has been contested and challenged.
The majority of these experts apply and frame philosophical and pragmatic questions that are of
interest to them into museums’ ‘public’ exhibitions but fail to openly acknowledge the net effect of
their expertise and personalities on the exhibition text and on the choice of displayed objects. It should
be noted that the crafting of an exhibition text and the selection of relevant visuals undergo a rigorous
selection process that excludes some ‘facts’ and objects at the expense of others. Mostly, this selection
process is not explained to the reader or is projected as an objective process to the detriment of other
philosophical approaches. This denial can be read as a symptom of some museum practitioners’ resistance
to theoretical applications. For them, the job can be done by objects and text alone.
Most museums in post-1994 South Africa continued to rely heavily on the official archive. As such,
factual analysis largely favoured or reinforced perspectives of those in power. With few exceptions,
researchers continued to piece together a ‘coherent’ historical narrative from a distant past using docu-
ments that have undergone a series archival and selection processes. These archival documents and their
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interpretation mainly supported the position of the state. (Rodéhn, 2008; Depelchin, 2005; Hamilton
etal, 2002). Exhibition content produced through such processes hardly acknowledged this difficulty.
As institutions dealing with memory, museums should problematise challenges embedded in their
archival and primary sources, as well as the memories contained in them. By so doing, they would be
giving their visitors an understanding that they were presented with archival traces of the past through
the prism of coherent research that was influenced by the archivist and museum experts. Thought of
as performative remains (Rodéhn, 2015), such traces should have been presented to visitors as varied
vignettes of the past. This would have given visitors an opportunity to consciously engage these frag-
ments in knowledge interpretation and constructions as snippets from the past, and would have allowed
them to engage with the challenges embedded in archival material.
The above is a challenge acknowledged by Stoler (2002) and Depelchin (2005) as a question faced
by museum professionals and students of culture in working with archived documents that were mostly
produced as a product of the state. They appreciated strides made by some scholars to counteract the
statist presentation of ‘facts’ that was a one-sided presentation largely in favour of those in power. Stoler
(2002) did this by arguing in favour of reading the archive ‘against their grain’ which included reading
‘upper class sources upside down’ in order to profile neglected ‘histories from below’.
However, Stoler cautioned that reading the archives against the grain needed a prior sense of their
texture and granularity, and that it was essential to know the circuits of knowledge production in which
the archives operated. She concluded by arguing that archives also needed to be read ‘along the archival
grain’ in order for museum professionals and students of culture to understand their regularities, their
logic of recall or archaeology of knowledge, their densities and distributions, their genealogy of knowl-
edge, their consistencies of misinformation and their omissions and mistakes.
This position was also echoed by Jeppie (2004). What this entailed was an understanding of the
sources’ fault lines, as well as their critical engagements along and against these lines. In essence, read-
ing in this manner will also open up historians’ sources to their own historiographies, weaknesses and
strengths as a means to understand their grains. This articulation was a philosophical consideration that
museums should have adapted in the construction of their narratives. The fact that few museums in the
country adopted such a philosophical framework in their knowledge circulation means that museum
visitors need to critically engage museum content against the grain.
It should be pointed out that many South African museums continue to see themselves either as
spaces to display objects while few try to open themselves up to public input (Karp, 1991; Alpers, 1991;
Hudson, 1991). Such a philosophical presumption simply confines museums to the two functions. These
functions will be that of displaying and narrating or to sight and ‘hearing’ instead of opening themselves
up to other senses and contestations (Seremetakis, 1994). If this trend were to continue, it is most likely
that the ‘underground museums’ or alternative museums that are sprouting off in many South African
townships would fill the void.
The above necessitates a call to continue to challenge museums to push their focus beyond the limits
of their internal expertise and that they should recognise the proficiency and interests of organic intel-
lectuals and members of the public in knowledge production and the collective ownership of cultural
objects in museums’ care (Hoare & Smith, 1999). Such an act may further enable museum practitioners
to appreciate that theirs is a sphere of rational debate, but more directly it is a sphere of popular circular-
culture that is suffused with delimited-formal and pervasive-informal philosophical and pragmatic mate-
rial (Preston, 1997). It is therefore incumbent for the members of the public and students of history to
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disrupt and question the authority of the museum and its professionals over the stories they narrate and
also to position museums to be spheres of interactions and contestations.
Rather than imposing their authority to script the exhibition narrative, museum professionals and
those in charge of facilitating public engagement and remembering should use their expertise and posi-
tions to open up discussions and debates on key cultural and societal issues. To advance the argument
further, museums should also open themselves up to be influenced by social discourses and the needs
of the social spaces they occupy. This opening up of museums to many publics and views will allow for
the proliferation of discursive contestations and enrichments. Their collections will no longer be viewed
as closed objects but as open and available for public engagements particularly given the fact that most
of them, as general museums, recollect histories which also echo communities’ collective heritages in
a broad manner.
MUSEUM BOARDS AND MANAGEMENT IN MEANING MAKING
The International Council of Museums (ICOM) expects museum board members and members of staff
to carry out museums’ core-functions professionally and in the best interest of the institutions they serve.
Board and staff members are expected to safeguard the public against illegal or unethical professional
conduct (ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, 2013). In South Africa, this is reinforced by the Cultural
Institutions Act of 1999 and the Public Finance Management Act of 1999 which clearly outline what is
expected of those who serve the public and museums.
Board members are expected to give strategic direction to institutions they serve and due to the fact
that museum boards enter into a compact agreement with the Minister of Arts and Culture, they are also
approving the entity’s strategic and annual performance plans. To a degree, a limited number of board
members misuse their position of authority to an extent that they approve research, collection, exhibi-
tion, public and administrative programming that serve their interest at the expense of programming
that profile the interests of the public. Between 2011 and 2018 for example, at least three nationally
funded museums (in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal and Free State) initiated programmes that did not serve
the public discourse and as such, exhibitions and knowledge circulation projects that were intended to
stimulate debates or to enrich members of the public never saw the light.
Further to the above, a series of complicated organisational designs were undertaken. These structural
realignment processes proposed the outsourcing of the very core-functions that museums were supposed
to perform and thus tendering-out the crafting and management of museum narratives to private com-
panies that reproduced content that was supported by such boards or management committee members.
This mercenary approach to programming has contributed to the collapse of the key functions of the
museum in such institutions and has led to the rise of a corrupt relationship between the museum and
tenderpreneurs to the detriment of a discourse that will promote a healthy public dialogue. This practise
did not serve the enrichment of the public discourse in a developing country such as South Africa. As
such, a serious re-look at how board members are selected, screened and appointed is required.
343

In a post-apartheid South Africa, museums were mandated by the state to play an active and a critical role
in building a socially cohesive society. Guided by the African National Congress’ position on museums,
heritage and culture, the Constitution of the Republic and by processes such as Arts and Culture Task
Group Report, the White Paper on Arts, Culture and Heritage and various pieces of legislation attempted
to focus museums and heritage institutions on the meaningful role they should play in nation building,
learning, economic development, reconstruction and development project and in heritage preservation,
for the “new nation”, in particular. However, given the challenges of the 1990s not enough time was
dedicated to a comprehensive analysis of the limits and strengths intrinsic to institutional systems that
both the democratic state and museums were inheriting. As a matter of fact, a vast majority of museums
were complicit in the execution of apartheid in South Africa. In a post-apartheid South Africa, the same
instruments of oppression, and key role players in the field, were expected to transition to institutions
of nation building without adequately confronting their past or systematically understanding their fortes
against the needs of forging a new nation.
Likewise, a comprehensive understanding of the machinery that the apartheid state employed in
making museums complicit in the fulfilment of its agenda needs further attention. As a matter of fact,
the apartheid state employed legislation, among other tools, to make museums and other state institu-
tions comply with its dictates. As such a systematic analysis of how a highly regulated environment has
on the notion of active citizenry or lack thereof needs to be undertaken for both the apartheid and the
democratic South Africa. Such an independent study, outside the machinery of the state, may enable
a reflective state to improve short-comings embedded in its systems and to capitalise on its strengths.
Furthermore, such a study may enable the state to do a critical review of its policies and improve on its
systems as it continues to work on its nation building project.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, if the state, the museum professional and board members continue to have an overwhelm-
ing hold over the museum, its contents and functions, the ideal of museums as a space for open engage-
ment will remain an elusive dream. In fact, the notion of an active citizenry and the bureaucratization
of museum processes are at times counterproductive to each other. Over regulation, in most cases, also
prohibits the notion of open spoken-ness and the professional execution of museum work to the best
interest of the public.
In this chapter, the contractions and contestations embedded in narratives that are supposed to be ‘lib-
erated’ in a democratic South Africa were explored. It was argued that, to a degree, the technocratisation
of museum processes was contributing to marginalising the voices of the public. In essence, the chapter
argued that the fact that the post-1994 state-funded museums continued to take key strategic directions
from the state made it difficult in most cases to implement programs that may be seen as challenging
the state and its social cohesion program.
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The chapter also highlighted instances where museum spaces were used as spheres for public en-
gagements but not without limits. As such, the chapter explored the concept of un-liberated narratives
in a post-apartheid South Africa and the silencing effects this had to the notion of a museum as a space
for active engagement. The chapter highlighted contradictions and contestation embedded in discursive
exhibition and how such exhibitions may not be completely inclusive.
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Parrhêsiastic: Open spoken-ness.

Participative Citizenry: Inhabitants who actively participate in the affairs of the state and where
need be challenge the position of the state or its entities.
South African Native National Congress: At its formation in 1912, the African National Congress
(ANC) was named the South African Native National Congress.
Technocratisation of Museums Processes: A system through which the strategic and operational
functioning of a museum is subjected to bureaucratic processes of the state.
Tenderpreneur: A South African term that refers to businesses or entrepreneurs whose livelihood
solely or largely depend on receiving business tenders from the state or public entities.
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348
Chapter 19
The Voortrekker Monument
as Memory Institution:
Mediating Collective Memory, Tourism
and Educational Programming for
a Local and Global Audience
Annie R Antonites
The Heritage Foundation, South Africa
Johan Nel
The Heritage Foundation, South Africa
ABSTRACT
The Voortrekker Monument has been a central memory institution for Afrikaners since its conception in
the 1930s. Built to commemorate 19th century white settlers moving into the interior, the Monument has
for many years been appropriated by different groups for various purposes, including as an Afrikaner
Nationalist symbol. Since the early 1990s, the Monument has made a concerted effort to change estab-
lished perceptions and stigmas. The Monument’s registration as a Section 21 Non-Profit Company in
1993 and declaration as National Heritage Site in 2011 were accompanied by a shift in focus from a
political character to one where its aesthetic architectural heritage and tourism values are celebrated.
These changes in character enabled and drove the expansion of the Voortrekker Monument heritage site
as a memory institution. This chapter discusses the continued success of the Monument post-1994 as a
national memory institution through the diversification of its visitors and programmes.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch019

The Voortrekker Monument as Memory Institution
INTRODUCTION
The Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria is an iconic landmark, situated on a low hill, surrounded by a
municipal nature reserve. The Monument was erected to commemorate the Voortrekkers (white emigrant
farmers) and their role in shaping Afrikaner1 and South African history. The Battle of Blood River /
Ncome, fought between a group of Voortrekkers and the Zulu King Dingane’s warriors on 16 December
1838, was the key event underlying the motivation for a commemorative monument.
Since its conception in the 1930s, the place it occupies in people’s experience as well as its physical
space has changed. The Voortrekker Monument has special significance to Afrikaner’s social collec-
tive. Only in 1938, 36 years after the ravages of the 1899 to 1902 Anglo-Boer War (also referred to as
the South African War), when a symbolic ox-wagon trek was organised to celebrate the centenary of
the Great Trek, did an Afrikaner sense of national unity and belonging become apparent (Evaldsson &
Wessels, 2003; Templin, 1999). The cornerstone laying ceremony in December 1938 was attended by
more than 100 000 Afrikaners from all walks of life. In December 1949, a year after the National Party
won power, 250 000 Afrikaners attended the inauguration, often regarded by historians as one of the
most significant public events in the rise of Afrikaner Nationalism (Labuschagne, 2013; O’Brien, 2013;
Templin, 1999; see also Ferreira, 1975).
The amphitheatre, which was specially constructed for the 1949 inauguration to seat around 30 000
people, became one of the most culturally significant Afrikaner sites, often used for ceremonies and
events by the Nationalist government (see Labuschagne, 2013). This led to a perception that the Monu-
ment was National Party property. The place became an apartheid icon and many Afrikaners dissociated
themselves from the Voortrekker Monument in the 1980s (Coombes, 2000; Kruger, 2002).
In 1999, new management actively sought to change the perception of the Voortrekker Monument
as an Afrikaner Nationalist, apartheid beacon. This was and continues to be achieved through the adop-
tion of an inclusive approach and aggressive marketing. The Vow service held annually on the Day of
Reconciliation (16 December) continues to draw thousands of people and have become more inclusive
in character. Events and ceremonies are still hosted at the site, but no longer by political parties or gov-
ernment.
In this chapter, we discuss the reasons for the continued success of the Voortrekker Monument,
given its real and perceived historic and contemporary character. The Monument’s ‘survival’ lies in its
adaptation from an exclusive place of memory into a memory institution, which caters for its original
audience as well as a diverse 21st century global audience. Over the last five years, the Monument has
received an average of 155 000 visitors per year (Voortrekker Monument Annual Reports, 2013–2017).
International tourists and local school learners from diverse backgrounds represent a significant propor-
tion of those visitors to the Monument.
We briefly contextualise the origins and history of the Monument, followed by a discussion of the
significance of the Monument and those ‘elements of memory’ that have jointly contributed to its devel-
opment into a complex memory institution over time. We characterise the different visitors and activities
at the site and how the Monument mediates these diverse experiences and expectations in order to fulfil
its responsibility as a memory institution in the transfer of knowledge.
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SHORT HISTORY OF THE VOORTREKKER MONUMENT
Historical Context
The conception and construction of the Voortrekker Monument must be contextualised within the history
of the Great Trek and of the Voortrekkers2. Between 1835 and 1854, approximately 20 000 white frontier
farmers (mainly of European descent) and their black and coloured workers relocated from the eastern
borders of the British-ruled Cape Colony to the South African interior. This massive migratory event
is known as the Great Trek – “great” referring to the historical importance of the migration rather than
the number of people involved (Theart-Peddle, 2007). The history of the Voortrekkers is complex (see
e.g. Binckes, 2013; Meintjies, 1973; Ransford, 1972 for English overviews of the Great Trek; see also
chapters in Hamilton et al., 2012, for broader historical context) but summarised in a useful, although
understandably simplified, manner in the official Voortrekker Monument guidebook:
The Great Trek took place as a reaction against the policy of the British colonial authority and its lo-
cal government. Conditions on the eastern frontier had become untenable for the pioneers. Materially
they had to deal with a lack of land, capital and labour and a generally uncertain mode of existence.
They developed a deep sense of independence and not being able to govern themselves, was a source
of frustration.
… there was no agreement at the beginning of the Great Trek as to what the final destination would be.
Consequently individual leaders followed different routes into the interior. On their travels to the interior
the trekking groups came into contact with various indigenous cultures. For the most part the groups
traded with each other and cooperation agreements were entered into, but contact also often resulted in
conflict. (Theart-Peddle, 2007, p. 3).
One of the best known and most influential conflicts of the Great Trek was the Battle of Blood River
/ Ncome, near present-day Dundee in KwaZulu-Natal. Following the murder of one of the trek leaders,
Piet Retief, and his company on the Zulu king Dingane’s orders at Umgungundlovu, a retaliatory attack
was led under the command of the new leader, Andries Pretorius. In preparation for the looming battle,
the group of men pledged a covenant with God that if He would guide them to victory, they would
commemorate that day as a sacred day every year. On 16 December 1838, the Voortrekkers defeated
Dingane’s army at Blood River / Ncome. As a result, ‘Dingane’s Day’, as it was originally called, and
later ‘Day of the Vow’ (also ‘Day of the Covenant’) was brought into being (Laband, 2009, pp. 227, 300).
FROM CONCEPTION TO MODERN-DAY MANAGEMENT
A National Monument Is Conceived
The idea for a national monument was first aired in 1888 by Paul Kruger, then president of the Zuid-
Afrikaansche Republiek (South African Republic or ZAR), whilst attending the vow commemoration
at Blood River (Steytler, 1958). Kruger supposedly suggested that a national monument be erected in
honour of Piet Retief and his company. Kruger proposed that this monument be situated in the seat of
350

