General Forms of Research
The general forms of research define the purpose and
approach of the study. These are as follows:
1. Scientific research
a. A research method that seeks to
explain naturally occurring
phenomena in the natural world by
generating credible theories.
b. A systematic process; involves
formulating hypothesis, testing
predictions, using relevant data and
other scientific methods, and finally
coming up with a theory.
c. As such, this study requires rational
and statistical evidence to draw
conclusions.
2. Research in the humanities
a. Seeks to define the purpose of
human existence by tapping into
historical facts and future
possibilities.
b. Derive explanations from human
experiences that cannot simply be
measured by facts and figures
alone.
3. Artistic research
a. Provides alternative approaches to
established concepts by conducting
practical methods as substitutes for
fundamental and theoretical ones.
b. The main purpose is to expound on
current accepted concepts and
open them to further interpretation.
c. Does not necessarily mean artistic
—but rather a new kind of approach
the researcher assumes—the
researcher generates new
knowledge through artistic practices
such as defining new concepts,
creating new processes, and
devising new methods.
Regardless of the approach, the main goal of a study
remains the same—to further the current established
knowledge on different areas of study.
Research Design
The research design…
 Enables the researcher to organize the
components of the research in an orderly
and coherent manner. This will ensure the
research or study will effectively address the
research topic or problem.
 It is also a template for the measurement
and analysis of data.
 The research problem determines what
design will be used.
Having a well-developed research design enables the
researcher to achieve the following:
1. Clearly identify and describe the research
problem or topic, and justify the selection of
the appropriate design to be used.
2. Review and synthesize previous studies and
literature related to the topic.
3. Clearly identify hypotheses that are
significant to the problem.
4. Determine the data necessary to test the
hypotheses and explain how the data will be
obtained.
5. Describe the methods of analysis that will be
used on the data gathered in order to
evaluate the hypothesis of the study.
Examples of research designs include the
following:
1. Action research
a. Pragmatic and solution-driven;
appropriate for community-based
situations—requires the researcher
to relate with their subjects and the
community.
b. Follows a cyclical process
 c. First, the researcher identifies a
problem and determines a plan of
action to address it.
d. Then, the action plan is
implemented and data is gathered
to determine the effects.
e. The information gathered is then
analyzed to gain better
understanding of the problem and
determine the effectiveness of the
solution.
2. Causal design
a. Explores how a specific change
impacts a certain situation.
b. Employs hypotheses that seek to
establish cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.
3. Descriptive design
a. Answers who, what, when, where,
and how questions related to a
particular research problem.
b. Used to obtain information about
the present situation to gain an
understanding of a certain
phenomena.
4. Experimental design
a. The researcher controls the factors
and variables related to a certain
phenomena and tries to manipulate
these to see the effects.
5. Exploratory design
a. Focuses on topics or problems that
have had little or no studies done
about them.
b. The purpose is to gain information
and insight that can be used for
later researches.
6. Cohort design
a. Identifies a group of people sharing
common characteristics who are
then studied for a period of time.
b. Seeks to identify how these groups
are affected by certain factors and
relates this to the research problem.
7. Cross-sectional design
a. Looks into a larger group of people,
composed of individuals with varied
characteristics.
b. Seeks to determine how they are
affected by certain changes of
variables and gathers data for a
specific period of time.
8. Longitudinal design
a. Follows a group of people over a
long period of time.
b. Observations are made on the
group to track changes over time
and identify factors that may have
caused them.
c. Also explores causal relationships
over time and identify factors that
may have caused them.
9. Sequential design
a. Carried out in stages to gather
sufficient data to test the
hypothesis.
b. Often combined with a cohort or
cross-sectional study as it identifies
specific groups for each stage.
c. At the end of each stage, data is
collected and evaluated. If not
enough is collected, the researcher
proceeds to the next stage.
10. Mixed-method design
a. Combines aspects of various
research designs and methods.
b. Mostly qualitative and quantitative
research methods to gain a
complete picture of the research
problem and to determine the
validity of the hypothesis.
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
There are two broad categories of research
methodology: qualitative research and quantitative
research. The research method determines the
approach the researcher takes in identifying relevant
data for the research, and collecting and analyzing data rather than focusing on the testing of the
the information gathered in the research. hypotheses.

