DEE20023

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

CHAPTER 1

SEMICONDUCTOR
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 All matters on earth made of atoms (made up of elements or
combination of elements).
 All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
 An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.
 According to Bohr, atoms have a planetary structure that consists of a
central nucleus, surrounded by orbiting electrons.
 Nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
 Bohr’s Atomic Structure
 The ability of a material to conduct current is based
on its atomic structure.
 The orbit paths of the electrons surrounding the nucleus
are called shells.
 Each shell has a defined number of electrons it will hold.(2xn2)
Ex:Copper:2.8.18.1 (electron valence)
 The outer shell is called the valence shell and electrons at this layer are
called valence electrons.
• The orbit paths of the electrons surrounding the
nucleus are called shells.
• Each shell has a defined number of electrons it will
hold.(2xn2)
Ex:Copper:2.8.18.1 (electron valence)
• The outer shell is called the valence shell and
electrons at this layer are called valence electrons.
• Maximum number of valence electron is 8

The valence shell determines the ability of

material to conduct current.
• Copper atom has only 1 electron • Silicon atom has 4 electrons in its
in its valence ring. This makes it a valence ring. This makes it a
good conductor. semiconductor.
Insulators, conductors and
semiconductors
INSULATORS

A material that does not conduct electrical current

under normal conditions.

Contains 5 to 8 e.v

Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.

Ex: rubber, plastic, glass, mica, quartz.

 CONDUCTORS

A material that easily conduct electrical current.

Contains 1 to 3 e.v

Most metal are good conductor.

Ex: copper (Cu), silver (Ag), aluminium (Al)

SEMICONDUCTORS

A material that is between conductors and

insulators.

Contains 4 e.v

A semiconductor in its pure state is neither a

good conductor nor good insulator.

Ex: antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), Silicon (Si),

Germanium (Ge)
CONDUCTOR :
 An atom of a material carries 1 to 3 valence electrons.
 Low resistance, therefore current can flow
 the atom has more tendency to lose its valence electrons which become free
electron (Copper,Aluminium)

INSULATOR :
 An atom of a material carries 5 to 8 valence electron
 High resistance, could not conduct current
 The atom has more tendency to gain free electrons to complete its
shell. ( Argon, Neon)

SEMICONDUCTOR :
 An atom of a material carries 4 valence electrons,
 A material that has a conductivity level somewhere between a
conductor and an insulator.
 It is not easy for the atom to lose or gain any electrons. (Silicon,
Germanium, Carbon)
13
CONDUCTOR
3 ELECTROVALENCE

16
INSULATOR
6 ELECTROVALENCE

14
SEMICONDUCTOR
4 ELECTROVALENCE
COVALENT BOND
 In a pure silicon or germanium crystal, the four valence electrons of
one atom form a bonding arrangement with four adjoining atoms.
 This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is
called covalent bonding – a method by which atoms complete their
valence shell by sharing valence electrons with other atoms

The atoms are

electrically stable
because their
valence
shells are
complete.
 CONDUCTOR IN SEMICONDUCTOR :
 When an intrinsic silicon crystal gains
sufficient heat (thermal energy), some valence
electrons could break their covalent bonds to
jump the gap into conduction band, becoming
free electrons.
 Free electrons are also called conduction
electrons, (negative charge).
 This vacancy in the valence band is called a
hole (positive charge).
 For every electron raised to the conduction
band, there is 1 hole in the valence band
creating – electron-hole pair.
 When a conduction electron loses energy and
falls back into a hole, this is called
recombination.
 With the existence of holes and electrons,
current can be produced when a voltage is
applied across the terminals.
 Covalent Bond makes each of the atoms stable and
their bonds firm.

 It will behave as if insulation at room temperature.

 However, there are several factors that can disturb

the stability of the atom :
i. Heat
ii. Potential Difference
ii. Temperature Increment
iv. Doping / Absorption Process
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR

 Intrinsic (pure) materials are those semiconductors that have been carefully
refined to reduce the impurities to a very low level.
 Intrinsic (pure) Si and Ge are poor conductor due partially to the number of
valence electrons, covalent bonding and relatively large energy gap.
 Extrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have been subjected to
doping process and no longer pure.
 Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic Si or Ge to
improve the conductivity of the semiconductor.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 There are two types of semiconductor material that are subjected to doping
process which are :
a) N-type Extrinsic
b) P-type Extrinsic
 Two types of elements used for doping are :
a) Pentavalent – element that has five valence electrons
b) Trivalent – element that has three valence electrons
 N type

 N-type is created by adding pentavalent impurity atoms – Arsenic (As),

phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), Antimoni into a pure Si or Ge base.
 Pentavalent also known as donor atoms since they donate electrons.
 Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bond with 4 adjacent Si atom
 Since only 4 electrons are needed to form a covalent bond, leaving an extra
electron – becomes a free electron when each pentavalent atom is added.
 In n-type material electrons are majority carrier, and holes the minority
carrier
 P type
 P-type is created by adding trivalent impurity atoms –Indium, Aluminum,
Boron, Gallium into a pure Si or Ge base.
 Trivalent also known as acceptor atoms since they accept electrons.
 Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bond with 4 adjacent Si atom
 Since only 4 electrons are needed to form a covalent bond, leaving an
extra hole – becomes a positive charge when each trivalent atom is added.
 In p-type material holes are majority carrier, and free electrons the minority
carrier
Similarities between N-type and P-type materials :
Class Activity :
1. Draw an atomic structure diagram for Germanium which has no atom
32, and Silicon having atomic number 14. And state the nature of
the materials.
2. What is the Covalent Bond? Draw a diagram showing the Covalent
Bond for Germanium.
3. State 4 factors that allow electrons to be free from Covalent bond.
4. In order to allow N type material to be produced, pure semiconductor
should be absorbed by the impurities. What is the impulse? Explain
each one and give an example diagram describing the pure
semiconductor that is absorbed by one of the impurities.
5. State the majority and minority carriers of N and P type materials.
 Draw an atomic structure diagram for Germanium which has
no atom 32, and Silicon having atomic number 14. And state
the nature of the materials.