the ZAR capital, Pretoria, to commemorate the Voortrekkers, their Vow and the Battle of Blood River.
His suggestion, however, did not come to fruition until nearly 50 years later.
Kruger’s ideal was revived in the early 1900s. Following the Anglo-Boer War, public sentiment arose
among Afrikaners to erect Voortrekker monuments. Various committees and institutions were estab-
lished in aid thereof and haphazardly collected funds. These efforts were eventually coordinated when
a founding member of the South African Academy for Science and Art, Adv. E. G. Jansen, arranged a
joint conference on 4 April 1931 in Bloemfontein. The conference was convened by the Federasie van
Afrikaanse Kultuurorganisasies (Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Organisations or FAK), of which
Jansen was also a founding member. The Sentrale Volksmonumentekomitee (Central Monuments Com-
mittee or SVK) was established at the conference (Ferreira, 1975).
The aim of the SVK, under Jansen’s chairmanship, was to construct a national Voortrekker monument
by the centenary of the Great Trek in 1938. Four years later in 1935, the Prime Minister Gen. J. B. M.
Hertzog declared the planned monument to be of national importance and the government undertook
financial responsibility for the project (Ferreira, 1975).
The SVK formed a design committee to which public submission could be made on the shape and
nature of the monument. Sketches from sculptors, architects and artists were also received. Two concepts
were finally chosen and combined in 1936: a sketch of a Voortrekker laager by E.C. Pienaar and A.C.
Bouman, and another of a building by Pretoria-based architect Gerard Moerdijk (Ferreira, 1975). The
latter was consequently appointed as the official architect (Vermeulen, 1999).
Cornerstone, Construction and Inauguration
Several towns were considered for the location of the proposed monument, but Pretoria was ultimately
chosen in 1936 (Ferreira, 1975). Moerdijk selected a small hill, what was to become Monument Hill,
adjacent to the Anglo-Boer War fortification, Fort Schanskop, south of Pretoria as the location of his
monument. In deciding on this location he wanted to create the impression that the monument was the
hill’s summit, thereby appearing larger and more imposing, whilst simultaneously serving as a plinth
for the structure (Vermeulen, 1999, p. 129).
Moerdijk’s choice was cemented on 13 July 1937 when Jansen conducted a sod turning ceremony on
Monument Hill. The cornerstone was laid on Friday 16 December 1938 to coincide with the centenary
celebrations of the Battle of Blood River / Ncome and the pledging of the Vow. This cornerstone laying
ceremony – attended by approximately 100 000 to 150 000 people – was the highlight of the nationwide
Great Trek centenary and the associated Symbolic Ox-wagon Trek – arguably the most extensive cultural
festival ever held in South Africa (Evaldsson & Wessels, 2003).
Construction started in earnest following the 1938 centenary celebrations, but stopped less than a year
later after the outbreak of World War II (1939-1945) due to financial constraints during the war years.
Construction resumed again in 1940 and was completed in 1949. Massive quantities of concrete, granite
and marble were used in the construction of the imposing building, with a height of approximately 41
metres and exterior dimensions of about 40.5 by 40.5 metres (Figure 1). The structure has three main
features: the Cenotaph Hall with the centrally positioned red granite Cenotaph – the symbolic mausoleum
for Piet Retief and his companions; the Heroes’ Hall with the iconic 27 panel marble frieze depicting the
Great Trek narrative; and the top dome with a small opening, so designed that the sun shines onto the
Cenotaph at 12:00 on 16 December. The 92 m long frieze is one of the largest complete marble friezes
in the world and forms an intrinsic part of the Monument (Schwenke & Grobler, 2013).
351

Figure 1. The Voortrekker Monument with encircling ox-wagon laager (c. 1949), the ‘mother and chil-
dren’ statue is located in the centre below the entrance.
Photo courtesy of The Heritage Foundation Archive, F/39.1.2
The other elements of the central Monument structure include an iron gate cast in the form of Zulu
spears (assegais), a granite buffalo head above the main entrance, four bas relief granite black wildebeest
behind a bronze statue of a Voortrekker mother and children, created by celebrated South African sculptor
Anton van Wouw. Four granite figures representing Voortrekker leaders ‘guard’ the four corners of the
Monument. A laager (circular defensive tactic) wall of 64 bass relief wagons, moulded from a mixture
of granite, marble and cement, also known as Terrazzo, surrounds the Monument. Each of these different
components symbolically represents an aspect of Voortrekker history (see Grobler, 2001).
The official inauguration of the Voortrekker Monument took place over a four-day period that con-
cluded on Friday 16 December 1949, 11 years after the cornerstone was laid. Some 250 000 people
attended the event, which included several cultural activities as well as formal speeches by, amongst
others, the former and incumbent Prime Ministers of the Union of South Africa, Gen. J. C. Smuts and
Dr. D. F. Malan (Ferreira, 1975).
Management
The official management of the Voortrekker Monument was constituted when the Minister of Home Af-
fairs, Dr T.E. Dönges, took ownership of the Monument on behalf of the Government and presented it to
a council with Adv. E. G. Jansen again serving as chairman. The Monument was henceforth managed by
a Beheerraad (Management Council) whose purpose, constitution and funding was formalised through
procedural rules established in 1951 (Kruger & Van Heerden, 2005). Having completed its functions
by 1952, the original SVK formally withdrew from the activities of the Monument. The Management
Council fulfilled the management role until 1993, when the Voortrekkermonument en Natuurreservaat
(Voortrekker Monument and Nature Reserve) Section 21 non-profit company was established. The
352

Management Council would in future be known as the Direksie (Board of Directors). The Voortrekker
Monument is one of several monuments that were privatised ahead of the 1994 general elections, partly
following uncertainty about its future in a changing political climate (see Coombes, 2000). It was only
in 1999 that the Board appointed a chief executive officer (CEO) and staff members to manage the site
(Kruger & Van Heerden, 2005).
THE VOORTREKKER MONUMENT AS A MEMORY INSTITUTION
The original Voortrekker Monument complex (monument, laager and amphitheatre) was never intended
as a memory institution in the traditional sense, i.e. as an archive, library or museum. The Monument
was initially conceived as a lieu de mémoire or place of memory to celebrate and establish the collec-
tive memory and cultural identity of the nascent Afrikaner. Collective memory is therefore intrinsic to
the character of the Voortrekker Monument. This clearly marks the Monument as a memory institution
along more recent definitions that emphasise such places as “institution[s] associated with practices of
remembering” (Stainforth, 2016, p. 323).
The concept of lieux des mémoires or places of memory has its foundation in ancient Greek and Ro-
man loci memoriae – mnemonic or mnemotechnic devices often used by great rhetoricians and orators
such as Cicero (Den Boer, 2008). In the 1970s, Pierre Nora adapted this concept into his ideologically
charged ‘places of memory’ that are “extremely ideological, full of nationalism and far from being neutral
or free of value judgments. Most lieux des mémoires were created, invented, or reworked to serve the
nation-state” (Den Boer, 2008, p. 21).
Just as Nora’s memory places were integral to the identity politics of the French nation (Den Boer,
2008), this concept aptly captures the conception and original function of the Voortrekker Monument. Its
primary purpose was to “imprint the key notions of national history on the outillage mental” or psyche
of the emergent Afrikaner.
The original Voortrekker Monument complex, as a place of memory, did fulfil the function of a
memory institution: as an archive, library and museum of a constructed collective memory, reinforced
through architecture, art, literature, performance and landscape use. Over the years, various elements
were added to the site, some complementing the original purpose, whilst others may, arguably, be per-
ceived as appropriating its space (see e.g. Van Vollenhoven, 2017). In this sense, two elements added in
the recent past stand out. The first, which complements the original purpose, was the establishment in
2002 of Die Erfenisstigting (The Heritage Foundation). In 2008 the Foundation erected a new centre at
the Voortrekker Monument site, called the Erfenissentrum (Heritage Centre), accommodating offices,
storerooms, library, archive, the Afrikaanse Winkel (Afrikaans shop), as well as a new Afrikaner exhibit.
The second, which appropriated the place of memory, was the creation of a military focused space of
commemoration and collective memory.
The Voortrekker Monument (and “all associated objects”) was declared as a National Heritage site
in 2011. It is telling, however, that the official significance ascribed to the Monument largely downplays
its original meaning as a ‘place of memory’, opting for what may be perceived as far more inclusive:
This sight is renowned for the architecturally significant monument in the Art Deco style designed by
well known South African architect, Gerhard Moerdyk (sic). The monument was constructed between
1937 and 1949 with funds made available, inter alia by the then J.C. Smuts government. The Voortrekker
353

Monument commemorates the Great Trek, portraying, in marble, the run-up to this migration and then
focusing on 16 December 1838 when the Zulu Army of King Dingane was defeated and the course of
history of the interior of southern Africa was altered. The Voortrekker Monument was officially opened
on 16 December 1949. In addition to the history of the Great Trek the Monument also serves to remind
South Africans of the epitome of Afrikaner Nationalism which forms part of the landscape of South
African political history which has had an undeniable effect on the way in which the new democratic
South Africa has developed. (South Africa, 2011, p. 6).
The expanded motivation submitted for the National Heritage declaration application (Voortrekker
Monument Application, 2010), however, defines the Voortrekker Monument as a memory institution
well, although it too downplays the initial intent. The motivation starts by stating that the “Voortrekker
Monument is a unique structure (building) of national, cultural significance”. It continues to define the
monument’s tangible cultural significance to the South African community at large. Specifically, in the
significance of the history of the Voortrekkers whose interaction with indigenous groups is depicted
on the marble frieze. In this regard the motivation lists those groups represented in the frieze, which
include the 1820 British Settlers, Portuguese in Mozambique, Mzilikazi’s Ndebele, Barolong, Zulus,
Italians, Swazi and the 19th century Cape Colony British government. The motivation argues that the
images portrayed in the frieze are realistic and “educates both South African and overseas visitors about
the tangible cultural heritage of the Voortrekkers and other cultural groups”, through material culture.
Use of local and indigenous materials is briefly mentioned in the application, specifically South
African granite and marble, and indigenous wood and plants. This is followed by a longer description of
particular European influences and materials, such as the Italian marble of the frieze and Belgian glass
windows. The European influence is juxtaposed with “[i]magery and symbolism used in the Monument
[that] are proudly South African, i.e. the Buffalo head above the front door (guarding against danger), the
Black wildebeest (symbolising the Zulu Impi) and the zig-zag pattern symbolising fertility (also found
in the Zimbabwe ruins) at the top of the Monument” (Voortrekker Monument Application, 2010). The
unique architectural feature of the oculus in the cupola, through which the sun shines onto the engraved
Cenotaph annually on 16 December, is described as “an architectural / scientific feat which attracts
thousands of people” (Voortrekker Monument Application, 2010).
The motivation highlights the informative and educational value of the Voortrekker Monument through
an interpretation centre (museum) and information panels. Significantly, the increasing educational value
was emphasised using 2009 school learner visitor figures that reflected 40 percent from ‘previously
disadvantaged’ communities. The description of the tangible, immovable aspect of the Voortrekker
Monument application (2010) concludes that it is “the ideal site where the preamble of Act 25 of 1999
[National Heritage Resources Act] can be realised: ‘Our heritage serves to celebrate our achievements
and contributes to redressing inequities. It educates, it deepens our understanding of society and encour-
ages us to empathise with the experience of others’.” (emphasis added)
The motivation includes a single moveable object, the tapestry that focuses on the role of and con-
tribution by the Voortrekker women. Its significance is defined as the “very high degree of creative
achievement by Afrikaner women in the 1950s and can be linked to the current focus which is placed
on the importance of women in our society” (Voortrekker Monument Application, 2010).
The Voortrekker Monument’s intangible cultural significance is elaborately motivated. Whilst it
encapsulates the collective memory and cultural identity of the Afrikaner, it is nuanced and therefore
softened by alluding to other cultures and political episodes. The motivation continues to describe 16
354

December not only in its various incarnations as Dingane’s Day, Day of the Vow, Day of Reconciliation
and the day on which various Afrikaner monuments were inaugurated over the years. It also refers to
the founding of Umkhonto we Sizwe on 16 December 1961, referred to as ‘Heroes Day’ by the African
National Congress. In this part of the motivation, reference to the Battle of Blood River is purposefully
changed to the Battle of Ncome as a “very symbolic event in the history of the struggle for liberation in
South Africa” (Voortrekker Monument Application, 2010).
Elements of Memory
As a memory institution, the Voortrekker Monument heritage site comprises various components (Table
1). Each component includes specific elements that are grouped into types, such as living heritage,
structures, monuments, sculptures and objects (Table 1). Many of the elements listed do not relate to the
original purpose of the Voortrekker Monument and rather came to the site as it is considered by some
as a refuge for politically unwanted heritage objects.
Table 1. List of memory elements that form part of the Voortrekker Monument memory institution.
Year Established
Name Category Original Function Changes
at VTM
Purchased and renovated (2000); amphitheatre, ablution facilities, railing and De

Anglo Boer War fortification
1896 Fort Schanskop Structure Kroon function venue added (2000s); archaeological excavations (2001); Danie
(1900)
Theron statue (2002)
Laying of the
1938 Living heritage Commemorative Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
VTM cornerstone
Commemorate laying of VTM

1938 Stone cairn Monument Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
cornerstone
Symbolic Ox- Great Trek centenary; laying

1938 Living heritage Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
wagon Trek of the VTM cornerstone
Voortrekker Built in honour of and as a Lift and museum installed, wheelchair path added (1998-2000); museum
1938-1949 Structure
Monument memorial to the Vootrekkers exhibition installed (2000)
1940s Quarry Feature Slate source for VTM paving Used in various construction projects over the years
1948 Marble Frieze Sculpture Illustrate history of Great Trek Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
Storage space (until 2005); roof erected over stage for antiques market and other
Venue for VTM inauguration
1949 Amphitheatre Structure events (2000s); open-air concert venue (2000s); restaurant (2000); incorporated
events
into VMNHS declaration (2011)
1949 VTM Inauguration Living heritage Commemorative Incorporated into 2011 VMNHS declaration
1949 Ox-wagon laager Structure Element of VTM Partially restored (2017)
Bronze sculpture of
Mother and Voortrekker woman and
1949 Sculpture Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
children children (Anton van Wouw,
1949), element of VTM
1949 Cenotaph Structure Element of VTM Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
Outbuildings added (1958); renovated (1960); VTM offices (2000-2001);

Caretaker’s
1955 Structure Residence for VTM caretaker Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuur- verenigings’(FAK) offices; FAK Liedjietuin
Residence
garden and function venue (2000s); incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
Plaster maquettes Gypsum pre-studies of VTM

1956 Sculpture Part of VTM exhibition (2017)
of marble frieze marble frieze (1940s)
Van Riebeeck Festival (1952); Die Wonder van Afrikaans (The Wonder of
Afrikaans) language festival (1959); Union of South Africa 50th Anniversary
Large cultural
1950s-1980s Living heritage Amphitheatre used as venue (1960); birth of the Republic of South Africa (1961); Republic of South Africa
festivals
5th Anniversary (1966); Afrikaans festival (1975); 150-year Voortrekker
commemoration (1988); incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
355

Table 1. Continued
Year Established
at VTM
Representation of 1830s Great

1953-1963 Trek routes Feature Trek party names added (1980); incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
Trek routes
1960 Tapestry Object Commemoration of Great Trek Part of VTM exhibition (2000); incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
Five trees planted around 1938

stone cairn, symbolises four
1963 Five trees Natural heritage Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
former provinces and South
West Africa (Namibia)
Voortrekker
1963 Monument office Structure Museum and restaurant (1963) VTM offices (2000); extended for VTM archives (post-2000)
complex
Forms part of trek routes,

1971 Piet Retief Obelisk Monument symbolises place where Retief Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
and company were killed
Replica of Zulu Forms part of trek routes,

