Definition:

The sardine (Sardina pilchardus) is a small, oily fish belonging to the family
Alosidae. This family also includes other species like shads. Sardines are widely
distributed in the East Atlantic Ocean, ranging from Iceland to Senegal. They
are particularly abundant in the Mediterranean Sea, especially in its western
and Adriatic regions. Additionally, they can be found in the Black Sea and the
Sea of Azov, although they are less common in these areas.
Sardines are known by various names depending on the region. In some areas,
they are called célan, célerin, pilchard, royan, sarda, sardinyola, or magne.
These names reflect the local languages and traditions associated with sardine
fishing and consumption.
The sardine has a distinctive conical body shape, with a taller and more
laterally compressed profile compared to other similar species like anchovies. It
typically has a greenish or iridescent blue coloration on the back, silver on the
sides, and white on the belly. Along the rear hips, there are often aligned black
spots, although these may not always be very visible.
Sardines are an important species both ecologically and economically. They are
a key component of marine ecosystems, serving as prey for larger predatory
fish, marine mammals, and seabirds. Additionally, sardines are heavily targeted
by commercial fisheries for human consumption, as they are rich in protein,
omega-3 fatty acids, and other nutrients. They are commonly caught using
methods such as purse seining, where large nets are used to encircle and
capture shoals of fish, often with the assistance of powerful lights to attract
them.
Overall, the sardine's widespread distribution, abundance, and nutritional value
make it a significant species in marine ecosystems and fisheries worldwide.
Distribution and Habitat:
The sardine (Sardina pilchardus) is a species of fish with a wide distribution
across the East Atlantic Ocean, ranging from Iceland to Senegal. While it is
occasionally found as far north as Iceland, it is more commonly encountered in
regions further south, with its northern limit typically not extending beyond the
North Sea.

Within its range, the sardine exhibits varying levels of abundance. It is

particularly abundant in the Mediterranean Sea, where it thrives in the warmer
waters, especially in the western and Adriatic regions. However, it is relatively
rare in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, where environmental conditions may
not be as favorable for its survival.

Sardines are pelagic species, meaning they inhabit the open water column and
do not have any contact with the seabed. They are typically found far from the
coast, especially during the warmer months when they migrate to deeper
waters. However, sardines can also be found in shallow coastal waters,
particularly during spawning seasons or when feeding on abundant plankton
near the shore.

During the winter months, sardines may migrate to deeper depths, with
individuals found at depths of up to 180 meters. This behavior is often
influenced by changes in water temperature and food availability.

Overall, the sardine's distribution pattern reflects its preference for warmer
waters and pelagic habitat, making it a common sight in certain regions of the
East Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, while less frequently
encountered in others.
Morphology:

Sardines are frequently confused with anchovies due to their similar lifestyle
and feeding habits, but they actually belong to different families and possess
distinct physical characteristics.

One notable feature of sardines is their conical body shape, which is taller and
more laterally compressed compared to anchovies. Along the sardine's belly,
there is a row of rigid and sharp flakes known as scutelli, although these do not
form a true shell as seen in sprat.

The head of a sardine is pointed, with a relatively large adipose eyelid covering
the eye, resembling other species like cheppia, red mullet, or Spanish mackerel.
Their mouth is large, extending below the eye and facing upwards, with the
lower jaw longer than the upper. Despite their small size, sardines have tiny
teeth and lamellar scales arranged in a fan shape on the operculum, which can be
easily dislodged upon slight contact.

Unlike some other fish species, sardines do not have spiny fins. Their dorsal fin
is short and situated on the side of the body, while the anal fin extends far
behind, nearly reaching the caudal peduncle. This anal fin is longer and lower,
with two swollen rays further back and longer than the others. Pectoral fins are
relatively large and inserted at the bottom near the ventral edge, while pelvic
fins are positioned vertically from the center of the dorsal surface, a feature
distinct from sprat where they are located below the origin of the dorsal fin. The
caudal fin of a sardine is bilobed.