However, a major limitation of this model is its

Quantitative Research reductionist nature. It tends to reduce the human
Polit and Beck (2004) defines quantitative research as experience to just the few concepts that the paper is
“the traditional, positivist, scientific method which investigating. Another issue also arises from the
refers to a general set of orderly, disciplined subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, raising
procedures to acquire information.” In their book, concerns about the conclusion of the study.
Nursing Research Principles and Methods, they
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
explain that the research method utilizes deductive
Aims to characterize Involves processes,
reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in trends and patterns. feelings, and motives
the real world. It is systematic since the researcher (the why’s and the how’s)
progresses logically through a series of steps, and produces in-depth,
according to a prespecified plan of action. holistic data.
Quantitative research gathers empirical evidence that Usually starts with neither Usually concerned with
is within the realm of the senses. The method used in a theory nor hypothesis generating hypothesis
about the relationship from data rather than
the analysis of data is usually statistical in nature.
between two or more testing a hypothesis.
Thus, the resulting information from the study is variables.
usually quantitative or measurable. Furthermore, Uses structured research Uses either unstructured
another criterion used in assessing the data in this instruments like or semi-structured
kind of study is its capability to generalize the effect of questionnaires or instruments.
the results to the individuals outside of the study schedules.
participants. Uses large sample sizes Uses small sample sizes
that are representatives chosen purposely.
However, it has its disadvantages as well. It is of the population.
considered limiting when it comes to studying the Has high output Has high validity.
replicability.
complex and diverse minds of human beings. It can
Used to gain greater Used to gain greater
only explain a small fraction of the human experience, understanding of group understanding of
after all. The inflexible and narrow vision of similarities. individual differences in
quantitative research tends to present the human terms of feelings,
experience in a restricted manner. motives, and
experiences.
Uses structured Uses more flexible
Qualitative Research processes. processes.
Methods include census, Methods include field
Polit and Beck (2008) defines qualitative research as
survey, experiments, and research, case study,
the “naturalistic method of inquiry of research which secondary analysis. and secondary analysis.
deals with the issue of human complexity by exploring
it directly.” It puts an emphasis on human complexity
and man’s ability to decide and create their own Characteristics of Qualitative Research
experience. This type of research attempts to explain Kania (2008) presents the following key distinguishing
the human experience with its dynamic, holistic, and characteristics of qualitative research:
individualistic aspects through the perspective of the
individual himself. The task of the researcher is to
determine the patterns and themes in the acquired
 1. Conducted in a systematic and rigorous way.
However, it is more flexible than quantitative
research.
2. Usually follows an iterative process, which
means that data collection and analysis
occur simultaneously. Data already collected
is then updated by ongoing data collection.
3. Focuses on gathering information from
people who can provide the richest insights
into the phenomenon or interest. Because of
this, smaller, hand-picked sample sizes are
used.
4. Collection of data is continuous until
saturation, or when it reaches the point
where no new information is revealed with
respect to the key themes emerging from the
data.
5. Qualitative data collection examines
everyday life in its natural context or in an
uncontrolled naturalistic setting.
Value of Qualitative Research
Qualitative data provides context and meaning. It can
complete the picture by delving into the why and the
how. If quantitative research represents the skeleton,
qualitative research represents the flesh – it can
explore narrowly-defined issues in greater depth,
explaining the setting in which behavior can take
place.
The value of qualitative research comes from its focus
on the lived experiences of the participants, which
enabled development of a greater understanding
concerning the outcomes that are important, relevant,
and meaningful to the people involved.
Common Types of Qualitative Research
The following are various types of qualitative research
based on different fields of inquiry (Merriam, S. B., et
al., 2002):
1: Phenomenological Study
This type of research seeks to find the essence or
structure of an experience by explaining how complex
meanings are derived from simple units of inner
experience. In other words, it examines human, lived
experiences through descriptions provided by
subjects and respondents.
The goal of this study is to describe the meaning that
experiences hold for each subject.
Some of the areas of concern for these studies are
humanness, self-determination, uniqueness,
wholeness, and individualism.
Example: What are the common experiences
encountered by a person with a spouse who is
undergoing rehabilitation?
With the given problem, the researcher has to
discover the inner feelings, emotional hardships, and
mental disturbances that the respondent is
experiencing.
2: Ethnographic Study
This study involves the collection and analysis of data
about cultural groups and minorities. In this type of
research, the researcher immerses with the people
and becomes part of their culture. They get involved
in their everyday activities and get to empathize with
the cultural groups experiencing problems in their
everyday lives.
During the immersion process, the researcher talks to
key persons and personalities called key informants
who provide important information about the study.
The main purpose of this study is the development of
cultural theories.
Example: What is the demographic profile and
migratory adaptations of squatter families in Barangay
Cutcut, Angeles City (dela Cruz, 1994)?
In studying this problem, the researcher immerses
with the subjects and becomes involved with the
activities that exemplify the cultural practices of the
respondents.
3: Historical Studies
This study is concerned with the identification,
location, evaluation, and synthesis of data from past
events. This is not only limited to obtaining data from
the past, but it also involves relating their implications
to the present and future times.
Examples: What were the roles of women in the
Katipunan?
Some sources of data for a historical study are as
follows:
1. Documents – printed materials that can be
found in libraries, archives, or personal
collections.
2. Relics and artifacts – physical remains or
objects from a certain historical period.