1980s Structure Rebuilt (2003, 2018); incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
dwelling symbolises Dingane’s capital
1992 Nature Reserve Site Nature reserve Maintained as needed by local municipality in collaboration with VTM
Wedding and funeral service

2001 Chapel Structure None
venue
Kiosk and gift Restaurant and function venue;

2001 Structure Gift shop expanded (2010) and upgraded (2017)
shop visitor gift shop
Sculpture of famous Anglo-

2002 Danie Theron Sculpture Boer War scout (Charl Engela, Restored (1995)
1969)
Area used to demonstrate

Living Cultural Cape Riding Horse encampment, office and storage facilities added (2002-3);
2002 Living heritage traditional sport and farm
Area public picnic site (2000s); incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
activities
Voortrekker Youth Movement

2002 Voortrekker Hall Structure community hall and function None
venue
Commemorates 50th
Replica
anniversary of first Afrikaner
2003 Tanganyika Monument None
settlers in Tanzania after
Monument
Anglo Boer War (1954)
Garden of
2003 Funerary Columbarium (public) None
Remembrance
Transport
Used during Great Trek
2003 (Communion) Object Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
Centenary celebrations (1938)
Wagon
Historic mobile classroom

2004 School on wheels Object Restored (2004); office space (2018)
(1923)
Research centre with library,

Heritage Foundation established (2002); expanded (2014); Nederduitsch
Erfenissentrum archive, Afrikanerbakens
2008 Structure Hervormde Kerk (Dutch Reformed Church) archive and synodic offices
(Heritage Centre) exhibition, book store and
incorporated (2018)
Heritage Foundation offices
Bronze sculpture of man

Getemde vryheid
2008 Sculpture taming a bull (Hennie None
(Tamed Freedom)
Potgieter, 1962)
Trail connecting VTM to

Heritage Centre, includes
2008 Poetry garden Living heritage benches and granite panels None
with excerpts from Afrikaans
poems
32 Battalion Tree Commemorates South African

2009 Monument None
of Honour light infantry battalion
Commemorate SADF
SADF Wall of members who passed away
2009 Structure Annual military commemorative services (2011)
Remembrance in service of their country
(1961-1994)
356

Table 1. Continued
Year Established
at VTM
Visitor Infor- Provide information on

2010 Structure None
mation Centre VMNHS and events to public
Used by Uys Voortrekker

Uysklip (Uys
2010 Object party as church marker in None
stone)
Thaba Nchu area (1837)
Battle Group
Alpha / 31
Battalion / Commemorates South African
2011 Monument None
201 Battalion light infantry battalion
Commemorative
Needle
Symbolic reconciliation
Reconciliation
2011 Structure between Freedom Park and None
Road
VTM
One of Battle of Blood River/

2011 Bronze ox-wagon Sculpture Ncome ox-wagon sculptures Incorporated into VMNHS declaration (2011)
(Kobus Ester-huizen, 1970-71)
Bronze sculpture of two kudu

2012 Kudus Sculpture None
antelope (unknown date)
Viscount Commemorates victims of Air

2012 Monument None
Memorial Rhodesia sabotage (1978)
Directorate Commemorates 50th

Military anniversary of South
2012 Monument None
Intelligence African Directorate Military
Memorial Intelligence
South African
Infantry Commemorates South African
2012 Monument None
Association Infantry Association
memorial plaque
Commemorates counter-
Koevoet Wall of insurgency branch of
2013 Monument None
Remembrance South West African Police
(SWAPOL)
Military Columbarium (former and

2013 Funerary None
columbarium civilian SADF members)
Sculpture symbol-ising flight

through space without point of
2013 Quo vadis? Sculpture departure or final destination; Restored (2012); renamed (2013)
originally called ‘In flight’
(Danie de Jager, 1971)
Commemorates South African

Defence Force’s covert
Operation intervention in the Angolan
2015 Monument None
Savannah War of Independence (1975-
76) and subsequent Angolan
Civil War
Concrete ‘selfie-bench’ in
shape of traditional South
2015 Koeksister-bench Sculpture None
African pastry (Pieter
Mathews, 2015)
Commemorates late 19th to

Dorsland Trek early 20th century migration
2016 Monument None
(Thirstland Trek) of settlers to Angola and
Namibia
Educational Exhibition and venue for

2018 Structure None
Centre educational programmes
VTM = Voortrekker Monument; VMNHS = Voortrekker Monument National Heritage Site; SADF = South African Defence Force
357

The elements contribute first and foremost to a complex lieu de mémoire on and in which the memory
institution is constructed. Sather-Wagstaff (2015, p. 191) points out that “[w]e simultaneously share and
produce memories with others through various narrative and activity nodes, while heritage is also shared
and produced through narratives, engagement with landscapes, performance and endeavors (sic)” that
are “individually and collectively experienced” requiring “sustained social, interpersonal interaction in
order to endure”. On an individual level, every element is to a greater or lesser extent subject to being
“partial, subjective, contested, political, subject to particular historical contexts and conditions, and thus
dynamically changing” and cannot therefore “exist without individual and collective memory” (Sather-
Wagstaff, 2015, p. 191; see also Rusu, 2013). However, the relational structure between these entangled
individual elements and between these elements and the Voortrekker Monument heritage site is what
underlies the characterisation of the latter as a memory institution (cf. Stainforth, 2016).
The Voortrekker Monument and its constituent elements, either individually or as sets, are experienced
or consumed by audiences in different and dynamically changing ways. This forms the foundation for
four broad ‘narrative and activity nodes’ (Sather-Wagstaff, 2015) accessed and used by different audi-
ences, namely: collective memory, tourism, events and educational programmes (Figure 2). The nodes
function in relative isolation on a day-to-day basis without alienating audiences or overpowering each
other; yet there is fluidity between them that gives rise to the dynamic change referred to above.
Collective Memory
Collective memory is intrinsic to the Voortrekker Monument memory institution. It was conceived as
a place of memory to celebrate and establish the collective memory and cultural identity of the nascent
Afrikaner (O’Brien, 2013). Defining audiences that accesses the collective memory node is thus in essence
subjective and difficult to quantify, as access is generally less commoditised and more symbolic than to
any of the others. As such, we should be mindful in assuming “that people who have some knowledge
Figure 2. Visual representation of the four narrative and activity nodes that underlie public visits to the
Voortrekker Monument heritage site
358

and perhaps even vested interest in past events … have substantially similar perceptions of the event in
question and thus form a stable interpretive community…” (Kansteiner, 2002, p. 193).
Two specific collective memory audiences are defined in an attempt to quantify access to collective
memory: one group participates in the annual Vow Service on 16 December; the other attends the annual
service at the Wall of Remembrance, usually on the last Sunday in May. People further participate in
and support this collective memory interest in other ways, such as becoming Friends of the Monument
or members of the Heritage Foundation, donating money to the institution and attending cultural events
specifically organised by the Monument. It is, however, difficult to quantify the frequency of their visits
based on current recorded statistics and are therefore excluded from further discussion.
The Day of Reconciliation audience comprises people who, to a greater or lesser extent, still experi-
ence and use the Voortrekker Monument as a place of memory to access part of a specific Afrikaner
collective memory and cultural identity – commemorating the pledging of the 1838 Vow. The audience
and activities focuses on the Voortrekker Monument and ox-wagon laager structure, but the entire site is
utilised to accommodate the large number of visitors. In general, the audience and activities are typically
associated with an externally perceived homogenous white, Afrikaans-speaking, exclusive Afrikaner
cultural identity. However, in reality, this audience comprises a diverse group spanning the entire socio-
economic and political spectrum of Afrikaans-speakers and people with some Afrikaner family heritage,
and whom, importantly, adhere to the Christian faith to some degree. Although the affirmation of this
‘Afrikaner identity’ is ostensibly the primary reason for the Voortrekker Monument’s existence3, the
audience that access the site specifically for this purpose on 16 December has become minor in relation
to other audiences, accounting for less than five percent of the total number of annual visitors (in recent
years, between 6 000 – 8 000 per annum).
The Wall of Remembrance audience comprises South African Defence Force (SADF) military veter-
ans, their family members as well as those of fallen soldiers. The annual service is performed in honour
of those soldiers who lost their lives in service during the period 1961–1994. Conscription during those
years, coupled with South Africa’s involvement in military conflicts in neighbouring countries (e.g.
Dorning, 1987; Scholtz, 2013), created a large community – mainly of Afrikaans and English-speaking
white males as well as a smaller component of Asian, coloured and black males – that share a military-
oriented collective memory. In comparison to the Day of Reconciliation event, the lieu de mémoire is
the Wall of Remembrance and SADF columbarium. The focus is military in nature and the audience
more diverse, and may, arguably, be externally perceived as more inclusive, yet accounts for less than
one percent of total visitors per year. In addition, SADF members affiliated to different arms of service
visit specific military memorials at the Monument (see Table 1) throughout the year.
Tourism
Tourists represent the largest audience, accounting for at least 75 percent of all visitors (Voortrekker
Monument visitor statistics, 2013-2017). Analysing this audience is, however, problematic: it is prob-
able that a fair percentage of the domestic audience (around 30 percent of total visitors) may also use
the Voortrekker Monument to access the collective memory node and cultural identity, but this cannot
be determined through the manner in which visitor numbers are recorded. A notable, yet somewhat un-
known fact (especially among local residents), is that all internally employed Monument tour guides are
black and that local visitors can access information about the Great Trek and the Monument in several
South African languages. The number of local tourism awards that the Monument received also affirms
359

its popularity as a tourist destination for the domestic market (for a complete list of awards see http://
www.vtm.org.za/awards).
According to the Monument’s marketing manager, the majority of tourists (around 50 percent)
represent an international audience who predominantly visit the Voortrekker Monument as a ‘must-
see’ attraction incorporated into tour operators’ itineraries (L. Jansen, personal communication, June
12, 2018). In this case, the Monument’s unique architecture and its artworks, coupled with a positive
visitor experience (friendliness of staff, cleanliness of terrain, ease of access, available facilities, etc.)
tend to be the determining factor. Although some international tourists do visit the site to learn about
the Great Trek as a critical event in South African history and, to a lesser extent, learn about Afrikaner
cultural identity, these numbers are minor. Currently, Chinese, German, Dutch and French tourists form
the largest segment of this international audience (L. Jansen, personal communication, June 12, 2018).
Events
The Voortrekker Monument hosts various events other than the Vow and Wall of Remembrance services
discussed under collective memory. The events node includes regular antique markets and military fairs
as well special events in June (youth month), August (woman’s month) and September (heritage month).
The Monument also leases facilities to a number of commercial and cultural organisations, who, in turn,
use the site as a venue for a range of events. Park Acoustics (monthly live music festival), Jacaranda Day
(one of the largest music festivals in Gauteng), HomeComing Africa (African music festival) and Park
Run (weekly running event) are just some of the popular mega-events that take place at the Monument.
The audiences that access the Monument for these events range from joggers, mountain bikers and
horse riders to wedding parties, conference delegates and concert-goers and reflect the diversity of South
African society. Although the recorded events audience only account for around six percent of total visi-
tor numbers (Voortrekker Monument visitor statistics, 2013-2017), the number is in reality much higher
as visitors accessing the site for big events such as international music concerts are not included. One of
the largest events ever hosted at the site in the large amphitheatre were two concerts by the British music
group Mumford and Sons in February 2016, which attracted more than 50 000 people (Meijer 2016; C.
Kruger, personal communication, June 18, 2018).
Educational Programmes
At just over 13 percent, the educational node comprises the second largest audience (Voortrekker Monu-
ment visitor statistics, 2013-2017). It is also the audience that principally accesses the Voortrekker
Monument as a memory institution in the sense of a “repository of knowledge and resource for learning”
(De Laurentis, 2006, as cited in Liew & Cheetham, 2016).
Given the original purpose of the Voortrekker Monument as a lieu de mémoire and repository of an
Afrikaner collective memory and cultural identity, the breakdown of the educational audience is not only
interesting, but also significant in terms of the continued success and existence of the memory institution.
According to the educational services manager at the Monument, state subsidised schools (township
and suburban) account for nearly 70 percent (40 and 30 percent, respectively) of the total educational
audience over a three-year period, whilst private schools only account for around 30 percent (C. Rabie,
personal communication, June 12, 2018). For state subsidised schools, the number of Afrikaans-medium
360

schools is greatly outweighed, nearly 10:1, by English-medium schools. Learners in the latter schools
also comprise predominantly black learners.
The educational node, arguably more than any of other nodes, is significantly involved in advocacy,
promotion and public programming. The numbers reflected above are based on formal educational visits
by school groups. However, it should also include adult education and research.
Examples of how the educational node contributes to promoting the memory institution is through
formal guide training and use of several official South African languages in educational programmes and
guided tours, which are also presented in, amongst others, Chinese, French, and German (Voortrekker
Monument, 2018). The success of this node can be measured in the establishment of a new memory
institution element, an educational centre that will open in 2018, to cater for the growing number of
school groups. The emphasis of this centre is to supplement the national education curriculum, focussing
on social sciences (history, art and architecture, geography) and life sciences (science and technology).
One of the memory institution elements, the Heritage Foundation, also plays a significant role in
advocacy, promotion and public programming (see The Heritage Foundation annual reports). The re-
search library specialises in South African history and cultural history as well as genealogical research.
Regarding the latter, it hosts the Northern Transvaal branch of the Genealogical Society of South Af-
rica’s (GSSA) researchers and library, while GSSA volunteers provide weekly assistance with family
research to the public. The Foundation’s archive contains valuable collections, which include historical
Voortrekker Monument documents and collections of both public organisations and private individu-
als. The archive and library are open to the public and both local and international researchers regularly
use these resources. The Heritage Foundation Research Trust furthermore provides annual financial
assistance to researchers on application (The Heritage Foundation, 2018). The Foundation actively ad-
vocates heritage resources management through the establishment of heritage conservation awareness
committees throughout the country.
The most promising area of future research, for memory institutions in general and the Voortrekker
Monument specifically, is the impact of audience diversification on the core function of such institu-
tions, collective memory and cultural identity. Aspects mentioned in the chapter for which meaningful
statistics are not currently available will be critically evaluated and placed within a problem-orientated
research framework. Specific data will be collected on, for example, public perceptions of the Voortrek-
ker Monument, visitor experience and educational programmes.
CONCLUSION
Within the context of a local and global uncertainty regarding the sustainable future of (traditional)
memory institutions (e.g. Steel, 2012; Van Vollenhoven, 2018), diversification of public attractions,
and therefore visitor profiles, is a road that many such institutions have taken – to a greater or lesser
degree of success (e.g. Wood, 2000; see also Black, 2012). The continued success of the Voortrekker
Monument can arguably be attributed to its adaptation to and mediation of the diverse expectations and
experiences outlined above.
361