Both materials are half conductors because they have four valence electrons.

The nature of the material is that it is not easy to release electrons as easy as
conductors and it is also not easy to receive electrons as easy as insulation.
 What is the Covalent Bond? Draw a diagram showing the
Covalent Bond for Germanium.

The Covalent bond is the process of electron valence sharing of an atom with the valence
electrons of its neighboring atom to make the one of the atoms stable..
 State 4 factors that allow electrons to be free from Covalent
bond.

i. Heat
ii. Potential Difference
ii. Temperature Increment
iv. Doping / Absorption Process
 What is the impulse? Explain each one

 Two types of elements (impurities) used for doping are :

a) Pentavalent – element that has five valence electrons (5 e.v)

b) Trivalent – element that has three valence electrons (3 e.v)

 Examples :

a) Pentavalent – Arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), Antimony

b) Trivalent – Indium, Aluminum, Boron, Gallium
Give an example diagram describing the pure semiconductor
that is absorbed by one of the impurities.
 State the majority and minority carriers of N and P type
materials.

 Type-N Material
Majority Carrier : Free Electrons (negative charge)
Minority Carrier : Holes

 Type-P Material
Majority Carrier: Holes (positive charge)
Minority Carrier : Free Electron
Review Questions :
1. What is a semiconductor?

2. Explain a covalent bonding.

3. What’s the difference between a pentavalent atom and a trivalent

atom?

4. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductors?

5. Explain the differences between p-type and n-type semiconductor.

6. What is the factor that differentiates whether the material is a

conductor, insulator or half conductor?
7. Atom __________ and ____________ contains 4 electron valens and it
is not ___________. It tries to be stable by ____________ electrons
with other atoms.

8. Intrinsic means ______________

9. Free electron is located in the ____________ Band.

10. The major carrier in an N-type material is ______

11. The doping process of antimony into silicon materials will result an a/
an __________ material.

12. Pentavalent materials have ___________ electron valence.

 P-N JUNCTION
 The P-N Junction is formed when p‐type region is joined with the n‐type region. This is a
basic structure forms a semiconductor diode.

 The n‐type region has many free electrons (majority carriers) and only a few thermally
generated holes.

 The p‐type region has many holes (majority carriers) and only a few thermally generated
free electrons (minority carriers).

 With the formation of the p and n materials, holes from p ‐type will diffuse into the n‐type,
and electrons from n‐type will diffuse into the p‐type. This process is called recombination.

 Combination of electrons and holes at the junction takes place.

N-type P-type

Movement of electron-hole
 The p‐region loses holes,
and become negatively
charged

 The n‐region loses electrons,

and become positively
charged

 This creates the depletion

region and has a barrier
potential

 The depletion region is a

region depleted of any
charge carriers
 What happen in P-N formation?
 N type electron – cross to P type
DEPLETION REGION
 This joint cause nearby atom to be
neutral (no current flow)

 Depletion region will be formed .

N P
TYPE TYPE
 Positive ion (P type) & negative ion (N
type) around the joint will cause
POTENTIAL
BARRIER potential difference between these two
materials

 It is called potential barrier (just like a

small battery)
 No bias
 In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any
one direction for a p-n junction is zero.

Note that the arrow is associated with

p-type component and the bar with the
n-type region. As indicated for VD=0V,
the current in any direction is 0 mA.
 Forward Bias condition (VD > 0V)

 The p-type material is connected to the positive terminal and the n-type is
connected to the negative terminal.

• Positive terminal of the battery will push the holes in the p-region towards the
junction.
• Hence, the recombination process occurs and the number of negative ion in the p-
region near the junction decreases.
• Negative terminal of the battery will push the free electron in the n-region towards
the junction and recombine with the positive ion.
• Hence, the number of positive ion decreases. As a result, the number of uncovered
ions is reduced and the width of the depletion region will also reduce.
• Since, the barrier potential is now reduced; electrons in n-type will be easily moved to
the p-region.
 Reverse Bias condition (VD< 0V)
 The p-type material is connected to the negative terminal and the n-type is
connected to the positive terminal.

• The positive terminal of the battery extracts free electrons from the n-
region and the negative terminal extracts free holes (positive ions) from
the p-region.
• The number of uncovered positive ion in the n-region and negative ions
in the p-region will increase. Hence, the width of the depletion region
increases.
• However, in real P-N junction, there is a small flow of current in the
reversed-biased mode.
• As the temperature is high enough, there will be a current exists is called
the reverse-saturation current, Is or leakage current
 Breakdown Voltage
 When a reverse-bias is applied to a p-n junction (diode), the electric field in
the depletion region increases.

 The electric field may become large enough that covalent bonds are
broken and electron hole pairs are created.

 Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are swept into the p-region
by the electric field, generating a large reverse current. This phenomenon
is called breakdown.

 This current can be limited by the external circuit. If this current is not
limited, a large Power can be dissipated in the junction that may damage
the device and cause burnout.
 Review
1. Draw and state the meaning of forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage supplied across a P-N junction

2. Identify the effects when a P-N junction is supplied with

forward biased voltage and reverse biased voltage on the
following items
a. Area of depletion region
b. Junction resistance
c. Current flow

3 Explain why breakdown occurs when P-N junction is reverse

biased.