3. Oral reports – information that is passed on
by word of mouth.
The data sources are classified as follows:
1. Primary sources – materials providing first-
hand information, e.g., oral histories, written
records, diaries, eyewitness accounts,
pictures, videos, and other physical evidence
2. Secondary sources – second-hand
information such as an account based on an
original source, or a material written as an
abstract of the original materials.
The validity of materials used in the study are
assessed through the following processes:
1. Internal criticism. This involves establishing
the authenticity or originality of the materials
by looking at the consistency of information.
Motives and possible biases of the author
must be considered in trying to determine
the accuracy of the materials.
2. External criticism. This is based on the
analysis of the material: the ink and the type
of paper used, the layout and physical
appearance, and as well as the age and
texture of the material itself.
The main difference between these two is that
through internal criticism, we examine the interior—
the content of the text; whereas, in external criticism,
we inspect the exterior—the appearance of, say, the
given document.
The researcher can consult authentic and original
resource materials relevant to the problem to
determine the accuracy of information provided in the
research paper.
4: Case Study
It is an in-depth examination of an individual, groups
of people, or an institution over an extensive period of
time. It provides information on where to draw
conclusions about the impact of a significant event in
a person’s life. More of the purposes may be to gain
insights into a little-known problem, provide
background data for broader studies, and explain
socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes.
Examples: How do cancer survivors look at life?
The researcher is able to give an overview of the
problem by interviewing a cancer survivor about his or
her experiences.
5: Grounded Theory Study
This method involves comparing collected units of
data against one another until categories, properties,
and hypotheses that state relations between these
categories and properties emerge. These are
tentative and suggestive, and are not tested in the
study.
Examples: Ten school counselors were given
structured interviews to help determine how their
professional identity is formed.
This data was first coded to form concepts. Then,
connections between these concepts were identified.
A core concept emerged and its processes and
implications were discussed.
6: Narrative Analysis
The main sources of data for this type of research are
the life accounts of individuals based on their
personal experiences. The purpose of the study is to
extract meaningful context from these experiences.
The common types of narrative analysis are as
follows:
a. Psychosocial – Involves analyzing the story
in terms of internal thoughts and motivations.
It also analyzes the written text or spoken
words for its component parts or patterns.
b. Biographical – Takes the individual’s society
and factors like gender and class into
account.
c. Discourse analysis – Studies the approach in
which language is used in texts and
contexts.
7: Critical Qualitative Research
It challenges the norm and seeks change by
describing and critiquing the social, cultural, and
psychological perspectives on present-day contexts.
8: Postmodern Research
This type of research seeks to analyze facts that have
been established as truths.
Merriam et al. (2002) proposes the following three
“crises” as a result of the questioning performed:
a. Whether the experience of another can be
captured or whether it is created by the
researcher.
b. Whether any study can be viewed as valid if
traditional methodologies are flawed.
c. Whether it is possible to institute any real
change
9: Basic Interpretative Qualitative Study
This is used when a researcher is interested in
identifying how individuals give meaning to a situation
or phenomenon. This uses an inductive strategy
which is a process of analyzing patterns or common
themes to produce a descriptive account that
summarizes and analyzes the literature that defined
the study.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative
Research
Anderson (2010), in her article “Presenting and
Evaluating Qualitative Research,” lists the following
strengths of a qualitative research.
1. The study requires a few cases or
participants. Data collected are based on the
participants’ own categories of meaning.
2. It is useful for describing complex
phenomena.
3. Issues can be examined in detail and in
depth.
4. Interviews are not restricted to specific
questions and can be guided or redirected
by the researcher in real time.
5. Subtleties and complexities about the
research subjects or topic are often missed
by more positivistic inquiries.
6. It provides individual case information.
7. Cross-case comparisons and analysis can
be conducted.
8. It provides understanding and description of
people’s personal experiences of
phenomena.
9. It can describe in detail the phenomena as
they are situated and embedded in various
contexts.
10. The researcher usually identifies contextual
and setting factors as they relate to the
phenomenon of interest.
11. The researcher can study dynamic
processes.
12. The researcher can use the primarily
qualitative methods of grounded theory to
inductively generate a tentative but
explanatory theory about a phenomenon.
13. It can determine how participants interpret
constructs.
14. Data are usually collected in naturalistic
settings in qualitative research.
15. Qualitative approaches are especially
responsive to local situations, conditions,
and stakeholders needs.
 16. Qualitative data in the words and categories
of participants lend themselves to exploring
how and why particular phenomena occur.
17. You can use an important case to vividly
demonstrate a phenomenon to the readers.
18. It can determine idiographic causation (i.e.,
determination of causes of a particular
event)

Anderson (2010) also enumerates the following

weaknesses of qualitative research.

1. The particular knowledge produced in the

study might not be applicable to other people
or other settings.
2. Inflexibility is more difficult to maintain,
assess, and demonstrate.
3. It is sometimes not well understood and
accepted as quantitative research within the
scientific community.
4. The researcher’s presence during data
gathering, which is often unavoidable in
qualitative research, can affect the subjects’
responses.
5. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can
present problems when presenting the
findings.
6. It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.
7. It is more difficult to test hypotheses and
theories with large participant pools.
8. It might have lower credibility with some
administrators and commissioners of
programs.
9. It generally takes more time to collect the
data compared to quantitative research.
10. Data analysis is often time-consuming.
11. The results are more easily influenced by the
researcher’s personal biases and
idiosyncrasies.