Although the Monument has been relatively successful in maintaining its relevance to diverse local
as well as global audiences, it still faces several challenges. The scale and costs of maintenance and
conservation of the Monument (and its various components), dependency on the international tourism
market (and being subject to fluctuations in that market), political vulnerability as well as the risk of
cultural isolation and alienation remain issues that continually have to be dealt with. In addition, man-
aging a private memory institution within the confines of a large municipal nature reserve presents its
own unique challenges.
As Byrne (2015, p. 264) notes, “[p]ublic memory tends to move slowly. Once established, the image
of an institution, its role and its reputation become crystallised and are changed with difficulty”. This
is certainly the case for the Voortrekker Monument – both among its traditional support base and the
public at large. Yet, despite the Monument’s perceived cultural exclusivity, it plays an important part in
advocating for reconciliation and nation building through its responsibility as a memory institution to
transfer knowledge (see Stainforth, 2016). This effort is especially evident in the expansion and success
of its educational programmes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The facts and figures presented in this chapter would not have been possible without the assistance of the
Managing Director, Cecilia Kruger, and staff members from the Voortrekker Monument and Heritage
Foundation: Lizette Jansen, Marelize Swanepoel, Christo Rabie, Thea Furstenburg, Zabeth Botha and
Petra Luus.
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Algemene Jaarvergaderings, Jaarverslae, ES1/3/1/4
The Heritage Foundation. (2018). The Research Trust. Retrieved from http://es.org.za/en/the-research-trust/
Theart-Peddle, S. (2007). The Voortrekker Monument, Pretoria, South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa:
Voortrekker Monument.
Van Vollenhoven, A. (2017). Die veranderende betekenis van die Voortrekkermonument: erfeniswins of
erfenisverlies? [The changing meaning of the Voortrekker Monument: heritage gain or heritage loss?].
LitNet Akademies, 14(2), 214-237. Retrieved from https://www.litnet.co.za/die-veranderende-betekenis-
van-die-voortrekkermonument-erfeniswins-erfenisverlies/
Van Vollenhoven, A. (2018, June 12). Persvrystelling: meer as 50 museums reeds gesluit en ’n verdere
50 in gevaar [Press release: more than 50 museums already closed en another 50 in danger]. LitNet
Leefstyl. Retrieved from https://www.litnet.co.za/persvrystelling-meer-as-50-museums-reeds-gesluit-
en-verdere-50-in-gevaar/
Vermeulen, I. (1999). Man en monument – die lewe en werk van Gerard Moerdijk [Man and monument
– the life and work of Gerard Moerdijk]. Pretoria, South Africa: J.L. van Schaik.
Voortrekker Monument. (2018). Educational services. Retrieved from https://www.vtm.org.za/educa-
tional-services/
Voortrekker Monument. (2017). Annual report. The Heritage Foundation Archive, Voortrekker Monu-
ment Collection.
Voortrekker Monument. (2017). Annual visitor statistics. The Heritage Foundation Archive, Voortrek-
ker Monument Collection.
Voortrekker Monument National Heritage Site Application. (2010). Attachment B. Motivation for dec-
laration as a National Heritage Site, including potential heritage value, threats and vulnerabilities. The
Heritage Foundation Archive, Voortrekker Monument Collection.
364

Wood, P. K. (2000). The historic site as cultural text: A geography of heritage in Calgary, Alberta. Ma-
terial History Review, 52, 33–43.
Afrikaner Nationalism: Political ideology with origins in the late nineteenth century, particularly
among white Afrikaans-speakers from the Orange Free State and Transvaal who held anti-British senti-
ments following the 1899 – 1902 South African War. Ideology refined in the 1930s and formed basis of
National Party’s 1948 victory and subsequent policies.
Great Trek: Nineteenth century vanguard movement of predominantly white emigrant farmers from
the Cape Colony into the South African interior.
National Heritage Site: A place declared in terms of the South African National Heritage Resources
Act No. 25 of 1999 that has such exceptional qualities to be of national significance.
ENDNOTES
1
Defining ‘Afrikaner’ identity is complex and does not fall within the scope of this chapter. Follow-
ing Van Vollenhoven (2017, p. 237), it is used here, broadly speaking, to refer to the descendants
of the Voortrekkers as well as those who associate with the aspirations of the Voortrekkers.
2
Use of the terms Great Trek and Voortrekkers only date from the 1870s (Theart-Peddle, 2007).
3
Some ultra-conservative Afrikaners tend to exploit the image of the Voortrekker Monument for
ideological purposes (see also Coombes, 2000). The current management of the VTM does not
engage with nor allow ultra-conservative groups to use the Monument property for political pur-
poses nor use the Monument’s social media platforms to promote their ideological agendas.
365
366
Chapter 20
Preserving Memory
Through Branding:
Museums Brands as Vectors for Advocacy,
Promotion and Public Programming
Marta Massi
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Chiara Piancatelli
Roberta Ghilardi
ABSTRACT
This chapter examines the role of museum brands as the connective tissue of several museum activities,
including advocacy, promotion and public programming. Albeit broadly examined with reference to
businesses, branding is rarely looked at in the museum context. By providing a review of the literature
on museum branding, supported by extracts from interviews with museums managers conducted in the
2008-2018 period, the authors emphasize how the role of brands has progressively become more criti-
cal in the museum context and how brand management processes are increasingly developed in order
to support museum activities. The chapter emphasizes how museums are not only institutions aimed at
preserving their collections, but also organizations that should build an active relationship with their
publics. Brands are, therefore, described as relational tools that can help museums to manage the rela-
tionship with their different stakeholders, including donors and funders. Managerial implications and
future directions are outlined.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7429-3.ch020

Preserving Memory Through Branding
INTRODUCTION
Museums are memory institutions traditionally aimed at collecting, preserving and promoting their
collections for the benefit of the community. While the former two activities do not have a relational
dimension for museums, in that they imply that museums function as a mere “repositories of information
and objects” (Garrod & Fyall, 2000) or ‘warehouse for artworks’, without engaging visitors or audi-
ence, the latter requires an active engagement with the public (Holter, 2018). Recently, museums have
been evolving from “exclusive, imperious and didactic” institutions to “more inclusive, accessible and
dynamic” organizations (Dornan, 2017). Not only should museums preserve their collections, but, most
importantly, they should guarantee active access and usage to them, by communicating their heritage
to their publics. Museums should “place audiences on a par with collections” (European Commission,
2014, p. 5-6). While old conservation approaches were aimed at protecting heritage “by isolating it from
daily life”, new approaches focus on “making it fully part of the local community” (European Commis-
sion, 2014, p. 5). In this way, conservation becomes “more people-centred” (European Commission,
2014, p. 5). Otherwise, the mission of a museum (as a memory institution) would not be completely ac-
complished, i.e., the memory would not be preserved and conveyed appropriately. In this sense, a brand
oriented museum “recognizes the brand as a distinctive resource, beyond the collection (or product) it
represents” (Evans & Bridson, 2006, p. 1).
However, museums struggle with promoting themselves and their offerings. Owing to an innate idio-
syncrasy and aversion towards marketing and other promotional activities (Kolb, 2000), most museums
do not actively promote their collections, thus missing their chance to attract not only visitors, but also
potential donors and funders (Stebbins & Hartman, 2013).
A consequence of such an idiosyncrasy towards the use of marketing tools is, indeed, the limited use of
brand, defined as the “name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one seller’s good or
service as distinct from those of other sellers” (American Marketing Association, 1960; Kotler, 1991, p.
442; Kotler & Keller, 2006; Evans, 2017). Brands represent not only a hallmark and a recognizable sign,
but also a value system and the weltanschauung of an organization, aimed at identifying unequivocally
and uniquely itself and its products. Brands embody the very essence of the organization, its identity,
mission and values. Businesses such as Kellogg’s and Starbucks have developed their brands so well
that they have become synonymous with the product category they represent (i.e. Kellogg’s stands for
cereals as well as Starbucks stands for coffee). The same is true for some organizations in the museum
sector (e.g., Guggenheim and Tate).
In fact, despite the importance of brand management being widely recognized in the context of busi-
nesses, little attention has been paid to branding in the museum context to date, therefore branding can
be considered a relatively “new phenomenon” (Colbert, 2005, p. 67) on which scant discussion exists
(Belenioti &Vassiliadis, 2017; Chaney et al., 2018). For instance, Belenioti and Vassiliadis (2017) ob-
serve that only three studies have been conducted on the brand equity of museums, so that brand is still
“a controversial and neglected issue” (Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017, p. 118).
Nevertheless, the importance of brand management cannot be underestimated in the context of mu-
seums, at least for two reasons. First, because, brands guarantee the ability to uniquely and distinctively
identify a museum and its offerings. Owing to the growing competitiveness of the markets in which they
operate (including culture, education and leisure markets), brands can allow museums to differentiate
their image and identity, in order to obtain a distinctive and differentiated positioning in the mind of the
consumer (Ries & Trout, 1972; Colbert & Nantel, 1992). A strong brand represents, indeed, a resource
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to attract more consumers and survive in a turbulent market where museums compete both for the scarce
government funds and other donations, and for the participation of the public. The construction of a
solid brand strategy is, therefore, an asset, not only for the business world, but also, and especially, for
museums. Museum managers that do not adhere to a branding philosophy will hardly demonstrate their
leadership or entrepreneurship (Colbert, 2003).
Second, given the fragmentation and atomization that distinguish the consumer experience in the
post-modern era (Firat et al., 1995), the individual / consumer is called to a continuous process of
“construction / consumption and generation of meanings” (Venkatesh & Meamber, 2006, p. 26). In this
sense, images and symbols constitute resources that the individual / consumer employs in the process of
constructing his/her own identity to create meaning in his/her own life (Firat, 1992; Cova, 1996). Brands,
therefore, function as “cultural texts” (O’Reilly, 2005, p. 582) and turn out to be a fundamental resource
in the individual identity-building process. Brands become, nowadays more than ever, the place where
producers and cultural consumers undertake a process of negotiation of meanings (O’Reilly, 2005).
The importance of branding for museums is widely recognized in the literature (see Belenioti & Vas-
siliadis, 2017; Rentschler & Gilmore, 2002; Rentschler & Osborne, 2008; McLean, 1995; Kolb, 2000;
Scott, 2000; Williams, 2011). An efficient brand management could, indeed, provide benefits in terms
of income, stakeholders’ engagement, and museum experience (Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017). Brands
such as Guggenheim and Louvre are typical examples of museums that have embraced a brand orienta-
tion. A particular typology of marketing orientation (Baumgarth, 2010; Baumgarth et al., 2013; Chang
et al., 2018; Ewing & Napoli, 2005; Yin Wong & Merrilees, 2005), brand orientation has been defined
as “an approach in which the processes of the organization revolve around the creation, development
and protection of brand identity in an ongoing interaction with target customers with the aim of achiev-
ing lasting competitive advantages in the form of brands” (Urde, 1999. p. 117-118). More recently, the
concept of brand orientation has been dealt with in the museum context (Baumgarth, 2009; Bridson
et al., 2009; Evans & Bridson, 2006; Evans, & Bridson, 2013; Evans et al., 2010). Particularly, brand
orientation has been found to affect the performance of museum (Baumgarth, 2009).
Based on these considerations, this chapter examines the role of brands as connective tissue of and
vector for the activities of museums in the international context. The authors argue that the brand is
the basis on which to develop the strategies to promote museum offerings, including advocacy, promo-
tion and public programming. In addition, they will support the idea that promotional, advocacy and
programming efforts of museums will be ineffective if a sound brand management is lacking. Extracts
from semi-structured interviews conducted with museum managers in Italy, Canada and Australia over
a period of ten years (2008-2018) will be included to support the authors’ argument. As shown by the
interviews, the state of the art of museum branding has not changed much as most museums are still
reluctant to adopt a branding orientation (Evans & Bridson, 2013).
The chapter starts with the identification of the context where museums operate and focuses on
the issues currently facing museums globally. Building on the branding and the museum literature
(Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017; Rentschler & Gilmore, 2002; McLean, 1995, 2003; Kolb, 2000; Scott,
2000; Williams, 2011), this chapter will make the case for the role of brands as connective tissue for
the development of promotion, advocacy and public programming initiatives in the museum context.
The authors will illustrate how the role of branding has been increasingly getting more critical in the
museum context (Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017; Evans, & Bridson, 2013; Williams, 2011). In particular,
they will emphasize what branding could do for museums. By providing a review of the literature on
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museum branding and linking brand management processes to the development of museum activities,
this chapter will lay the ground for identifying future directions for research and practice in museums.
MUSEUMS AS MEMORY INSTITUTIONS COMPETING