When it comes to coloration, sardines display a greenish or iridescent blue

coloration on their back, silvery sides, and a white belly. Along the rear hips,
there may be aligned black spots, though these markings are often faint.
Biology:
Sardines are highly gregarious creatures, exhibiting social behavior at all stages
of their life cycle. They form dense and tightly organized shoals comprised of
hundreds or even thousands of individuals. These shoals often consist of
sardines alongside other species of similar size, including anchovies, other
members of the Clupeidae family, and even smaller fish like bluefin tuna and
bonito.

These fish undergo nyctemeral migrations, meaning their movement patterns

vary between day and night. During the night, sardines tend to occupy deeper
depths compared to daytime hours, possibly as a response to changes in predator
behavior or to optimize feeding opportunities.

In terms of lifespan, sardines typically live up to 5 years in the Mediterranean

Sea, where conditions are favorable for their survival. However, in the Atlantic
Ocean, particularly in regions with suitable environmental conditions, sardines
have been known to live longer, with lifespans reaching up to 14 years. These
differences in lifespan can be attributed to various factors including
environmental conditions, predation pressure, and availability of food sources.
Feeding Habits:
Sardines, as strict planktivores, have evolved to rely exclusively on plankton as
their primary source of sustenance. Their diet consists mainly of zooplankton,
with a particular preference for copepods, specifically those belonging to the
genus Calanus. Additionally, phytoplankton larvae make up a significant portion
of their diet, providing essential nutrients for their growth and survival.

Feeding patterns in sardines are closely tied to diurnal cycles. They are most
active and voracious feeders during the day, with peak feeding activity occurring
in the evening hours. However, sardines tend to reduce or abstain from feeding
altogether during the night. This diurnal feeding behavior is believed to be
influenced by various factors, including predator avoidance strategies and
optimal feeding conditions.

Sardines employ a specialized feeding mechanism characteristic of many

members of the Clupeidae family. This mechanism involves a filter-like
approach where sardines filter and ingest individual prey items from the
surrounding water column. By filtering plankton in this manner, sardines can
efficiently extract nutrients from their prey, ensuring they meet their energy
requirements for growth, reproduction, and overall survival.

The importance of sardines as key plankton consumers cannot be overstated in

marine ecosystems. By consuming vast quantities of plankton, sardines play a
crucial role in regulating plankton populations and nutrient cycling in the ocean.
Furthermore, they serve as a vital food source for various marine predators,
contributing to the overall health and balance of marine food webs..
Fishing:

The sardine (Sardina pilchardus) holds a paramount position in the commercial

fishing industry, particularly in the Mediterranean and southern Atlantic regions
of Europe. Its abundance and widespread distribution render it a key target for
fishing operations aimed at meeting the demand for this highly prized fish in
markets worldwide. Utilizing various techniques, sardine fisheries capitalize on
the species' migratory patterns and shoaling behavior to ensure efficient
harvests.
Among the primary methods employed in sardine fishing is the purse seine
technique. Large nets, known as purse seines, are deployed and encircled around
dense shoals of sardines. The process is often facilitated by powerful lights,
which attract and concentrate the fish, enabling fishermen to draw the nets
closed, effectively capturing the sardines in bulk. This method offers a targeted
approach to harvesting sardine populations, ensuring a consistent supply for
both local consumption and international export markets.
In addition to purse seining, gillnets, locally referred to as menaide, are
sometimes utilized in sardine fishing operations, albeit to a lesser extent. These
nets are set vertically in the water and capture sardines as they swim into them,
providing an alternative method for harvesting smaller quantities of fish.
The flesh of the sardine is highly esteemed for its delicious taste and nutritional
value, making it a favored choice among consumers worldwide. Whether
consumed fresh or processed into various culinary delights such as canned
sardines, smoked sardines, or sardine-based dishes, its versatility and rich flavor
profile contribute to its enduring popularity.
Notably, sardines are prized for their high omega-3 fatty acid content, which is
beneficial for heart health and overall well-being. As such, the commercial
fishing of sardines plays a pivotal role in supporting livelihoods, sustaining local
economies, and meeting the global demand for this esteemed seafood delicacy.