FOR VISITORS AND DONORS
The International Council of Museums (ICOM, 2007) defines museums as “non-profit making, perma-
nent institutions, in the service of society and of its development, and open to the public, which acquire,
conserve, research and communicate, and exhibit for the purpose of study, education and enjoyment,
material evidence of people and their environment” (ICOM, 2007). This definition highlights several
relevant aspects of the role of museums.
First, museums are defined as permanent institutions, highlighting the need to pursue economic sustain-
ability, thanks to which museums can try to achieve their goals in the long term, integrating themselves
within the territory where they operate. Museums are, indeed, cultural and educational institutions that
are transitioning from the status of “source of information and learning” towards that of providers of
“appealing and satisfying experiences in a distinctive environment” (Lehman, 2013, p. 473).
Second, museums are non-profit organizations, as their purpose is not to achieve profit, but to serve
society and promote its development. Non-profit organizations face two types of problems, i.e., the lack
of traditional forms of support (State subsidies, voluntary work, etc.) and, the search for alternative
sources of support (Kotler & Andreasen, 1991).
Third, museums are, most importantly, institutions open to the public, because their raison d’être
would no longer make sense without the relationship to the audience.
The latter aspect is crucial. The problem of most museums, nowadays, is that they are detached from
the marketplace (Komarac et al., 2017; Recuero Virto et al., 2017), and often are completely unaware
of their customers. Museums seem to adopt a defensive approach, by preserving and conserving their
collections (which would be the most traditional aspect of their mission), without focusing on what
should be the crucial element of their mission, i.e., favoring access and ‘consumption’ of their heritage
for the public. Museum publics not only include visitors, but also potential funders. The ICOM definition
(2007) speaks clearly of a relationship to be built with their visitors. To build a relationship with their
main stakeholders, museums should stop being defensive and considering themselves a ‘temple’ that
(as the etymology of the word reminds) cuts out profane individuals to allow only those who have the
credentials to get closer to the arts (Kolb, 2000). Museum strategies, therefore, should focus on current
and potential customers, whose satisfaction and enjoyment must be the absolute priority of the museum
to build customer loyalty.
To reach their potential visitors and funders, museums need to communicate what they are in terms
of identity and value system. In this process, branding is crucial. At the same time, it is necessary that
they plan their communication initiatives carefully, so that the message is clear and coherent, without
losing sight of the values of the museum brand identity, which should be the cornerstone of any activity.
Currently, museums are called to address a marketing problem, both because of the increased com-
petitiveness in the sector, and because of the lack of public funds to support the arts. Furthermore,
competitiveness has increased since museums are competing with other organizations operating at the
inter-sectorial and intra-sectorial levels (e.g., theaters and art galleries) and with other offerings of the
leisure market (Colbert, 2003), including theme parks, cinemas, shopping malls and restaurants. These
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conditions have prompted museums to undertake a process of managerialization (i.e., “a process through
which organizations adopt and develop a reliance on corporate management knowledge and practices”
including strategic planning and control systems, Hvenmark, 2013, p. 241). switching from a mere cura-
torial orientation to more managerial practices (Coblence & Sabatier, 2014; Evans et al., 2012; Komarac
et al., 2017; Mottner & Ford, 2005; Scott, 2016).
Zan (2003, p. 27) stated that the managerialization of arts and cultural organizations leads to the
acquisition of “a basic logic of economic accountability, which tends to be articulated in two main as-
pects: orientation to the market and the orientation towards resources”. A teleonomic logic, therefore,
imposes itself on museums as well as on other arts and cultural organizations: proceeding with objectives
to be set upstream, administering the resources available for the purpose of pursuing such objectives
and reporting the results (Mottner & Ford, 2005; Pop & Borza, 2016; Recuero Virto e al., 2017; Zan,
2003). In particular, museums have to conciliate three critical dimensions, i.e., the historical-aesthetic
dimension (i.e., the heritage), the dimension of the relationship with the user (i.e., communication and
promotion of the heritage to the customers) and the dimension of the use and acquisition of resources
(the collection management) (Zan, 2003).
The success, and in some cases, the survival of museums, these days, depends on the balance among
these three, at times conflicting, dimensions. Market orientation in museums can be achieved by consider-
ing visitors’ inquiries, motivating staff members in different actions such as attracting donations, starting
partnerships with other organisations, and promoting communication among the different departments
of the museum (Pop & Borza, 2016). As will be explained later, the most destabilizing dimension for
museums, is the adoption of a market orientation (Avlonitis & Gounaris, 1999), often interpreted by
arts operators as an element capable of undermining the possibility of achieving the museum artistic
mission, to the detriment of an addiction to customer needs.
NO MUSEUM IS AN ISLAND
The application of marketing tenets is opposed by museums not only for ideological reasons, but also
because marketing is often interpreted as an activity generating more costs than profits, which, through
glossy promotions, expensive advertising and public relations campaigns, drains resources from opera-
tional programs and prevents non-profit goals from being achieved (Raymond & Greyser, 1978, p. 130;
Komarac et al., 2017; Recuero Virto et al., 2017). In general, many cultural managers are averse towards
marketing orientation since they think that it contrasts with the museum conservation goals (Komarac et
al., 2017; Recuero Virto et al., 2017). In addition, many museums operators and staff members believe
that education should be the main mussion of the museum (Brida et al., 2016).
Such perspective makes it difficult to apply a marketing orientation to museums, i.e., a business
philosophy based on three priorities: (i) consumers; (ii) marketing as the prevalent culture; (iii) adjust-
ing the product based on market needs (Avlonitis & Gounaris, 1999). Museums should adopt a market
orientation if they intend to be sustainable (Del Chiappa et al., 2014; Recuero Virto et al., 2017; Mar-
ciszewska, 2005).
However, just like individuals (Donne, 2002) museums cannot be isolated from their environment
and marketing represents the main resource for museums to create a relationship with their external
stakeholders. One of the main aspects of a museum mission is to provide access to their collections.
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According to Bourdieu (2011, p. 98), artworks represent the objectified form of the cultural capital and
represent “trace or realization of theories or critiques of these theories”.
There is an access dimension which is intrinsic in the artworks. Artworks are made to be accessed
and consumed. Providing access to the cultural capital, and specifically artworks, can have effects on
generating economic capital. Artistic and cultural goods are, indeed, characterized by a dual nature, both
economic and cultural (Throsby, 1999). In fact, arts and cultural heritage is a cultural asset and, as such,
it must be made subject to conservation, protection and enhancement (Laroche et al., 2006), so that it
can become a capital asset capable of producing both cultural (educational, communicative, etc.) and
non-cultural effects (e.g., social inclusion, identity building, tourism, cultural entrepreneurship, etc.). In
this sense, the cultural capital acquires an economic meaning, i.e., it becomes a means of representing
culture as a lasting deposit of value, which can bring benefits to individuals and social groups (Throsby,
2001) and affect the museum economic performance (Komarac et al., 2017; Lindqvist, 2012; Loach et
al., 2017).
Cultural capital differs from the economic capital because it is able to produce both cultural and
economic value. McCarthy et al., (2004) distinguished an intrinsic cultural value, which has a direct
correspondence with the artistic - cultural product (for example, the aesthetic pleasure and cognitive
growth deriving from the use/consumption of a work of art) and an instrumental value which includes
the economic impact of the cultural good / product. Based on these considerations, it is clear how the
management, valorization, and marketing of arts and cultural goods - intended as activities aimed at
enhancing the cultural capital and improving the conditions of knowledge and conservation of cultural
goods / products and promoting their access through the organization of human and material resources
- represent essential resources for a museum.
MUSEUMS AND THE BRAND
Albeit widely employed in the business sector, brand management is still in its infancy in the museum
context globally (Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017). Museums are now subject to a double challenge since
they are also operating in the leisure market – which is increasingly competitive and characterized by a
growing number of operators (Colbert, 2000) and, at the same time, have to compete with each other both
for the allocation of scarce State funds, and to attract the largest number of visitors (Kotler et al., 2008).
Therefore, despite their traditional and innate idiosyncrasy towards marketing (Diggle, 1986; Hill et
al., 1995, Kolb, 2000), museums have recently realized, to an ever-greater extent, that they need to apply
marketing principles in order to pursue their goals of participation and survival in a turbulent market,
characterized by the presence of other cultural organizations and entertainment industry organizations.
Such a realization has occurred as a consequence of the cutback of government funding and of the in-
creasing demanding for “experiences that are value for money in an increasing competitive market of
leisure attractions” from the visitor part (Evans et al., 2012; Pop & Borza, 2016; Recuero Virto et al,
2017, p. 303). Museum brands also function as a platform for branding places, contribution to revitalize
“the city’s socio-economic and cultural fabric” (Pasquinelli, 2017, p. 52).
In light of this, the need to differentiate their image and identity in order to obtain a distinctive and
differentiated positioning in the consumer’s mind (Colbert & Nantel, 1992) has become a priority for
a museum. The brand - defined as “name, term, sign, symbol, or as a combination of them, aimed at
identifying the goods and services of a seller or group of sellers and differentiating them from those of
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competitors” (Kotler, 1991, p. 442; Jones and Bonevac, 2013; Evans, 2017), has, therefore, become the
most suitable asset to establish the identity of an offering, even if characterized by its own specificity,
such as cultural offerings (Caldwell, 2000). Especially in the Seventies, museums have started to develop
their brands, as a consequence of funding cutbacks (Griffin, 2008; Kolb, 2000). To date, branding in
museums has become “more than necessary” (Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017, p. 117; Williams, 2011).
The advantages of developing a branding strategy in terms of income, customer engagement and
museum experience, have been widely recognized (Kotler and Kotler, 2012; Kolb, 2013; King, 2015;
Williams, 2011; Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017). However, often have museums no real awareness of what
a brand actually is. For some of them, dealing with brands corresponds to managing the visual elements
of the brand (i.e., logo, colors, design), neglecting, instead, what the true essence of the brand is, i.e.,
the philosophy and the values underlying it, which should permeate the whole organization. A brand
manifests itself through all the museum contact channels: “a voice on the phone, the tone of an invitation
letter, a brochure, the quality of the print of the tickets are printed, the timeliness and completeness of
the staff answers” (Palmarini, 2005, p. 26).
According to Keller (2003), the term “brand” derives etymologically from an ancient Scandinavian
word meaning “to burn,” and refers to the practice of marking livestock with identifying signs. Interest-
ingly, the Italian name for brand, “marca”, derives instead from the German “marka”, which refers to a
border or a territorial demarcation (Codeluppi, 1997). From an etymological point of view, therefore,
the terms “brand” expresses the idea of a tool that is able to establish a boundary, in terms of property,
and to guarantee identification.
Marketing literature is replete with brand definitions (De Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1998;
Cohen, 2011; Evans, 2017, Jones & Bonevac, 2013; Moore & Reid, 2008). Brands are, indeed, defined
as resources to differentiate products (Keller, 1998; Holter, 2018); signals for information (Moore and
Reid, 2008), value systems (De Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1998) and strategic resources (Elliott
& Wattanasuwan, 1998). This surplus of definitions often makes it difficult to make a synthesis (Kol-
lat et al., 1970) and has generated a heated debate that has stood on two main positions. According to
Kapferer (1992), in fact, brand definitions can be represented at the ends of a continuum whose ends
are represented respectively by the identification of the brand with its “tangible” elements or component
parts, such as the logo, the design, the packaging - which allow a company to distinguish its product un-
equivocally from its competitor products (Kotler et al., 1996; Zaichkowsky, 2010) – and by the emphasis
on brand identity, i.e., the values and philosophy it represents. On the second end of the continuum are
all those definitions that emphasize the role of the consumer in the brand management process as an
active participant.
To date, there is still no consensus on the definition of brand (Jones and Bonevac, 2013), while for
some scholars branding is dead (Humby, 2005). In recent years, the role of brands has been widely
analyzed and explored by scholars and practitioners, and the interest in the brand management process
has been conspicuous, both in the academic and in the business world. The strategic importance and
the impact of brands are recognized both by scholars (Aaker, 1991, 1992; Kapferer, 1992; Keller, 2003;
Jones & Bonevac, 2013; Janeš & Faganel, 2015; Evans, 2017) and businesses, which have progressively
created, within their own organizations, special structures and professional figures (i.e., brand manag-
ers) appointed to manage their brand. Brands such as Starbucks and McDonald’s are just few examples
of successful brands that have managed to make themselves recognizable and valuable internationally.
Brands are powerful means of differentiation that can develop competitive advantages for companies
(Aaker, 1992; Jones & Bonevac, 2013; Evans, 2017; Museum Insigths, 2018). Companies, in general,
372

develop one or more brands as resources to attract and retain customers. In fact, among the advantages
of a wise management of the brand is the possibility of constructing a positive image of the product or
of the company, as well as reducing the vulnerability of the company to the growing competitiveness
of the market.
There are various reasons for analyzing the equity of brands (Calderon et al., 1997; Yoo & Donthu,
2001; Keller & Brexendorf, 2017). First, companies have been increasingly interested in building long-
term relationships with consumers. Therefore, brands become the main asset through which consumers
become familiar with and relate to organizations. Second, the study of brands and the measurement of
the variables connected to it (such as brand awareness or brand trustworthiness) can allow companies
to understand consumer behavior and consequently orientate their marketing strategies. Third, since the
creation of new brands, and the management of existing ones, involve considerable investments by the
company, in a very competitive and uncertain market, the brand management process should have a criti-
cal role in the strategic business plan. In recent years, the process of building and managing brands has
become increasingly corporate and holistic, so that brand management is no longer a “task for managers,
but a powerful tool that has to be used by all the members of the organization for aligning the firm’s
resources in the development of strategic competitive advantage” (Harris, 2002, p. 433).
Arguably, the values at the base of the identity of an organization represent the starting point for the
creation of the brand, both in its tangible and intangible aspects, and must be transmitted to the external
stakeholders through integrated, coherent and transparent communication initiatives. The aim is to make
the brand unique to all stakeholders (Kay, 2006), which, in the case of museums, are visitors, sponsors,
donors, volunteers and other supporters of the museum, both acquired and potential. While a product
can be communicated effectively through promotional initiatives, the brand requires communication
efforts from the organization as a whole, due to its multi-dimensionality (Balmer & Greyser, 2006). In
this sense, communication plays a fundamental role in attracting potential stakeholders, establishing a
meaningful and lasting relationship with them, and positioning the brand in a unique and distinctive way.
Any communication strategy of the brand must necessarily start from the involvement of all the
internal stakeholders, so that they understand and share the values that the brand expresses. Only the
involvement of all the staff will allow for the development of a harmonious museum culture, which will
distinguish the service offered to visitors from that of other museums.
Branding is a relational process because it presupposes a relationship between the mission and value
system of the museum and its different stakeholders. Such a relational dimension is clearly identified by
Kotler et. al. (2008), who state that a museum can have a fully developed brand especially when there is
a constant feedback from the visitors related to the museum’s brand product, service, ideas, and experi-
ence; when different stakeholders (including the Board, the staff, etc.) are committed to developing the
brand itself; and when the brand identity is consistent with the mission of the museum.
When it comes to museums, the brand identity is defined by the museums mission, its premises and
services, collections and exhibitions, perceived quality or value (Pusa & Uusitalo, 2014).
However, not all museums are as willing to take advantage of a branding orientation. For instance,
some Italian organizations greatly illustrate this hesitance to adapt to a new “global” model of marketing
and brand management. Italian institutions tend to focus more on history and heritage as representations
of their brand and strongly promote the “cultural growth” (Massi & Harrison, 2009, p. 28) experience
to visitors. In addition, they reject marketing focused on the consumer and believe that priority should
be placed on artistic content and cultural history (Massi & Harrison, 2009).
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For instance, some museums are reluctant to use the branding terminology: “The tricky thing about
branding of course, and marketing in a museum, is that brand is a dirty word; and I often talk about the
experience instead of the brand…” (Interview 1, 2008). The ostracism that some museums have towards
the development of their brand is expressed by the significant title of the article by Evans and Bridson
(2006), “Don’t Tate us!” which refers antonomastically to the Tate Museum in London as a model of
brand subjected to an intense management process, including brand extension and ‘franchising’.
In fact, there are many reasons why a museum could be hesitant to adopt a brand-oriented strategy.
First, there could exist tension between curatorial and market objectives. The formers tend to be hesitant
to change, often owing to the belief that adopting a marketing orientation will create a “Disney-fied”
experience (Evans et al., 2010, p. 1461) that is far removed from the artistic mission of a museum.
Second, pivoting the museum’s strategy towards brand focus requires support from management and
all stakeholders, including the government, who in the case of public institutions provides a majority
of financial support. Third, museums could lack the infrastructure to support such a change (Evans et
al., 2010).
In this chapter, the authors argue that brands represent the connective tissue for developing all the
museum activities, including promotion, advocacy and public programming. By infusing the values of
the museum in the different activities, including promotion, advocacy and public programming initia-
tives, brands prove to be the real catalyst for change in museums. Albeit related, these activities present
specific characteristics. Public programming refers to museum-related events, including exhibitions,
conversations, guided tours, projections, educational and performance events that complete the artistic
offering of the museum. Promotion refers to the activities aimed at communicating the museum offerings
and events, while also consolidating the museum brand image and fostering visitor loyalty. Advocacy
refers to the activities aimed at looking for support for the museum from the Government and funders.
All these activities are communication tools that the museum can use in order to convey its image. They
differ based on the target audience and market segments they are oriented to. Advocacy is oriented towards
public institutions, businesses and donors, while promotion is oriented towards the broad audience of the
museum and public programming can be more specific for certain targets, e.g., schools and universities.
MUSEUMS BRAND AS A VECTOR FOR PROMOTION
The first way a brand can serve the objectives of a museum is by promoting the museum identity to
different publics/segments. As a unique visual and value-based identity, a museum brand represents the
essence of the organization and is immediately recognizable by visitors and other users. Most people
would immediately associate the ‘M’ of the McDonald’s logo to the notorious fast-food chain. Similarly,
it is likely that most people would associate the spiral-shaped logo that resembles the iconic museum
venue to the Guggenheim Museum.
All the museum materials such as maps, brochures, publications and catalogs, must express the museum
brand identity and favor a relational approach, always showing the logo of the museum and the same
lettering. Stylistic coherence is a key factor to increase the familiarity of the visitor and the audience,
as well as to maintain compactness in communication initiatives. Given the multiplicity of information
and promotional initiatives that overwhelm consumers nowadays, it is essential that communication be
distinctive and consistent over time. Even merchandising of museum objects should express the brand
identity of the museum, so that they can represent a continuation of the visit experience, thus increasing
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brand awareness. In fact, if exhibited to third parties, merchandised objects can encourage others to visit,
especially when word-of-mouth allows the dissemination of values that make the museum’s brand unique.
Brand oriented museums invest many resources in the development of their brand, with the aim of
increasing their degree of recognition and expanding their audience through marketing activities. For
example, the budget invested in the development of the brand by one of the most important Australian
museums is remarkable: “We commit the entire marketing budget in the development of the brand. Ac-
cording to this system, all that we invest in is advertising to communicate the brand. We do not organize
exhibitions or anything else. It is only the brand, without any tactical element and the total is about a
quarter or a third of our budget, which is consistent for an organization like ours…” (Interview 2, 2018).
In these museums, the brand development process is formalized through the definition of a document
and brand guidelines, which inform the contents and the visual identity of the brand itself, ensuring
consistency and uniformity. In particular, the Marketing and Communication Departments employ all the
traditional marketing tools (i.e., market research, segmentation, etc.) in order to develop their brand and,
consequently, their public. The brand development process is, therefore, very structured and proceeds
from the collection of information relating to the perception of the brand among the internal stakeholders
(staff, artists, management, etc.), external stakeholders (partners, State etc.) and the audience, through
focus groups, interviews and workshops: “The development of a brand strategy consisted of a series of
interviews and workshops with all internal and external stakeholders [...] who were asked - as part of
the process - what the brand meant for them [...]. The so-called experience audit was done to analyze all
[...] the information related to the customer’s experience: from booking an online ticket to the one at the
box office; from access to the museum to the parking of the car. All this information has been recorded
and put into the mix. Thus, at the end of this research, for which about 4-5 months were spent, a strategy
was developed…” (Interview 3, 2016).
Some museum operators have defined their brand identity through a reflection process: “In terms
of strategy and how we have developed it, I can say that we worked with a consultant to analyze our
brand. We have written our brand history in practice. We stopped for a moment and said: ‘Ok, so what
does this brand mean?’ So, we wrote our brand strategy and our brand history…” (Interview 4, 2018).
In these museums, all the promotional activities are informed by the brand based on a consistency
logic, i.e., all the messages have to be based on the same visuals and value system which define the brand
identity of the museums. Consistency is especially important in times when digitalization and social
media allow for sharing brand contents with a pace that was unthinkable few years ago.
In fact, promotional activities that are not informed by brand consistency can be detrimental: “What
we discovered about the promotion is that we were able to communicate well what we are not, that is,
the fact that we are not a museum like any other and that we are different. But what we could not com-
municate to the public was what we really are. That’s why people had a vacuum in mind and did not
come to visit the museum. Once we understood that we had to communicate our identity, we developed
a very basic proposition, and we set up a single organization…” (Interview 5, 2016).
By communicating their value system and their visuals consistently, brands such as the Louvre and
Guggenheim have managed to become ‘stars’ in the brand system and to ‘franchise’ themselves. The
promotional power of a well-established brand is such that some cities prefer to “pay for a brand than to
create a new museum and build-up its legitimacy and reputation from the ground up’ (Vivant, 2011, p.
112). The case of the Louvre in Abu Dhabi is a great example of this trend based on which cities look
for an “opportunity to gain legitimacy and reputation by proxy through the use of a world-renowned
brand” (Ajana, 2015, p. 330).
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Such brands are highly trusted by individuals. The more a museum brand is trustworthy, the more
visitors will become ‘brand evangelists’ (Lehman, 2013, p. 475) recommend their peers and friends to
visit that museum or revisit the museum themselves. The results of a study conducted in 2018 in three
main Italian museums, Museo del Novecento, GAM and MUDEC (Piancatelli et al., 2018) show that
the dimensions of brand trustworthiness, which are based on the brand name and the experience in the
museum have the greater impact on the visitor’s perceived quality that in turn impacts on the visitor
intention to revisit and intention to recommend. Thus, branding, and particularly the establishment of
brand trust and loyalty, can help museums to maintain the current visitor base and to attract new visitors.
MUSEUM BRAND AS A VECTOR FOR ADVOCACY
Unlike businesses, museums, especially public ones, need to be supported through Government funding
and private donations. Therefore, it is evident how museums should not be promoted only among their
potential visitors, but also among their donor base (Holter, 2018). In this context, the role of brands
become apparent as funders and donors will support only a value system that they share or agree upon.
For instance, Stebbins and Hartman (2013) showed how the brand personality of charitable organization
affects charitable giving.
Interestingly, very often marketing managers are in charge of fundraising activities: “Among my
tasks there is a fundraising activity, because if I want to do something more, I have to find the funds.
Because the budget I have, let’s say, after three months if I want to do a communication campaign that
gives important results, could already be finished…” (Interview 6, 2018).
This means that the communication of the museum brand identity is crucial for attracting potential
donors and funders. While major donors are already loyal to the museum brand in that they share and
agree upon the brand values, prospects are the most challenging to attract. And that is when the brand
comes in: “when it comes to raising support for different, broader, younger, channels–among average
visitors who have not historically been your big supporters–in that channel branding will become in-
creasingly important” (Holter, 2018).
A strong brand is particularly important when the fundraising process goes through new and innova-
tive ways of collecting donations, e.g., crowd-funding campaigns. A virtuous example of crowd-funding
in the museum context is represented by the Louvre campaigns (Brunello, 2014). The Louvre Museum
has managed to finance the purchase of the painting Le tre Grazie involving more than fifty thousand
people, not only French, in raising million euros (The New York Times, 2017). In order to attract the at-
tention of potential donors, the museum elaborated strategies for customizing messages, and guaranteed
particular rewards for the most generous donors: those who paid between € 200 and € 500 were rewarded
with a private visit at the museum to see the painting once exposed, while those who had donated more
than 500 € had the chance to attend special events. There is no doubt that the Louvre could achieve its
objective thanks to the strength and equity of its brand. Therefore, this case represents a great example of
how branding can inform fundraising initiatives. Similarly, the British Museum raised £100,000 from the
public to secure paintings of the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo by Thomas Stoney (Telegraph, 2015).
Another example of a lesser known museums, that still has a very well defined identity and mission,
i.e., “ensuring the encounter of our audiences with our collections, both in the museum and online, is as
inspiring, meaningful and rewarding as possible” (Ashmolean Museum, 2018) - is represented by the
Ashmolean Museum, which, loyal to its customer oriented mission, launched a ‘Saved for the public’
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campaign aimed at securing a portrait by French painter Edouard Manet after an eight-month campaign
that raised almost £8 million (McKenzie & Buck, 2016).
Digitalization and crowd-funding enable museums to reach new audiences, and particularly new
donors. The importance of brands as vectors for museum advocacy becomes evident in times when the
historical donor base “is aging and not being replaced by a new and younger generation of support”
(Holter, 2018). Therefore, museums may be soon urged to replace their traditional and historical donors
with random “patrons with $100 donations from one hundred average museum visitors” and to build
“personal and emotional connections with a new base through institutional branding” (Holter, 2018).
Other critical stakeholder museums should take care of, when it comes to advocacy, are the volunteers.
Museums should recruit and train them as they are an active part of their organization. Volunteers can,
indeed, convey the brand values in a dynamic and effective way, thus contributing to the development
of a positive museum image. Although volunteers could be efficient brand ambassadors, in some coun-
tries, e.g., Italy – where there is prevalence of public museums and a scarcity of public funds - programs
dedicated to volunteers are few. The investment of funds in the design and implementation of voluntary
programs, however, would allow the active involvement of people who care about cultural heritage and
that would take their tasks seriously (Wallace, 2016).
Keeping relations with museum supporters, both public and private, is also part of the relational aspect
that museums should consider. Membership programs can create a considerable amount of resources,
increase the number of visitors and expand the circle of stakeholders. Some museums provide for real
partnership programs, which involve companies in continuous support activities.
An emblematic example of such programs is the Peggy Guggenheim Collection of Venice, which,
benefiting from the strength of its brand, offers visitors a membership program, Friends of the Collection,
with annual cards dedicated to different visitor targets. In addition, the Peggy Guggenheim Collection
offers specific programs for companies, Guggenheim Intrapresae, which reunites the companies sup-
porting the museum in a private club, granting them specific benefits. Feeling part of a club is essential
for visitors and supporters: it allows to develop willingness to dialogue with the museum and to maintain
an active relationship with it, thus enhancing trust in the brand.
MUSEUM BRAND AS A VECTOR FOR PUBLIC PROGRAMMING
Public programming, including educational activities, permanent and temporary exhibitions, and other
museum-related events is the main means through which museums build their relationships with the vari-
ous stakeholders. As mission-based value systems, brands are critical for developing public programming
activities through which a large and broad audience is reached: “Then we set our brand architecture…It’s
then we sort of say these are the main experiences, exhibitions and collections, supported by programs
which are bringing the brand to life for people in various ways. So then for us all it was to do from a,
now we’re down at this communications level now. How do we differentiate in our communications;
how we talk about the collection, the exhibitions, and the programs? We say the exhibitions; it’s going
to be all about art. So in our style guide, we’re going to focus on, we’re going to have look and feel that
is undeniably, unmistakably…” (Interview 7, 2018).
Specifically, in the context of public museums, education is a big part of the museum brand. Edu-
cational activities must be oriented both to schools and to citizens, proposing a public program that is
suitable for each targeted segment and that is adequately disseminated through a coherent and reasoned
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communication strategy. The audiences of such initiatives include both school groups and more or less
experienced visitors, who are interested in guided tours.
School trips, above all, are an excellent opportunity for museums to get in touch with potential future
visitors. Providing schools that are interested in the visit with a branded student kit (including, for example,
explanatory branded material and gadgets) would allow the museum to establish a first contact with
the students, so that they could develop a preliminary knowledge of the organization and get curious to
discover the collections. The interest in these educational initiatives is fundamental for their success in
terms of the students’ learning so that teachers and guides can be considered brand allies (Wallace, 2016,
p. 26). For instance, two Italian museums, Museo del Novecento and MUDEC have in fact developed
a public programming formula with a focus on education. Both museums offer a calendar of cultural
events including conferences, guided tours, workshops and lessons targeted at teachers and students, to
accomplish their artistic mission by emphasizing the multidisciplinary and transversal nature of mu-
seum institutions. Meetings, conversations and workshops allow the audience to share the perspective
with artists, curators, writers, philosophers and experts of different disciplines, delving into important
aspects of the exhibitions and expanding the reflection to other contemporary languages (Holter, 2018).
Participants’ enthusiasm towards educational activities can greatly contribute to raise interest in the
museum collection and to determine the intention to revisit the museum in the future. A moment of final
de-briefing can then contribute to making the visit experience a pleasant, unique and lasting memory, as
well as to encouraging the effective learning of the artistic contents, thanks to an emotional involvement.
In essence, branding strategies can contribute to promoting cultural development and making such guided
tour for young students memorable, thanks to the importance given to identity values, which allows to
build a coherent museum history over time (Wallace, 2016).
The same applies for non-school guided tours, organized for people who enter the museum voluntarily
and want to know the collections in depth. It is essential to meet the expectations of these subjects, and it
is possible to state that guided tours often represent the first point of contact for potential museum visitors,
supporters and future donors with the museum brand. The museum guide represents the museum, and
must, therefore, be able to establish a dialogue with the visitor, starting a conversation that encourages
his/her active involvement in the visit. Such a relational aspect helps to ensure that the museum is not
perceived as a hierarchically superior institution, but that it appears as an organization created for the
public, of all kinds and origins. Showing the human side behind the management of a museum can make
the approach to the visit easier, and lead to the retention of people if they perceive that the environment
they are accessing is familiar (Wallace, 2016).
Finally, and most importantly, exhibits and events organized by the museum should be coherent with
the museum brand and mission. At times, museums take risks in developing exhibits which fall outside
the value system that they embody. For instance, blockbuster exhibitions such as the Barbie doll exhibit
at the MUDEC, in Italy, have raised concern and controversy since, according to some arts operators,
they were not consistent with the museum mission to ‘dialogue with the international communities
present on the territory and to give expression to the plurality of the cultures that inhabit it and restore
its complexity” (Artslife, 2016). Blockbuster exhibits are developed to attract people to the museums
and museum managers are aware that they could be risky, but they also know that such exhibits are
economically advantageous: “So many of our local community don’t realize we have a Picasso, don’t
realize there’s a Picasso vase, painting, that we have best. And you know, when they go overseas, they’d
be shocked to realize what’s at home. So we recognize, if we’re going to get regular visits, that’s a key
way to do it. And it’s a very efficient way to do it. Because we own those works. The investment’s sunk.
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We’ve got them. So it’s about really creating some noise and interest around what we have rather than,
and this is a very high cost kind of proposition, the exhibitions. You know, those huge exhibitions, the
one that we do once a year: it’s a huge undertaking commercially. So this is about balance as much as
a financial model as anything. But that sort of makes it sound like it lacks some integrity, too, and it’s
financially driven. And it really isn’t. It did just make us realize that we just aren’t a cooking collection.
And it’s such an important part of who we are…” (Interview 8, 2018).
RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Brands are not only signs and symbols that identify museums in a distinctive way, but also tools aimed
at the creation of an intense network of dialogue with the audience and other stakeholders, both acquired
and potential, who share the museum values. By identifying themselves with the value system represented
by a brand, stakeholders become partners and supporters of the identity values, the collections and the
product system that make a museum unique.
In this process, brands help to develop customer trust and loyalty that is functional not only to bring
new visitors and supporters through positive word of mouth, but also to counteract competitors’ strategies.
This applies, in particular, to sponsors and donors who will be discouraged to allocate their funds for
other purposes or for other organizations, and encouraged, instead, to stick to the museum they are part of.
Research on museum branding has been globally scant to date (Belenioti & Vassiliadis, 2017). Scholars
have mainly focused on the managerial perspective on branding in the museum context (e.g., Belenioti &
Vassiliadis, 2017; Caldwell 2000; Massi & Harrison, 2009; Rentschler & Gilmore, 2002; Scott, 2000).
Future research should look at the consumer perspective, focusing on how consumers interact with mu-
seum brands and how branding influence variables such as perceived quality and customer satisfaction.
A crucial aspect of branding, which is very often underestimated by scholars and practitioners is the
relational dimension: the brand represents the tool through which museums can interact with the external
environment and develop networks of extraordinary value. Museums should not conceive of themselves
as islands, i.e., organizations independent from the external environment, but rather use their brand as a
means to create relationships with the different stakeholders they get in contact with, including visitors,
volunteers, employees, donors, Government, mass media and opinion leaders.
Especially, in times when public funding to the arts is decreasing, museums should use their brands
to connect to people and promote their mission among potential new donors. Museum brand identities
should function as the vector for fundraising initiatives. As the Louvre case demonstrates, a well-defined
and “sharp” brand can allow museums to turn their visitors into donors (Holter, 2018). In contrast, a
brand that is “general, vague, unstated” will cost the museum “a lot more effort to persuade the aver-
age visitor to become a donor” (Holter, 2018). In addition, a well-defined brand will allow museums to
cross the national borders and go international, reaching out to more international audiences that share
the values of the brand.
Building on their brand, museums can attract sponsors or partners with which they can launch pro-
grams that could create virtuous circles, bringing significant benefits to organizations as a whole. In
addition, branding could help them solidify the motivation of their staff, who would share and support
the values of the organization.
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Branding could prove to be crucial to manage the relationship with the stakeholders, particularly vol-
unteers. The development of voluntary programs and the maintenance of relationships with the subjects
involved in voluntary activities can be boosted by branding.
Among the marketing logics best suited to the museum sector is relational marketing theorized by
Gummesson (2002), which is focused on optimally managing not only relations with end consumers,
but also with other stakeholders, including donors and funders. Relationship marketing focuses on sta-
blishing and maintaining long-term relationships with visitors based on confidence in the quality of the
offerings/services (Garbarino & Johnson, 1999). Relationship marketing can lead to higher visitor and
donor retention (Camarero & Garrido, 2011; Chung et al., 2014). In fact, museums brands have been
defined as “values brands”, i.e., brands endowed with “a long-lasting proposal-base that creates a long-
term link with those market sectors that share the same values” (Scott, 2000, p. 36).
Relational marketing emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the organization and
the customer. Such a relationship can be built and maintained based on the sharing of common values,
which are embodied by the brand. Museum brands, their visuals and value system, should be recogniz-
able by the museums physical environment, the information materials, the guides and the staff, and the
additional services: everything should be integral part of the brand and define the image of the museum
as unique and different from that of the competitors (Zeithaml & Bitner, 2008).
The relationship with the public must be kept alive through periodic surveys of the audience satisfac-
tion, which help understand how to improve and diversify the offerings in relation to the context, and to
transform museums into places of reference for the whole society, where to admire the cultural heritage
and to relate with other people in a new way.
However, it is essential to carefully plan how to maintain relationships with all the stakeholder groups.
First, the museums should cultivate a relationship with the public institutions and bodies, which can
bring great benefits (especially in terms of funding and regulations) if the proposed cultural activities
are perceived as valuable. Second, the relationship with journalists, mass media, opinion leaders and
influencers should be nurtured. Especially the last category of stakeholders has become crucial. For
instance, a post on MUDEC by the fashion influences Chiara Ferragni in 2017 obtained more ‘likes’
than any other post of the museum. Indeed, mass media and influencers can provide museums with free
publicity and contribute to the development of a strong reputation, by publishing positive reviews on the
organization, and increasing its notoriety and success. Third, the relations with sponsors must be taken
care of, since they can become true partners of the museum, contributing to its initiatives on an ongo-
ing basis. Finally, museums must maintain excellent relations with donors, who, together with partners
and sponsors, are key figures for the implementation of museum initiatives (especially in the case of
renovation and structural changes) and for the extension of the collections. In all these relationships, a
critical role is played by the brand, which functions as connective tissue inspiring and informing all the
museums activities.
CONCLUSION
As primary memory institutions, museums are currently called to revise their strategies to meet the
expectations of an increasingly dynamic and globalized audience. Globalization and technological
innovation have profoundly changed the world economy, disrupting many sectors, including the arts.
Consumers are more and more informed and independent, and would make informed decisions about
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goods or services to purchase. Among the myriad of organizations offering leisure, educational and
cultural options in the market, individuals will stick to those with which they can build a relationship.
A relational logic, based on a brand orientation, has, therefore, become central for museums who wish
to survive in an increasingly competitive market.
A brand should reflect the mission of the museum, its distinctive personality and style of collect-
ing and interpreting works of art, so that visitors, donors and volunteers will perceive their value and
develop an indelible and consistent image of the museum in their minds. Museum brands should func-
tion as a “promise with which all members of the museum family must agree and to which they must
adhere” (Wallace, 2016, p. 12). Brands should talk about the mission of the museum to all the people
who come into contact with the organization. Becoming brand-oriented means to make the brand the
connective tissue through which any type of museum activity is developed, from the public program-
ming to advocacy initiatives.
A brand orientation, however, does not imply that a museum should adopt a “corporatist growth models”
(Søndergaard & Veirum, 2012, p. 342) and manage its brand, for instance, by relying on expensive and
conventional temporary exhibitions over the permanent collection. Museum brands should be based on
the “total interaction with the public” (Wallace, 2016, p. 6), which consists in creating and maintaining
a set of programs and attitudes that issue a clear proposal, able to develop visitors’ familiarity and favor
their continuous support. Branding orientation means that museums should provide a branded visitor
experience defined as “a bundle of services, including not only viewing and engaging with artefacts,
pictures, and buildings, but also ancillary services such as catering, car parking and retailing” (Johnson
and Thomas, 1998, p. 77). This means that museums will have to make their collections more accessible
and “allow people to generate, reuse and add value to content, enhancing the value of cultural collec-
tions” (European Commission, 2014, p. 5/6).
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388

Advocacy: The act of giving public support to an idea, a behavior, or a specific initiative; it is a
political process by an individual or group of people who aim to influence public policies or the alloca-
tion of resources for a project.
Brand: The unique and distinctive sign and value system identifying an organization, or a product.
Embodies the very essence of the organization and is the expression of the identity, mission and com-
pany’s values.
Crowdfunding: A type of fundraising; a collaborative process through which a group of individuals
financially support a cause or an initiative. It is a bottom-up microfinance practice that mobilizes people
and resources. It can be used to support different causes, including arts projects.
Fundraising: The action of raising money to support or finance a project or a cause. It is mainly
used by nonprofit organizations.
Promotion: All the communication activities aimed at stimulating the demand of a company’s prod-
ucts. Promotion is not only aimed at incentivizing purchases, but also at influencing consumer perception
of the company and its products, helping to consolidate the brand image and to foster consumer loyalty.
Public Programming: A calendar of museum-related events, including exhibitions, conversations,
guided tours, projections, educational and performance events that complete the artistic offering of the
museum and emphasize the multidisciplinary, open and transversal character of art.
389
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About the Contributors
Patrick Ngulube, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Interdisciplinary Research and Postgradu-
ate Studies at the University of South Africa (UNISA). He is also an Honorary Professor at the Univer-
sity of KwaZulu-Natal and a Visiting Professor at the National University of Science and Technology,
Zimbabwe and Midlands State University, Zimbabwe. His research interests include research design and
methodology, indigenous knowledge systems, knowledge management, records management, applica-
tion of information and communication technologies, e-government, and the preservation of access to
information. He has published a number of articles in scientific journals on various subjects including
field methods and indigenous knowledge systems. He is a National Research Foundation of South Af-
rica rated established researcher. He serves on a number of boards, most notably the chairperson of the
National Archives Advisory Council of the National Archives and Records Service of South Africa and
member of the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) of South Africa.
***
Annie Antonites, PhD, obtained her doctorate in Archaeology from Yale University in 2014. She is
responsible for the Heritage Foundation’s research service regarding publications, inquiries, specialist
archaeo-zoological analysis and other research services. She serves on the Council of the Association
of Southern African Professional Archaeologists and is a member of the South African Association of
Cultural History. Dr. Antonites is also a research fellow in the Department of Anthropology and Archae-
ology, University of South Africa.
Sindiso Bhebhe is working as a Principal Archivist at the National Archives of Zimbabwe. He is cur-
rently studying for his PhD in Information Science at the University of South Africa. He is a researcher
and a published author. He is also an Africa Team Member of the International Research on Permanent
Authentic Records in Electronic Systems [InterPARES] Trust.
Forget Chaterera has nine years of teaching and research experience in archival science, documenta-
tion of cultural property, and museum studies. She is a holder of a Doctoral of Literature and Philosophy
in Information Science, Master of Information Science, Master of Arts in Museum Studies, Bachelor of
Arts Honours Degree in Archaeology, and Postgraduate Diploma in Tertiary Education. She is currently
a lecturer at the National University of Science and Technology in the Department of Information Stud-
ies. She is also the Zimbabwe’s research lead for the InterPARES Project Africa Team.

Josiline Chigwada is the Sub-Librarian responsible for the reader and information services at Bindura
University of Science Education Library. She has worked in university libraries since September 2006.
She holds a Master of Science Degree in Library and Information Science from the National University
of Science and Technology – Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. She is a PhD candidate at The University of South
Africa. Her research interests are research data management, indigenous knowledge systems, Generation
X, Y and Z, open access, reference services, marketing library products and services, digital libraries, and
the changing role of librarians. She has vast experience in academic librarianship and her career is centred
on academic and special libraries. She has presented in various national and international conferences.
Blessing Chiparausha is a Deputy Librarian at the Bindura University of Science Education,

Zimbabwe. His major role is library information technology (IT). He holds a BSc (Hons) Library and
Information Science and MSc Library and Information Science degrees from the National University
of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. He has keen interest in indigenous knowledge sys-
tems, open access, digital libraries, and electronic information services. As a member of the Zimbabwe
Library Association, he presented in various conferences in Zimbabwe and in Africa and had managed
to publish quite a number of articles in peer reviewed journals.
Andrea Copeland is the Chair of the Department of Library and Information Science in the School
of Informatics and Computing at Indiana University in Indianapolis. Her research focus is public libraries
and their relationship with communities. Her current emphasis centers on connecting the cultural outputs
of individuals and community groups to a sustainable preservation infrastructure. She is the co-editor of
a recent volume, Participatory Heritage, which explores the many ways that people participate in cultural
heritage activities outside of formal institutions. It also examines the possibility of making connections to
those institutions to increase access and the chance of preservation for the tangible outputs that result from
those activities. The Bethel Archive Project at IUPUI has greatly informed her knowledge in this area.
Roberta Ghilardi graduated in Economics and Management of Arts and Culture from the Catholic
University of Sacred Heart, Milan, with a final mark of 110/110 cum laude. Her dissertation analyzed
museum branding strategies, based on research work conducted at Museo del Novecento, Milan. She
worked as an intern at Intesa Sanpaolo Bank before joining the Sustainability Services of Deloitte Italy,
where she is currently employed. Her research interests include arts and culture management, arts mar-
kets and branding. She is one of the authors of The Art and Collectibles Market - Report 2018 (Deloitte,
2018). Her work has also been published on Art & Law.
Trywell Kalusopa was rated by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa as an
established researcher and senior academic in information science with specialisation in: labour market
information systems, digital records management; digital archives management and digital preservation.
He has an impressive and sustained research profile evidenced by an array of several refereed journal
articles; edited books, book chapters, public conference papers, technical policy reports and non-refereed
monographs with a wide geographical spread of international, regional and national coverage. Has abun-
dant experience in examining, mentoring and supervising PhDs as well as master’s students in different
universities in Southern Africa, namely: University of Zambia (UNZA), University of Botswana (UB),
445
University of South Africa (UNISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, University of Fort Hare, University
of Cape Town (UCT), University of Western Cape, University of Zululand (UNIZULU), National Uni-
versity of Science & Technology (NUST), Zimbabwe) and University of Namibia (UNAM). Currently
works as associate professor in the Department of Information and Communication Studies, University
of Namibia.
Segomotso Keakopa is a Senior Lecturer and Electronic Records Management Consultant in the
Department of Library and Information Studies.
Njabulo Bruce Khumalo is a holder of a Master of Philosophy degree in Records and Archives
Management from the University of Science and Technology. He has published papers and book chap-
ters covering areas such as health information systems, freedom of information, records and archives
management, archival education and professionalism, standards in records and archives management and
the application of technology in information management. Mr. Khumalo has also presented a number
of papers in local, regional and international conferences. He is also a member of the Oral History As-
sociation of South Africa (OHASA).
Margaret Zelman Law is a researcher, writer, and frequent speaker in a variety of areas related
to the management of libraries. She is a Librarian Emeritus of the University of Alberta, Canada. She
contributes to global library development by volunteering as a trainer in developing countries and is
an instructor in library programs at the University of Alberta and MacEwan University. In addition to
a Master of Library Science, she holds a Master of Business Administration and a Doctor of Business
Administration.
Makatleho Amelia Mafube is an archivist at the Library Archives of the National University of
Lesotho. She holds a masters in Archives from the University of Botswana and Theology. From the Uni-
versity of Lesotho. Her research interests include archives, indigenous knowledge and heritage studies.
Marta Massi, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at the Catholic University of the Sacred
Heart, Milan, Italy. She has been a visiting scholar at Deakin University, Australia and McGill University,
Canada. Her research interests include country-of-origin, branding and arts and culture marketing. Her
work has been has published on national and international journals, including the Journal of Consumer
Affairs and the International Journal of Technology Management.
Rosemary Maturure is a Library Director at Solusi University in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. She has
worked in School libraries and academic libraries since 1996. She has been a Library Director since
2007 at Solusi University. She holds a master’s degree in Library and Information Science from National
University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe. She completed her PhD in Library and Information
Studies at University of Botswana last year and will be graduating in 2018. Her research interests are
records management, marketing advocacy, library management, monitoring and evaluation of library
services, provision of library services to physically challenged students, digital libraries and Generation
X, Y and Z. Her hobbies are traveling and reading.
446
Kgomotso H. Moahi is an Associate Professor in the Department of Library and Information Studies
at the University of Botswana. She has worked at the University of Botswana as an academic, as well as
in administration, as a Departmental Chair, Dean of Faculty, and as acting Vice Chancellor. Her areas
of research are in indigenous knowledge systems, health information systems, information literacy, and
new technologies in library and information work.
Tshepho Mosweu is a Lecturer at the Department of Library and Information Studies at the Univer-
sity of Botswana. Prior to that, she worked at the Botswana National Archives and Records Services as
Archivist and later on as the Head of a Records Centre (Kanye Records Centre). She has a bachelor’s
degree in Social Sciences (BA) and a master’s degree in Archives and Records Management (MA) both
from the University of Botswana. She is currently a Doctoral Degree candidate in Information Science
at the University of South Africa. Tshepho Mosweu is also a researcher at InterPARES Trust, Team
Africa, a multi-disciplinary and multinational research project based in Canada concerned with digital
records entrusted to the Internet. She is also a member of Regional and International bodies in the field
of archives and records management, being ICA, ESARBICA, South African Society of Archivists as
well as Records and Information Association of Botswana. She has written and presented academic
papers on digital records, liquid communication and Cloud- Computing.
Jonathan Mukwevho is an Archival Consultant at the Auditor-General of South Africa. He is a

Master of Information Science graduate from the University of South Africa. The focus area of his study
was on advocacy, outreach and public programming in archives and (electronic) records management.
He continues to contribute in scholarly work both in South Africa and internationally.
Bongani Ndhlovu, a research fellow at the Centre for Humanities Research, University of the Western
Cape and the Executive Director: Core Functions at Iziko Museums of South Africa. He has a PhD in
History and has been involved in the heritage sector for more than 20 years. Ndhlovu has worked as a
cultural historian, Chief Curator, Deputy Manager and Director for a number of museums in South Africa
and has served on ICOM-SA and ICMAH boards, among others. His research interests are memory,
heritage, history and biographies.
Johan Nel offers strategic guidance and direction for the Heritage Foundation’s heritage conserva-
tion department. He liaises with authorities and communities, and deals with logistical and financial
management and all legal aspects on behalf of the Heritage Foundation. He also coordinates all conser-
vation management projects and community awareness programmes. He holds an Honours degree in
Archaeology from the University of Pretoria and is a member of the Association of Southern African
Professional Archaeologists and ICOMOS.
Mpho Ngoepe, PhD, is a National Research Foundation Y2-rated researcher. He is a national com-
mittee member of the South African Society of Archivists (2009-2017), Board member of the Eastern
and Southern Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (2009-2017) and the Council
member of Gauteng Provincial Archives (2015-2017). He has published widely on archives and records
management, as well as three award winning anthologies of Northern Sotho short stories. He is the edi-
tor of two journals, ESARBICA and SASA Journal. Prof Ngoepe is the Director of the African Team
for InterPARES Trust project. InterPARES Trust Project is an international project coordinated by the
447
University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada from 2013 - 2018. Prof Ngoepe is the 2004/05
IVAISLP/SABINET information officer of the year. In 2007 he was recognised by the South African
Human Rights Commission and the Open Democracy Advice Centre for implementation of PAIA in
the Auditor-General SA. He is also the alumnus of the year 2015 for the Department of Information
Science at Unisa.
Beatrice Ngulube holds a PhD from the University of South Africa. She is lecturer in Department of
Maths Science and Business Education at the Tshwane University of Technology in South Africa. Her
research interests are in curriculum development and field methods. She has community engagement
projects in curriculum development and school libraries.
Olefhile Mosweu is currently working as Head of Corporate Records Management Services at the
Civil Aviation Authority of Botswana. He has a Masters in Archives and Records Management from
the University of Botswana. He is currently doing a PhD in Information Science at the University of
South Africa, South Africa. He is a published author and has published several peer reviewed papers and
chapters in reputable journals and publishing houses. His research interests are digital records manage-
ment, archival education, the use of ICTs to manage archives and records and archival diplomatics. He
is a member of InterPARES Trust Team Africa and has presented in local and international conferences.
Chiara Piancatelli is a PhD candidate in Management & Innovation at Università Cattolica del
Sacro Cuore. She holds a Master of Science degree in Management from Bocconi University and is cur-
rently working as a Research Associate at CENTRIMARK, the Catholic University Marketing Research
Centre and as a Research Fellow at Bocconi University. She is has been a visiting scholar at Deakin
University, Australia. Her marketing research focuses on the impact of digital technology on arts and
cultural organizations.
Antonio Rodrigues is an Associate Professor at the University of South Africa in the Department of
Information Science. He holds a DLitt et Phil in Information Science, Master’s in Library and Informa-
tion Studies, H Dip Lib, Post graduate Diploma in Education and Training and a BA (Hons) Archival
Science. He is currently teaching Archives and Records Management. His fields of academic interests
are Archives and Records Management, Under-documented communities, Multicultural librarianship
and Community archives.
Umali Saidi, PhD, is a Lecturer in the Communication Skills Centre, Midlands State University,
Zimbabwe. His areas of research include Applied Linguistics, specifically, Semiotics, Communication,
Discourse Analysis, Onomastics, Cultural Studies and related fields. He is also very active in the supervi-
sion of post-graduate and undergraduate research in the same fields of studies. Further, he is a reviewer
of research articles with prominent academic journals in the country, region and beyond.
Nampombe Saurombe, Dr., is a senior lecturer with the Department of Information Science at the
University of South Africa. Her research interests include investigating public programming or outreach
strategies in east and southern Africa aimed at increasing the awareness about public archives in this re-
gion. She has published articles and presented papers on this topic at local and international conferences.
448
Ayoung Yoon, PhD, is an Assistant Professor at Indiana University School of Informatics and Comput-
ing (IUPUI), Department of Library and Information Science. She was a RDA/US data share fellow for
2016-2017. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and M.S.I. from the
University of Michigan. Her research areas include data curation, digital preservation, and data sharing/
reuse. She is particularly interested in building capacity for constructing effective cyberinfrastructure for
data sharing and reuse through proper curation and preservation practices. Currently she is conducting
several research projects focusing on communities’ needs of data sharing, reuse, and curation.
Patiswa Zibani is a Senior Information Specialist for E-resources and Research Impact at the National
Research Foundation (SA) and currently holds a Master’s degree in Arts Information Science from the
University of Zululand.
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450
Index
A C
Academic Archives 63, 66-67, 73, 76 Capacity Building 36, 39, 293
Academic Libraries 208, 261-277, 288 Collaboration 1, 8, 16-17, 20, 82, 88, 90, 101-104,
Accessibility 1-3, 5-6, 15-19, 21, 42, 47, 50, 52, 92, 108-118, 124, 201, 222-223, 238, 243-244, 248-
127, 133, 138, 171, 183-184, 314 251, 253, 299
Advocacy 17-18, 32, 36, 45, 50, 78-80, 83-84, 87, 91, Collective Memory 43, 160, 348, 353-354, 358-361
98, 102, 112, 176, 182, 186, 207-209, 211-212, Community Development 111, 144, 225, 237
215-216, 219-224, 228, 231-234, 237-246, 248, Community Libraries 111, 220, 246-248, 250, 260, 305
250, 253-254, 260, 297, 299, 312, 314, 320, 330- Crowdfunding 389
331, 338, 361, 366, 368, 374, 376-377, 381, 389 Cultural And Documentary Heritage 101, 103-104
Afrikaner Nationalism 349, 354, 365 Cultural Heritage 101-105, 107, 118, 124, 131, 149,
Architectural Heritage 348 160, 164, 182, 244, 248, 316, 319-320, 323, 330,
Archival Institutions 2, 23, 32-33, 42-46, 48, 50-54, 354, 371, 377, 380
56, 62-67, 71-73, 77-78, 81-83, 85, 87, 89-93, Cultural Organisations 161, 164, 175, 351, 360
105, 112-113, 125-131, 133, 135, 138-139, 146- Culture 3, 5, 7, 11, 14, 18, 34, 48, 87, 91, 109-110,
148, 160-166, 168-169, 171-173, 175, 182-187, 114, 124, 145-146, 155, 160-161, 183, 207, 225,
197-198 239, 242, 247, 252, 265, 285-290, 292-294, 300,
Archives 1, 3, 5-21, 23, 30-34, 39, 42-56, 61-73, 76-77, 303, 305, 308, 318-321, 324-325, 329, 331, 336-
79-84, 87-93, 98-99, 101-103, 105-106, 108-110, 337, 339-340, 342-344, 354, 367, 370-371, 373
112-113, 115, 124-139, 144-148, 150, 152, 154- Customer Service 10, 63, 65-67, 206, 211-212, 214-216
156, 160-176, 181, 183-188, 192-194, 196-198,
201, 203-204, 248, 250, 319, 329, 333, 342 D
Archives 2.0 137, 139
Digital Age 263, 271-272, 284, 287-289, 291-293, 296
B Digital Divide 162, 164-167, 181, 252, 288, 292
Digital Environment 117, 261, 284, 290-294
Banding 237 Digital Era 2, 182, 186, 197, 262-263, 287, 292, 296
Batho Pele Theory 98 Document Analysis 62, 132, 144, 148
BaTonga 314-315, 318-319, 321, 323, 325-328, 330- Documentary Heritage 42-48, 51, 54, 61, 89, 101-
331 104, 124-126, 128, 130, 133, 139, 143, 161,
Bethel AME Church 33-34, 36 167, 183-184
Blue Ocean Strategy 84-85
Botswana 9, 48-49, 64, 71, 87, 101, 103, 106, 108-113, E
116-117, 161, 167-168, 182-185, 187-188, 193,
197-198, 203, 223, 225, 246-249, 251, 271 Education 2, 5-6, 8-9, 18, 20, 38, 52-53, 69, 103, 107,
Brand 16, 166, 207, 233, 366-369, 371-373, 375-381, 110, 127, 153, 162, 167, 225, 237, 239, 246-249,
389 252, 262, 270, 273, 283, 285, 294, 296-302,
Bulawayo Archives and Records Centre 144-145 304-308, 312, 319, 325, 330, 337-338, 361, 367,
369-370, 377-378

Index
Education Resources 299, 312 L

Educational Programmes 8, 17, 81, 358, 360-362
Engagement 3, 5, 8-9, 17, 20, 103, 192, 194, 196, 206, Legal instruments 48, 51
238, 241, 243-244, 249-253, 334, 336-338, 340, Libraries 3, 32, 34, 39, 67, 80, 83, 87, 90, 101-102,
343-345, 358, 367-368, 372 105-106, 108, 111, 113-114, 124, 129, 161,
E-resources 261-267, 270-277, 283 164-165, 172-173, 184-186, 206-216, 220-225,
ESARBICA 2, 18, 51, 64-66, 72, 84, 87, 105-106, 110, 228-229, 231-234, 239-254, 260-277, 284-294,
131, 135, 147, 160-163, 167-173, 175-176, 184 296-308, 319, 333
Ethics 38, 46-47, 90-91, 98, 222, 343 Library Advocacy 206-207, 215, 222, 228, 240, 260
Exhibition 7, 102, 133, 149, 324, 336-343, 345 Library Associations 219-225, 228-229, 231-234, 237,
Expert 8, 341 242, 246, 250, 285
Library Outreach 240, 260, 274
F Library Professionals 244, 284, 296
Library Services 3, 34, 106, 111, 115, 220, 222, 224-
Facebook 9, 11, 18, 20, 23, 82, 107, 112, 136-137, 225, 228, 241, 243, 247-249, 251-253, 260, 264,
154, 161-163, 167-172, 175, 184, 186-197, 201, 269, 272, 274, 284, 288, 290-293, 296, 300
231, 237, 287, 291, 296 Lieu de Mémoire 353, 358-360
Framework 1-6, 13, 15-16, 18-19, 36, 46, 50, 105, Life-Long Learning 299, 308
108-109, 132, 182, 192, 197, 221, 238-239,
250-251, 253, 260, 286, 289, 300-301, 328, 331, M
337, 342, 361
Fundraising 55, 90, 248, 376, 379, 389 Marketing 9, 69, 72, 79, 81-82, 92, 99, 102, 106, 112,
115, 135, 154-156, 172, 174, 182-185, 187-188,
G 190, 192, 194, 196-198, 203-204, 206-212, 215,
240-241, 244, 249, 261-277, 283, 290, 296, 349,
Great Trek 349-351, 354, 359-360, 365 360, 367-376, 380
Memory 1, 13, 18, 32, 39, 43, 63, 77-78, 80, 84-90, 98,
H 101-105, 108-118, 124, 145, 160, 208, 314-321,
323-325, 327-331, 333, 342, 348-349, 353-355,
Heritage 31-36, 38-40, 42-48, 51, 54, 61, 78, 80, 82, 87, 358-362, 366-367, 369, 378, 380
89-90, 101-105, 107, 109, 113, 116, 118, 124-126, Memory Institutions 1, 32, 77-78, 84-90, 101-105,
128, 130-131, 133, 139, 143, 149, 155-156, 160- 108-109, 111-118, 124, 145, 208, 314-315, 317-
161, 164, 167, 182-185, 244, 247-248, 314-331, 320, 323, 328, 330-331, 333, 361, 367, 369, 380
334, 337, 340-341, 344, 348, 352-355, 358-362, Model C Schools 312
365, 367, 369-371, 373, 377, 380 Museum Branding 366, 369, 379
Heritage Institutions 31-36, 39, 161, 182, 315-317, Museums 32, 34, 39, 80, 83, 90, 101-105, 107-108,
324-327, 329-331, 344 110, 113-114, 124, 129, 161, 164-165, 173, 185,
215, 315-317, 319, 323-325, 328-329, 333-344,
I 347, 366-381
Ideology 42, 316, 321, 328, 331, 365

Information Professionals 63, 106, 171, 222, 237,
N
293, 296 National archives 2-3, 5, 7-9, 13, 16, 18, 43, 48, 52, 55,
Interviews 1, 8, 33, 36, 62, 68, 110, 132-133, 168, 90, 102, 105-106, 109-110, 112, 115, 125-126,
182-183, 185, 215, 297, 301-302, 366, 368, 375 131, 133-135, 146-148, 150, 154-156, 160-163,
167-173, 175-176, 183-184, 187, 193, 198, 203
National Archives of Zimbabwe 48, 90, 125, 133-134,
146, 148, 150, 154, 156
National Heritage Site 348, 353, 365
451
Index
O R
Outreach 7, 12, 18, 65, 67-68, 78-80, 82-83, 92, 98, 102, Records 2-3, 5-7, 10, 12-20, 30, 32, 34, 43-45, 48-53,
105-107, 110-112, 114-115, 124-125, 127-129, 61-67, 69, 71, 73, 76, 78, 81, 90, 102, 109-110,
133, 135, 137-139, 160-161, 167-168, 170, 182- 112-114, 126, 130, 133-134, 136-137, 144-155,
188, 190, 192, 194, 196-198, 203-204, 232, 238- 160, 163, 167, 170, 182-185, 188, 192-193, 198,
244, 246-248, 250, 253-254, 260, 274, 314-315 201, 203, 219, 237, 296
Reference Services 51-53, 61, 68, 79, 82-83, 103, 115,
P 131, 136, 163, 185, 241, 243, 291-292, 296
Relationship Marketing 206, 380
Parrhêsiastic 335, 347 Reputation 10, 16, 19, 90, 112, 186, 206, 208-216,
Participative Citizenry 335, 347 362, 375, 380
Participatory Heritage 31, 39-40 Research Inquiry Sheets 148, 159
Place of Memory 349, 353, 358-359 Rural Libraries 247
Policymakers 219, 228, 230-232, 234, 237 Rural School 302-303, 306, 312
Preservation 15, 32, 34-35, 39-40, 42, 44-45, 47-48,
53-54, 61, 73, 78, 80, 82, 89, 91, 101-102, 104- S
105, 107, 110, 113, 124, 126, 152, 155, 187, 201,
248, 275, 318, 324-326, 328, 330-331, 344 School Librarians 301, 305-306, 312
Privacy 48-51, 170-172, 182, 184, 187, 192-193, School Libraries 290, 297-308, 312
198, 292 Social Media 5, 9-10, 18-20, 23, 82, 106-107, 110,
Processing 47, 51, 61, 65, 139, 145, 147, 187 112, 117, 130-131, 136, 143, 154-156, 160-176,
Professionals 34, 36, 38-39, 42, 52, 63, 72, 82, 106, 171, 182-188, 190, 192-194, 196-198, 201-204, 207,
186, 222-223, 237, 244, 249-251, 253, 276, 284, 215, 228, 231-234, 237, 245, 247, 263, 277, 284-
290-291, 293, 296, 305, 325, 334-335, 340-343 285, 287-288, 290-291, 293, 296, 375
Promoting Archives 15, 78, 164, 166-167, 174, 192 Social Media Platforms 9, 82, 107, 154, 156, 160-163,
Promotion 9, 14-15, 19-20, 48, 78-80, 89-91, 98, 112, 167-169, 171-174, 182-188, 190, 192, 194, 196-
170, 181-182, 185-186, 206, 208, 212, 240-241, 198, 202-204, 231, 233, 284, 287, 291
244, 248, 261, 263, 265, 270, 274, 277, 283, 286, Social Networking 82-83, 171, 183, 185-187, 192-193,
289, 296, 300, 314-315, 330, 337, 361, 366, 368, 198, 201-202, 232, 237, 274
370, 374-375, 389 Soft Power 1-6, 15-20
Provincial archives 3, 7, 10-14, 82, 87, 99 South African Native National Congress 337, 347
Public Archives Repository 8, 30 Sphere 8, 252, 319, 334-335, 338, 341-342
Public Libraries 83, 87, 102, 106, 111, 207, 209, State 3, 7, 10-12, 14, 19, 34, 36, 49, 64, 67, 69, 115,
222-223, 225, 232, 238-249, 251-254, 260, 286, 150-151, 161, 163, 166-167, 172, 190, 196, 211,
293, 305 222, 240-241, 243, 252, 273, 301-303, 305, 307-
Public Library 34, 83, 102, 208, 211, 220, 223, 239- 308, 320, 328-330, 333-340, 342-344, 347, 360,
244, 246-248, 253, 260 365, 368-369, 371, 373, 375, 378
Public Programming 1, 3, 9, 11-20, 30, 47, 77-83, Strategy 7, 9, 14-15, 20, 79, 81, 83-87, 91, 99, 103, 111,
85-93, 98-99, 101-118, 124-131, 133-135, 137- 127, 133, 135, 137, 160, 168, 171, 173-174, 192,
139, 143, 154-156, 161-165, 167-172, 174-176, 196-197, 211, 216, 228, 237-238, 240, 248, 250,
182-183, 196-198, 201, 238-241, 243-244, 246, 264, 267, 269-270, 276, 339, 368, 372-375, 378
248, 253, 260, 314-315, 361, 366, 368, 374, 377- Sustainable Development 167, 219-221, 225, 237,
378, 381, 389 243, 289, 331
Public Programming Audit 98 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 167, 221,
237, 243
452
Index
T V
Technocratisation of Museums Processes 347 Visibility 1-3, 5-6, 8-9, 14-21, 79, 88-89, 106, 112-
Tenderpreneur 347 113, 125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 135, 137-138, 161,
Township School 303, 305-307, 312 168-169, 182-184, 186, 188, 203, 233, 240-242,
Trustworthiness 210-211, 214, 373, 376 245, 250-251, 277, 292, 321, 323, 325
U W
Ubuntu Theory 98 Web 2.0 107, 126, 130-131, 135, 137, 143, 162, 166,
Universities 67-68, 262, 271-273, 275-276, 374 186, 197, 274, 290
University 18, 34, 40, 53, 62-73, 76, 90, 107, 135, Web 2.0 Technologies 107, 126, 130-131, 135, 197
197, 208-209, 220, 222, 231, 247, 262, 264-267,
271-273, 275, 283, 322, 339 Z
Zimbabwe Library Association (ZIMLA) 287, 289, 296
453

(Advances in Public Policy and Administration) Patrick Ngulube (Editor) - Handbook of Research On Advocacy, Promotion, and Public Programming For Memory Institutions-IGI Global (2019)

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(Advances in Public Policy and Administration) Patrick Ngulube (Editor) - Handbook of Research On Advocacy, Promotion, and Public Programming For Memory Institutions-IGI Global (2019)

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Handbook of Research on

Advocacy, Promotion, and

A volume in the Advances in Public Policy and

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com.

Handbook of Research on Military Expenditure on Economic and Political Resources

Handbook of Research on Examining Global Peacemaking in the Digital Age

Positioning Markets and Governments in Public Management

Establishing Food Security and Alternatives to International Trade in Emerging Economies

Smart Technologies for Emergency Response and Disaster Management

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA

Maned Mhlongo, University of South Africa, South Africa

Antonites, Annie R / The Heritage Foundation, South Africa........................................................... 348

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 390

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 444

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 390

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 444

THE USE OF CONCEPT OF SOFT POWER AS A FRAMEWORK IN THIS STUDY

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of concept of soft power

THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY

Cultural Strategies to Improve the Image of Archives

Leadership Qualities Required at All Levels to

Educational Programmes as Interactive Tools for Public Engagement

Adoption of Social Media as an Innovative Tool to Promote Archives

Table 1. Employees in the institution and in public programming section

Total Number of Archivists in the Number of Archivists in Public

Table 2. Respondents and non-respondents to the survey

Public Repository Sample Respondents Non-Respondents

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This section presents findings of the study.

Legislation Governing Archives and Records Management in South Africa

The legislative framework on archives is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents

Cultural Strategies Adopted to Improve the Image of Archives

Inclusion of Public Programming in Strategic Objectives

Visibility of Public Archives Landmarks

Most Important and Effective Public Programming Activities

Leadership Qualities Required at All Levels to

Knowledge of Archives and Records Management as an Important

Collaboration With Good Partner as Key for Successful Public Programming

The Message Communicated Increase Knowledge and

Educational Programmes as Interactive Tools for Public Engagement

Recognition of the Importance of Education and Training in

Adoption of Social Media as an Innovative Tool to Promote Archives

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

The study proposes future studies for prospective researchers as follows:

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Archives and Underrepresented Histories

Case Study: The Bethel Project

Qualitative Study of Individuals Working in a Third-Party Capacity

Methods for Building Connectivity and Capacity

Roles Embraced by Interviewees

Capacity Building and Participatory Heritage

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

CONCEPTUALISING DOCUMENTARY HERITAGE

• To provide an overview of access and use of archives from a global perspective

AN OVERVIEW OF ACCESS TO AND USE OF ARCHIVES

INTERNATIONAL PROTOCOLS ON ACCESS TO ARCHIVES

International Council on Archives (ICA) Principles of Access to Archives

ICA Universal Declaration on Archives

• The unique quality of archives

ICA Archivists’ Code of Ethics

• Archivists should protect the integrity of archival material.

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com.